Hong 2018

View Article Online
View Journal
Journal of
Materials Chemistry C
Materials for optical, magnetic and electronic devices
Accepted Manuscript
This article can be cited before page numbers have been issued, to do this please use: K. Hong, Q. V. Le,
S. Y. Kim and H. W. Jang, J. Mater. Chem. C, 2018, DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C.
Volume 4 Number 1 7 January 2016 Pages 1–224 This is an Accepted Manuscript, which has been through the
Royal Society of Chemistry peer review process and has been
Journal of accepted for publication.
Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscripts are published online shortly after
Materials for optical, magnetic and electronic devices
www.rsc.org/MaterialsC
acceptance, before technical editing, formatting and proof reading.

Using this free service, authors can make their results available
to the community, in citable form, before we publish the edited
article. We will replace this Accepted Manuscript with the edited
and formatted Advance Article as soon as it is available.
You can find more information about Accepted Manuscripts in the

author guidelines.
Please note that technical editing may introduce minor changes

to the text and/or graphics, which may alter content. The journal’s
ISSN 2050-7526 standard Terms & Conditions and the ethical guidelines, outlined
PAPER~
in our author and reviewer resource centre, still apply. In no
Nguyên T. K. Thanh, Xiaodi Su et al.
Fine-tuning of gold nanorod dimensions and plasmonic properties using
the Hofmeister effects
event shall the Royal Society of Chemistry be held responsible
for any errors or omissions in this Accepted Manuscript or any
consequences arising from the use of any information it contains.
rsc.li/materials-c
Page 1 of 20 Journal
Pleaseof
doMaterials Chemistry
not adjust margins C
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
Published on 30 January 2018. Downloaded by Thompson Rivers University (formerly University College of the Cariboo) on 31/01/2018 01:38:58.
Journal of Materials Chemistry C
Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

REVIEW
Low‐dimensional halide perovskites: review and issues

Kootak Hong,†a Quyet Van Le,†b Soo Yong Kim*b and Ho Won Jang*a
Received 00th January 20xx,
Accepted 00th January 20xx Halide perovskites are emerging materials for future optoelectronics and electronics due to their remarkable advantages
DOI: 10.1039/x0xx00000x such as high light absorption coefficient, long charge carrier diffusion length, facile synthesis method, and low cost. As the
polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films, which have been studied so far, have crucial limits, low‐dimensional halide
www.rsc.org/ perovskites have attracted attention due to the unique optical properties and charge transport properties, which have not
seen before. This review highlights the limits of polycrystalline halide perovskites thin films and unique characteristics of
low‐dimensional halide perovskites nanostructures including their electrical, optical, chemical properties. After introducing
the recent developments of various low‐dimensional halide perovskite nanostructure including the synthesis methods,
their properties, and applications, a brief overview of the challenges of low‐dimensional halide perovskites for future
optoelectronics and electronic devices are provided.
compositional flexibility.38‐45 Owing to this compositional

1. Introduction flexibility, the optical and electronic properties of halide
perovskites can be appropriately tuned and optimized to the
Halide perovskites, as light harvesting materials, are promising
desired characteristics for each application. In addition, as
candidates for solving the impending energy shortage, and
halide perovskite thin films can be fabricated by solution‐
have been researched intensively ever since dye‐sensitized
based processes, such as simple spin‐coating, halide perovskite
solar cells containing halide perovskites were first reported in
thin films with various compositions can be synthesized easily
2009.1 Having demonstrated unprecedented rapid
by low‐cost, large‐scale, and facile methods.3, 46‐50 However,
developments and breakthroughs in halide perovskites solar
the solution‐processed halide perovskite thin films that have
cells,2‐11 a halide perovskites‐based solar cell showed a power
been researched so far have crucial drawbacks, which impede
conversion efficiency (PCE) of 22.7 %, which is larger than that
the commercialization of halide perovskite‐based
of organic photovoltaics, dye‐sensitized solar cells, and other
optoelectronic and electronic devices, such as current–voltage
conventional thin film solar cells.12 Their extraordinary PCE,
(I–V) hysteresis,9, 48, 51, 52 performance degradation, and
which has not been seen in other materials, results from
intrinsic low stability.53‐55 These drawbacks originate from the
excellent optical and charge‐transport properties such as high
migration of unintentional ionic defects and grain boundaries
external quantum efficiency,13, 14 excellent light absorption
owing to low‐temperature solution‐processed halide
coefficient,15, 16 long charge carrier diffusion length,17, 18 and
perovskite polycrystalline thin film fabrication processes.48, 56,
long lifetime.19, 20 Moreover, these excellent optical and
57
electronic properties make halide perovskites outstanding
To overcome the limits of halide perovskite polycrystalline
candidates for other optoelectronic and electronic devices
thin films, there has recently been intensive research on
such as light emitting diodes (LEDs),21‐25 photodetectors,14, 26‐29
single‐crystalline bulk halide perovskites and low‐dimensional
lasers,30‐33 memories,34‐36 and field‐effect transistors (FETs).37
halide perovskites, such as on the synthesis of halide
Halide perovskites, which have the general formula ABX3, (A:
perovskites with high crystalline quality, and investigation of
monovalent organic cations or inorganic cations, B: divalent
their intrinsic properties and their applications.31, 58‐66 For
cations, X: halide anions), are composed of a three‐
comprehensive understanding of halide perovskites, single‐
dimensional framework of corner‐sharing metal halide
crystalline bulk halide perovskites are promising materials to
octahedra. As A, B, and X can be substituted by various
investigate the intrinsic properties of halide perovskites, as
elements, halide perovskites can have wide range of
they are free of grain boundaries and have low trap density.18,
38, 67, 68 However, low‐dimensional halide perovskites show
optical and electrical properties, which have not been seen

a. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Research Institute of Advanced before in halide perovskite thin films. The unexpected optical
Materials, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea. E‐mail:
hwjang@snu.ac.kr and electrical properties result from quantum size effects,
b. School of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Chung‐Ang University,
large surface‐to‐volume ratio, and anisotropic geometry.69
Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea. E‐mail. sooyoungkim@cau.ac.kr
Moreover, as a point of application, low‐dimensional halide
†These authors contributed equally to this work
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 20xx J. Name., 2013, 00, 1‐3 | 1
Please do not adjust margins

Journal
Pleaseof
not adjust margins C Page 2 of 20
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
ARTICLE Journal Name

Fig. 1 Schematic for various low‐dimensional perovskites with lots of merits for applications. Reproduced with permission from refs. 31, 42, 74, 140 and 150.
perovskites are somewhat more promising for future

optoelectronic and electronic devices than bulk single‐
crystalline halide perovskites. With compositional flexibility 2. Why low‐dimensional halide perovskites?
and solution‐based processing, low‐dimensional halide 2.1. Limits of polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films
perovskites of varied shapes and sizes can be synthesized
Halide perovskites can sufficiently absorb light with only 300
easily. Therefore, various efforts have been made in
nm of thickness owing to their extraordinary light absorption
synthesizing low‐dimensional halide perovskites, including
coefficient.15 Moreover, as halide perovskites can be
zero‐dimensional (0D) halide perovskites such as quantum
synthesized by a simple spin‐coating method, numerous
dots (QD), nanoparticles,63, 64, 70 one‐dimensional (1D) halide
studies on the synthesis and properties of halide perovskites
perovskites such as nanowires, and nanorods,31, 58, 59 and two‐
and their applications were based on polycrystalline thin films.
dimensional (2D) halide perovskites such as nanoplatelets, and
For halide perovskite polycrystalline thin films, the morphology
nanosheets71, 72 as well as their application to solar cells,73
control, grain size, uniformity, and surface coverage are
LEDs,65, 74 photodetectors,75 lasers,31 and memories42 (Fig. 1).
significant factors to achieve high‐performance halide
In this review, we present the recent developments of low‐
perovskites‐based optoelectronic and electronic devices.76, 77
dimensional halide perovskite nanostructures, including
Therefore, intensive researches have been focused on the fine
synthesis methods, their properties, and applications. We
control of the crystallization and morphology of halide
begin with the limits of polycrystalline halide perovskite thin
perovskites,76, 78, 79 and it has been shown that halide
films and the potential of low‐dimensional halide perovskites
perovskites can be strong candidates for future optoelectronic
and their advantages in terms of optical and electrical
and electronic devices.21, 73, 80, 81 However, it is difficult to
properties. In the following section, we will review the various
fabricate high‐performance optoelectronic and electronic
synthesis methods of each type of low‐dimensional halide
devices based on polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films,
perovskite, and the advantages and disadvantages of each
owing to a number of critical drawbacks.29, 56, 82, 83
synthesis method. After emphasizing the remarkable
One of the drawbacks of polycrystalline halide perovskite
properties of low‐dimensional halide perovskites, including
thin films is mobile ionic defects due to the low‐temperature
their chemical and physical properties, we will discuss recent
solution process.48, 56 These ionic defects are inevitably formed
studies on the applications of low‐dimensional halide
in polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films. For the case of
perovskite nanostructures in optoelectronics and electronic
CH3NH3PbI3 (MAPbI3), VPb″, VMA′, and VI• exist in polycrystalline
devices. Finally, we provide a brief overview of the challenges
MAPbI3 thin films as ionic defects. As shown in Fig. 2a,
of low‐dimensional halide perovskites for future
polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films exhibit hysteretic I–
optoelectronic and electronic devices.
2 | J. Name., 2012, 00, 1‐3 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 20xx

Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
Journal Name ARTICLE
V characteristics as the ionic defects can migrate under photogenerated carriers.95‐97 Therefore, many researchers
external bias.29 Eames et al. demonstrated that ionic defects in have attempted to reveal how the grain boundaries in halide
MAPbI3, especially VI•, have low activation energy for perovskites affect the performance of halide perovskite‐based
migration, by a first‐principles calculation.56 The migration of optoelectronic and electronic devices. Among them, Shao and

ionic defects by open‐circuit voltage, when the MAPbI3‐based co‐workers extensively studied ion migration at grain
solar cells were illuminated, also support the low activation boundaries and inner grains by a combination of nanoscopic
energy for the migration of ionic defects.84 The I–V hysteresis and macroscopic electrical measurements,98 as shown in Fig.
in polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films, which originates 2c. They demonstrated that ion migration occurs at the grain
from ionic defect migration, is a significant drawback that boundary favorably, and faster ion migration can occur at
negatively affects the performance and reliability of halide higher‐angle grain boundaries owing to the open structure
perovskite‐based optoelectronics.52 Tress et al. reported on (Fig. 2d–f). They also observed that large‐grained halide
the rate‐dependent current density–voltage (J–V) hysteresis in perovskites with fewer boundaries show good PCE and lower
MAPbI3‐based solar cells (Fig. 2b).57 MAPbI3‐based solar cells magnitude of hysteresis. These results implied that high
showed different J–V curves with various voltage scan rates. performance of halide perovskites‐based device can be
Although the ionic defects are not strongly electronically active obtained by higher crystallinity and larger halide perovskite
as recombination centers for photogenerated carriers, they grains. Furthermore, the grain boundaries in halide perovskite
lower the charge collection efficiency by screening the field. To thin films are favorable paths for moisture as well as ionic
alleviate or eliminate the hysteretic behavior of halide defects, owing to the open structure (Fig. 2g and h).83 Moisture
perovskite‐based optoelectronics and electronic devices, stability is a key issue for the commercialization of halide
researchers have reported various methods such as solvent perovskite‐based optoelectronics and electronic devices, as
engineering3, 85 and interface engineering.86‐94 Nevertheless, moisture causes degradation of halide perovskites. Qing et al.
polycrystalline halide perovskite thin film‐based optoelectronic reported on the scaling behavior of moisture‐induced grain
and electronic devices still show I–V hysteresis. degradation. The halide perovskite thin films with larger grain
Polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films naturally have show higher moisture stability.83 The authors also suggested a
grain boundaries. These grain boundaries cause performance method to enhance the moisture stability by increasing the
degradation, acting as charge recombination sites for grain size of the halide perovskite film and improving the
Fig. 2 (a) Dark and photocurrent hysteresis curves with various sweep voltage rates. Reproduced with permission from ref. 29. (b) Current–voltage curves of TiO2‐
based MAPbI3 devices with pronounced hysteresis. Reproduced with permission from ref. 57. (c) C‐AFM measurement setup. (d) Topography AFM image of the
perovskite thin film. The locations where the c‐AFM tip measured the grain and GB current are labelled with a red triangle and a blue square, respectively. The scale
bar is 1 mm. (e and f) Local dark current measured at the GB (e) and on the grain (f), respectively. Reproduced with permission from ref. 87. (g) Schematic diagram
showing the degradation of the perovskite film in moisture. (h) Schematic showing the interaction of moisture with a bare perovskite film. Reproduced with
permission from ref. 83.

Journal
Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
quality of the grain boundaries by remedying the amorphous applications. Various low‐dimensional halide perovskites
region to prevent moisture infiltration. including 0D nanostructures such as quantum dots and
Although halide perovskites have high potential as next‐ nanocrystals,70 1D nanostructures such as nanowires and
generation optoelectronic materials, from the point of view of nanorods,31 and 2D nanostructures such as nanoplatelets and

