Great Chains of Origins

The Great Chain of Origins:
Early Hypotheses
1) Catastrophic hypotheses
Example: passing star hypothesis:
Star passing the sun closely tore material out of the sun,
from which planets could form (no longer considered)
Catastrophic hypotheses predict:
Only few stars should have planets!
2) Evolutionary hypotheses
Example: Laplace’s nebular hypothesis:
Rings of material separate from the spinning cloud, carrying away angular
momentum of the cloud  cloud could contract further (forming the sun)
Evolutionary hypotheses predict:

Most stars should have planets!
Evidence
for Ongoing
Planet
Formation
Many young
stars in the Orion
Nebula are
surrounded by
dust disks:
Probably sites of
planet formation
right now!
Dust Disks
around
Forming
Stars
Dust disks around

some T Tauri stars
can be imaged
directly (HST).
Extrasolar Planets
Modern theory of planet formation is evolutionary
 Many stars should have planets!
 planets orbiting around other stars = “Extrasolar planets”
Extrasolar planets
can not be imaged
directly.
Detection using same

methods as in binary
star systems:
Look for “wobbling”

motion of the star
around the common
center of mass.
Indirect Detection of
Observing periodic
Extrasolar Planets Doppler shifts of
stars with no visible
companion:
Evidence for the

wobbling motion of
the star around the
common center of
mass of a planetary
system
Over 100
extrasolar planets
detected so far.
Survey of the
Solar System
Relative Sizes
of the Planets
Assume, we reduce all bodies
in the solar system so that the
Earth has diameter 0.3 mm.
Sun: ~ size of a small plum.
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars:

~ size of a grain of salt.
Jupiter: ~ size of an apple seed.
Saturn: ~ slightly smaller than
Jupiter’s “apple seed”.
Uranus, Neptune: ~ Larger salt grains.
Pluto: ~ Speck of pepper.
Planetary Orbits
All planets in almost Orbits generally
circular (elliptical) inclined by no
orbits around the more than 3.4o
Mercury sun, in approx. the
Venus same plane
(ecliptic). Exceptions:
Mercury (7o)
Sense of revolution:
Earth counter-clockwise Pluto (17.2o)
Sense of rotation:
counter-clockwise
(with exception of
Venus, Uranus,
and Pluto)
(Distances and times reproduced to scale)
Two Kinds of Planets
Planets of our solar system can be divided
into two very different kinds:
Terrestrial (earthlike) planets:

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets:
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Terrestrial
Planets
Four inner planets
of the solar system
Relatively small in
size and mass (Earth
is the largest and
most massive)
Rocky surface
Surface of Venus can not be seen

directly from Earth because of its
dense cloud cover.
Craters on Planets’ Surfaces
Craters (like on
our moon’s
surface) are
common
throughout the
solar system.
Not seen on
Jovian planets
because they
don’t have a
solid surface.
The Jovian Planets
Much larger in mass
and size than
terrestrial planets
Much lower
average density
All have rings

(not only Saturn!)
Mostly gas; no
solid surface
Space Debris
In addition to planets, small bodies orbit the sun:
Asteroids, comets, meteoroids
Asteroid
Eros,
imaged by
the NEAR
spacecraft
Comets
Icy nucleus, which evaporates

Mostly objects in highly elliptical orbits,
and gets blown into space by
occasionally coming close to the sun.
solar wind pressure.
Meteoroids
Small (mm – mm sized)
dust grains throughout
the solar system
If they collide with Earth,

they evaporate in the
atmosphere.
 Visible as streaks of
light: meteors.
The Condensation of Solids
To compare densities of planets,
compensate for compression due
to the planet’s gravity:
Only condensed materials could

stick together to form planets
Temperature in the protostellar

cloud decreased outward.
Further out  Protostellar cloud

cooler  metals with lower
melting point condensed 
change of chemical composition
throughout solar system
Formation and Growth of
Planetesimals
Planet formation starts with clumping together
of grains of solid matter: planetesimals
Planetesimals (few cm to km in size)

collide to form planets.
Planetesimal growth through

condensation and accretion.
Gravitational instabilities may

have helped in the growth of
planetesimals into protoplanets.
The Growth of
Protoplanets
Simplest form of planet growth:
Unchanged composition of
accreted matter over time
As rocks melted, heavier
elements sink to the center
 differentiation
This also produces a
secondary atmosphere
 outgassing
Improvement of this scenario: Gradual
change of grain composition due to
cooling of nebula and storing of heat
from potential energy
The Jovian Problem
Two problems for the theory of planet formation:
1) Observations of extrasolar planets indicate that

Jovian planets are common.
2) Protoplanetary disks tend to be evaporated quickly
(typically within ~ 100,000 years) by the radiation of
nearby massive stars.
 Too short for Jovian planets to grow!
Solution:
Computer simulations show that Jovian planets can
grow by direct gas accretion without forming rocky
planetesimals.
Clearing the Nebula
Remains of the protostellar nebula were cleared away by:
• Radiation pressure of the sun • Sweeping-up of space debris by planets
• Solar wind • Ejection by close encounters with planets
Surfaces of the moon and Mercury show evidence for

heavy bombardment by asteroids.

Great Chains of Origins

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Great Chains of Origins

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The Great Chain of Origins:

Evolutionary hypotheses predict:

Dust disks around

Detection using same

Look for “wobbling”

Evidence for the

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars:

Terrestrial (earthlike) planets:

Surface of Venus can not be seen

All have rings

Icy nucleus, which evaporates

If they collide with Earth,

Only condensed materials could

Temperature in the protostellar

Further out  Protostellar cloud

Planetesimals (few cm to km in size)

Planetesimal growth through

Gravitational instabilities may

1) Observations of extrasolar planets indicate that

 Too short for Jovian planets to grow!

Surfaces of the moon and Mercury show evidence for

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