high performance, performance reliability, and stability, layered structures72 have been reported with various synthesis
polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films, fabricated by methods and their applications.
typical solution methods, have shown limits that originate Depending on the dimensionality and size, low‐dimensional
from naturally formed ionic defects and grain boundaries. halide perovskites show significantly different optical
There are also some problems in the fabrication process of properties due to the quantum size effects. Low‐dimensional
polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films. For example, halide halide perovskites show a peculiar density of states (DOS)
perovskites cannot be uniformly coated with the one‐step depending on the dimensionality.69 As shown in Fig. 3a, the
method,47 and the precursor solution should be finely DOS in bulk materials is proportional to a square root energy
controlled when the two‐step method is used.99 In addition, (E1/2), whereas the DOS of 2D systems exhibit an E0
polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films show temperature‐ dependence for the single quantized state, the 1D systems
related problems such as phase transition85, 100, 101 and show a E‐1/2 dependence for each quantized state, and the DOS
compositional degradation resulting from low thermal of 0D systems is a δ‐function. In addition, the bandgap of
stability.102, 103 materials can be varied by the number of atoms, as shown in
Unless these limits and drawbacks are overcome, halide Fig. 3b. Owing to the quantum confinement effect, low‐
perovskite‐based devices will be difficult to commercialize. To dimensional nanostructure halide perovskites show unique
achieve high‐performance, reliable, and stable halide physical properties such as high luminescence, and wider
perovskite‐based optoelectronic and electronic devices, ionic optical bandgap, which have not been observed in their bulk
defect‐ and grain boundary‐free, and highly crystalline halide counterparts.
perovskites are prerequisites. Because low‐dimensional halide perovskites are synthesized
in a single‐crystalline state, low‐dimensional halide perovskites
2.2. Merit of low‐dimensional halide perovskites have higher crystallinity than conventional spin‐coated
polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films. With high
Motivated by previously reported nanostructured crystallinity of halide perovskites, low‐dimensional halide
semiconductor materials, many researchers have recently perovskites have fewer ionic defects and grain boundaries
focused on the synthesis of low‐dimensional nanostructure than polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films. The low‐
halide perovskites and investigation of their properties and dimensional halide perovskites, therefore, show enhanced
photogenerated carrier transport properties, and the devices
based on them show superior performance, reliability, and
stability, because the drawbacks that existed in polycrystalline
halide perovskite thin films are not present in low‐dimensional
halide perovskites.104‐106 Moreover, low‐dimensional halide
perovskites exhibit unique charge transport properties, which
originate from their morphologies. Owing to the anisotropic
geometry and large surface‐to‐volume ratio, the charge
transport in low‐dimensional halide perovskites is profoundly
affected by surface state and charge transport direction.
Therefore, low‐dimensional halide perovskites have shown
to be promising materials for future optoelectronic and
electronic devices, and such devices based on low‐dimensional
halide perovskites still have the potential to be improved in
terms of performance and stability. With high crystallinity,
superior charge transport properties, and quantum size
effects, the optical and electronic properties of low‐
dimensional halide perovskites can be tuned and optimized to
the desired characteristics for each application with facile
synthesis methods. In the following section, we carefully
review the synthesis methods of low‐dimensional halide
perovskites and their unique dependence on morphology
control.
Fig. 3 Quantum size effect in nanostructured semiconductors. (a) Density of states, (b) 3. Synthesis and properties of low‐dimensional
Energy band diagram for bulk and various nanostructures semiconductors. halide perovskites

Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
The synthesis methods and properties of low‐dimensional quantum confinement, large bandgap, and flexibility have
halide perovskites such as nanowire, nanosheets, and caused 2D materials to be considered as promising candidates
nanoparticles with various chemical composition have been for many optoelectronic applications. For halide perovskites,
widely reported.107, 108 The halide perovskites synthesized in 2D quantum wells and the electronic coupling between the top

terms of low‐dimension (0D, 1D and 2D) can be divided into and bottom layers occurs when the thickness of halide
two groups, in terms of molecular structure. The first group is perovskites approaches the atomic level such as nanosheets,
3D halide perovskites, which have been also researched in the nanoflake, and nanoplatelets. There have been many reports
form of polycrystalline thin films, and their chemical formula is on the synthesis of 2D halide perovskites and elucidation of
ABX3.71, 72 The other group is layered perovskites, also called their properties and applications.72, 73, 109, 115 In this section
quasi‐2D halide perovskites, with the chemical formula various synthesis methods of 2D halide perovskites such as
R(NH3)2An‐1BnX3n+1.109, 110 Unlike 3D halide perovskites, layered nanosheets and nanoplatelets and their unique properties are
halide perovskites have long alkyl chain cations which increase discussed.
the stability of halide perovskites by blocking moisture
penetration.93 In following sections, various synthesis methods 3.1.1. By solution‐phase growth
of low‐dimensional halide perovskites based on 3D halide Although the mechanical exfoliation method is the simplest
perovskite and layered halide perovskites, and their unique way to obtain 2D materials, there is a critical limitation, in that
properties are discussed. it can only be applied to a halide perovskite with a large
organic cation, which are called layered perovskites.116
3.1. 2D halide perovskites Moreover, mechanical exfoliation shows other limitations, i.e.,
Since the discovery of graphene,111 many researchers have that the size, number of layers, and chemical composition
paid attention to 2D materials such as transition metal cannot be controlled and the yield is very low. To overcome
dichalcogenides,112 hexagonal boron nitride,113 and black these limitations of mechanical exfoliation, there have been
phosphorous114 owing to their exotic properties. Their strong
Fig. 4 (a) The <100>‐oriented halide perovskite series with general formula of (RNH3)2An−1MnX3n+1. The thicknesses of inorganic slabs increase and toward 3D structure with
increasing n. Reproduced with permission from ref. 116. (b) Structural illustration of a single‐layer (C4H9NH3)2PbBr4. (c–d) AFM and TEM images of several single‐layer
(C4H9NH3)2PbBr4. (e) Photoluminescence of different 2D halide perovskites. (C4H9NH3)2PbCl4 (i), (C4H9NH3)2PbBr4 (ii), (C4H9NH3)2PbI4 (iii), (C4H9NH3)2PbCl2Br2 (iv), (C4H9NH3)2PbBr2I2
(v), and (C4H9NH3)2(MA)Pb2Br7 (vi) Reproduced with permission from ref. 108. (f) Graphical depictions of the pseudo‐colored PL intensity measured as a function of excitation
wavelength. (g) Time‐resolved PL decay and fitting curves of the light emission at 515 nm from CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets with a 375 nm pulse laser. Reproduced with permission from
ref. 61. (h) UV/Vis absorption and (i) photoluminescence (PL) spectra of (PEA)2PbX4 NSs (X = Cl, Br, I) with different compositions. (j) Photograph of solutions of (PEA)2PbX4 NSs with
different compositions under the irradiation of a 365 nm UV lamp. (k) Degradation of (PEA)2PbI4 NS film and MAPbI3 QD film under ambient conditions with the relative humidity
of 65 %. Reproduced with permission from ref. 109.

Journal
Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
reports on the synthesis of solution‐phase growth of single‐ strategy for the colloidal synthesis of various low‐dimensional
and few‐layer 2D halide perovskites by several groups. As CsPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I, or mixed halide) nanostructures.61 The 2D
shown in Fig. 4a, the number of 2D halide perovskites layers CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets can be synthesized from CsPbX3
can be controlled by solution‐phase growth.117 For example, nanocrystals with the assistance of oleic acid and octylamine.

Dou et al. reported the direct growth of atomically thin 2D The 2D CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets showed different optical
halide perovskites (C4H9NH3)2PbX4 and (C4H9NH3)2(MA)2X7 (X = properties with other CsPbBr3 nanostructures, such as the first
Cl, Br, I, or mixed halide) from solution.109 The co‐solvent of absorption onset of approximately 508 nm and the PL
the diluted halide perovskite solution and organic solvents emission peak of approximately 510 nm. As shown in Fig. 4f
such as chlorobenzene, acetonitrile and dimethylformide were and g, the 2D CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets showed enhanced lifetime
dropped on the preheated substrates to synthesize 2D halide according to time‐resolved PL decay results (1440 ns). The
perovskite nanosheets by a solvent‐evaporation‐induced enhanced lifetime can be obtained by the increased in‐plane
recrystallization method. Uniform square‐shaped atomically single‐crystalline geometry and few defects and surface states
thin 2D halide perovskites were obtained with high yield and in 2D CsPbBr3 nanoplatelets. With the ligand‐mediated
excellent reproducibility (Fig. 4b–d). As chlorobenzene and solution‐phase growth, shape‐ and thickness‐controlled and
acetonitrile in the co‐solvent evaporate quickly and reduce the monodispersed 2D halide perovskites such as nanosheets and
solubility of (C4H9NH3)2PbX4 and (C4H9NH3)2(MA)2X7 in nanoplatelets can be synthesized on a large scale.
dimethylformide, it is possible that uniform solvent Recently, Yang and co‐workers reported a facile and fast
evaporation and crystallization can occur and ultrathin 2D crystallization method for single‐ and few‐layer free‐standing
halide perovskite nanosheets can be formed. By controlling (C8H9NH3)2PbX4 (X = Cl, Br, I, or mixed halide) nanosheets
the number of layers and the chemical composition, various without the assistance of ligand and substrates.110 They used
photoluminescence (PL) spectra can be achieved. (Fig. 4e) various solvents, which are miscible with dimethylformamide
Because the structural relaxation of the in‐plane crystal lattice but cannot dissolve the halide perovskites, to control the
increased the optical bandgap, the lattice expansion in 2D lateral size of ultrathin 2D perovskite nanosheets. As higher
halide perovskite nanosheets resulted in the PL shift. concentrations of halide perovskites dissolve in higher‐polarity
Ligand‐mediated solution‐phase growth is another method solvents, a smaller lateral size of 2D halide perovskites
that has been widely employed to synthesize nanostructure nanosheets were synthesized in a higher‐polarity solvent. The
semiconductors. Although ligands and surfactants contaminate ultrathin 2D (C8H9NH3)2PbX4 nanosheets showed bright,
the surface of nanomaterials and hinder the charge transport spectrally narrow, and tunable PL, and these optical properties
of nanomaterials, the shape of nanomaterials can be easily could be tuned by changing the halide composition, as shown
controlled with high yields and reproducibility. Several reports in Fig. 4h–j. Moreover, single‐layer (C8H9NH3)2PbI4 showed
employed ligand‐mediated solution‐phase growth to superior stability under ambient conditions and light
synthesize 2D halide perovskite nanostructures such as irradiation to 3D perovskites quantum dots. Under an
nanosheets and nanoplatelets. For example, Sun et al. environment with a relative humidity of 65 %, the single‐layer
reported a ligand‐assisted, room‐temperature reprecipitation (C8H9NH3)2PbI4 maintained a comparable emission intensity
Fig. 5 (a) Schematic of the synthesis setup using a home‐built vapor‐transport system. (b) Thickness of PbI2 platelets before (images above data line) and after being converted to
CH3NH3PbI3 (images below data line). Reproduced with permission from ref. 71. (c) Schematic illustration of solution process to fabricate 2D PbI2 nanosheets and vapor‐phase
conversion process to transfer PbI2 into 2D MAPbI3 perovskite nanosheets. (d−g) AFM topography images of 2D MAPbI3 nanosheets with different thicknesses. Scale bars: 2 μm.
(h) Normalized PL spectra of 2D perovskite nanosheets with different thicknesses. (i) PL peak position and energy gap as a function of the number of unit cells in perovskite.
Reproduced with permission from ref. 72.

Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
with the initial value for more than 100 h, whereas MAPbI3 electron‐diffusion length resulted from the high crystal quality
quantum dots degraded rapidly and their PL completely of the halide perovskite platelet prepared by CVD method.
disappeared within 96 h (Fig. 4k). Thus, ultrathin 2D Liu and co‐workers also reported 2D MAPbI3 nanoplatelets
(C8H9NH3)2PbX4 nanosheets with good stability, brightness, and using a two‐step CVD growth method.72 They also used the

tunable PL have potential to be building blocks for future two‐step method to synthesize 2D MAPbX3 nanoplatelets, but
optoelectronics devices such as field‐effect transistors, the difference between the reports from Xiong’s group is that
photodetectors, solar cells, and light emitting diodes. the 2D PbX2 nanoplatelets were synthesized by solution‐phase
growth, as shown in Fig. 5c. By controlling the cooling rate and
3.1.2. By chemical vapor deposition concentration of the precursor solution, various low‐
dimensional PbX2 nanostructures could be synthesized, and
Although high quality 2D materials can be obtained by the PbX2 nanostructure could be used as a template for the
mechanical exfoliation and solution‐phase growth, there are growth of low‐dimensional halide perovskites nanostructures.
critical limits as a point of thickness controllability, scalability As shown in Fig. 5d–g, ultrathin 2D MAPbI3 nanoplatelets were
and uniformity. To overcome these limits, various deposition successfully synthesized using the 2D PbX2 nanoplatelets
methods, such as atomic layer deposition,118 pulsed laser template. The 2D MAPbI3 nanoplatelets exhibited high
deposition119 and chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 120 have quantum efficiency in terms of the PL yield (Fig. 5h). As the
been employed to synthesize thickness‐controlled, wafer‐scale, number of layers decreased, the PL emission peaks showed
high quality 2D materials. Among the deposition methods, CVD blueshift, and 2D MAPbI3 nanoplatelets showed larger change
is one of the most well‐known deposition methods for the of optical bandgaps, unlike halide perovskites, which have
synthesis of high‐quality 2D materials in large scale. There large organic cations (Fig. 5i). This indicates that a broader
have been a tremendous number of reports on the synthesis range of optical properties of 2D MAPbI3 can be obtained than
of 2D materials grown by CVD such as graphene,121 and other halide perovskites, especially those that have large
transition metal dichalcogenides122 and their applications.123, organic cations.
124 For halide perovskites, a non‐van der Waals‐type 2D
perovskite can be synthesized by CVD methods. The synthesis 3.2. 1D halide perovskites
of 2D halide perovskites such as nanosheets and nanoplatelets
have been reported by several groups. For example, Xiong’s 1D nanostructure semiconductors such as nanorods and
group reported for the first time the synthesis of various nanowires have been investigated for decades as excellent
compositions of halide perovskite nanoplatelets by using the platforms for photonics and nanoelectronics owing to their
CVD method.71 The synthesis set‐up for 2D halide perovskite anisotropic geometry, large surface‐to‐volume ratio, and
nanoplatelets is illustrated in Fig. 5a. To synthesize a 2D halide
perovskite, they employed a two‐step method. First, lead
halide (PbX2, X = Cl, Br, I, or mixed halide) nanoplatelets were
synthesized on muscovite mica substrates using van der Waals
epitaxial growth by the CVD method. The as‐grown PbX2
nanoplatelets were converted into MAPbX3 nanoplatelets by a
vapor‐phase conversion method, as depicted in Fig. 5b. Using
the two‐step method, MAPbX3 nanoplatelets with a lateral size
of 5–30 μm and a thickness ranging from several layers to
several hundreds of nanometers could be synthesized. The in‐
plane orientation of the PbX2 platelets confirmed the van der
Waals epitaxial growth owing to the three‐fold symmetry of
the mica surface lattice, and the nanoplatelets maintained
their morphology after conversion into MAPbX3. Moreover,
the ratio of the thickness of MAPbX3 nanoplatelets to that of
PbX2 nanoplatelets is 1.81, which agrees with the lattice
constant ratio of MAPbX3 and PbX2 along the c‐axis. This
implies that the thickness of CVD‐grown 2D MAPbX3
nanoplatelets can be easily controlled by monitoring the
thickness of the counterpart of the PbX2 nanoplatelets. As PbX2
nanoplatelets, which have various halide compositions, can be
prepared easily, MAPbX3 nanoplatelets, the counterparts of
PbX2, also can be easily synthesized by a vapor‐phase
conversion reaction. The electron‐diffusion lengths of CVD‐ Fig. 6 Schematic of process to fabricate 1D perovskite nanodots via (a) slip‐coating,
grown 2D MAPbI3 nanoplatelets were approximately 210 nm (b) blade‐coating, (c) nanofluidic channel, (d) self‐template, (e) extrusion and (f)
vapor‐phase synthesis using template. Reproduced with permission from refs. 125,
which is much longer than that of bulk MAPbI3. This longer
126, 127, 128, 132 and 149.

Journal
Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
charge confinement in two dimensions. Compared with

polycrystalline halide perovskite thin films, 1D halide
perovskites show superior optical properties resulting from
higher crystallinity such as charge diffusion length and lifetime.

Therefore, 1D halide perovskites are considered as building
blocks for various applications. Recently, several solution
processing methods have been introduced for the fabrication
of highly crystalline nanowires and nanorods.
The solvent‐evaporation‐induced recrystallization method
has been employed to synthesize halide perovskite nanowires
and their arrays.59 The growth procedure of halide perovskite
nanowires in this method can be described as evaporation‐
induced self‐assembly. When the precursor solution was
dropped on the substrates, the evaporation of the solvent
resulted in supersaturated crystal growth with the c‐axis
parallel to the surface. The self‐assembly growth of nanowires
originates from the low symmetry of halide perovskites and
strong intermolecular interactions. The advantages of solvent‐
evaporation‐induced recrystallization methods are that halide
perovskite nanowires can be synthesized on any substrate, and
nanowire patterning and alignment are also possible by
selected area treatment. Using this method, various
compositions and morphologies of halide perovskite Fig. 7 SEM images of perovskite nanowires fabricated from (a) structure directing
adduct, (b) slip‐coating, (c) nanofluidic channel, (d) self‐template, (e) extrusion and (f)
nanowires and nanorods have been synthesized by controlling ligand‐directing. Reproduced with permission from ref 58. 125, 126, 127, 128 and 129.
the precursor solution.
3.2.1. By solution‐phase growth experiment with the same procedure was conducted using γ‐
butyrolactone (GBL) as a solvent. However no anisotropic
The synthesis of halide perovskite nanowires via stricter
growth of perovskite occurred due to the higher boiling point
directing adducts was presented by Petrov et al.58 The
of GBL.126
perovskite nanowires were formed through an intermediate
Deng and co‐workers synthesized aligned single‐crystalline
phase such as MAI‐PbI2‐dimethylformamide (DMF) and
MAPbI3 nanowire arrays using a modified solvent‐evaporation‐
Formamidinium iodide (FAI)‐PbI2‐DMF, acting as structural
induced recrystallization method combined with blade coating
directing agents. Typically, PbI2 film was first deposited on a
(Fig. 6b).127 By varying the concentration of the precursor
substrate. Next, the PbI2 coated substrate was dipped into a
solution and coating speed, the density of the MAPbI3
solution of MAI or FAI in a mixture solution of DMF and IPA.
nanowire arrays and diameter of the MAPbI3 nanowires could
Finally, the halide perovskite nanowire was obtained by
be controlled. The synthesized aligned single‐crystalline
annealing on a hot plate at 100 C for 5 min. In this method, I−
MAPbI3 nanowire arrays show high moisture stability and high
plays a crucial role in the formation of nanowires, owing to the
mechanical flexibility.
stable intermediate compound with PbI2, MA+/FA+ and DMF. In
One of the novel methods to obtain a halide perovskite
addition, the layered structure of PbI2 is also the key for the
nanowire is controlled growth using an open fluidic channel.128
intermediate phase formation, whereas PbCl2 or PbBr2 do not
In a specific experiment, a saturated MAPbI3/DMF was
have a layered structure. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
dropped on arrays of a nanostructured SiO2 substrate, as
images of perovskite nanowire synthesis by this method are
shown in Fig. 6c. The halide perovskite precursor was driven
presented in Fig. 7a. Similarly, Zhu et al. demonstrated that the
through the channel by capillary forces. At the channel
perovskite nanowires can also be obtained by post‐treatment
entrances, a stable cluster and nuclei of an MAPbI3‐DMF
of a perovskite film with a mixture of DMF and IPA.125
intermediate phase was formed, initiating the growth of
Halide perovskite nanowires with diameter of 50–400 nm
nanowires in the channels. The uniform halide perovskite
and length 10 μm can be achieved by a slip‐coating method.126
nanowire array is displayed in Fig. 7c. The growth mechanism
Specifically, a saturated precursor of MAPbI3 in DMF was
of halide perovskite nanowires in an open fluidic channel can
dropped onto a glass slide and covered with another glass
be classified as a solvent‐evaporation‐induced supersaturated
slide. Afterward, the upper slide glass was slowly moved,
driven crystallization. Thus, the concentration of precursor and
exposing the thin liquid film perovskite precursor to ambient
solvents, the surface tension, and temperature are important
air, resulting in solvent evaporation and perovskite nanowire
parameters to control the growth of perovskite nanowires.128
formation (Fig. 6a).126 A SEM image of a perovskite nanowire
fabricated by this method is shown in Fig. 7b. The effect of the
3.2.1.1. By self‐template‐directing
solvent for perovskite precursor was also investigated. The

Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
The solution‐phase growth using surfactants was first

introduced by Zhang et al.131 In this report, nanowires of the
inorganic perovskite with a composition of CsPbX3 (X: I, Br, Cl)
were synthesized by reacting cesium oleate with PbX2 in the

presence of oleyamine (OAM) and oleic acid (OA) in
octadecene (ODE) at the temperature of 150–200 C. Two
main factors that affect the growth of halide perovskite
nanowires in this method are reaction time and the ratio of
surfactants in the solutions. Typically, at the initial stage (t < 10
min), perovskite nanocubes were formed in the solution. At
later stage (40–90 min), the halide perovskite nanocubes
transformed to halide perovskite nanowires (Fig. 7f). However,
as the reaction time increased, larger halide perovskites
crystals were observed accompanied with the disappearance
of the halide perovskite nanowire. In addition, by changing the
reaction solvent from ODE to OAM, the reaction shows much
Fig. 8 SEM images of vapor‐phase synthesis 1D perovskite nanowires (a) random lower kinetic but higher yield of halide perovskite
nanowire, (b) aligned nanowire and (c‐d) vertically aligned nanowire. Reproduced with
nanowires.131
permission from refs. 130, 131 and 132.
3.2.2. By vapor‐phase growth

The self‐template‐directed fabrication of porous MAPbBr3 In general, vapor‐phase‐grown nanostructure materials exhibit
nanowires was introduced by Zhuo et al.129 The studies low defect density and higher crystallinity compared to
suggested that porous halide perovskite nanowires can be nanostructured materials prepared from solution processes.
obtained through the reaction of Pb‐containing nanowires The growth of halide perovskite nanowires has been
with MAPbBr3 and HBr in an organic solution. Pb‐containing successfully developed by several groups.104, 106, 132, 133 For
nanowires were fabricated based on cysteine coordination.129 example, Chen et al. reported a vapor‐phase growth of single‐
As Pb‐containing nanowires were added into (MAPbBr3 + crystal CsPbX3 nanowire networks with controlled orientation
HBr)/IPA solution, MAPbBr3 was quickly formed on the surface, along the [001] directions and with the (100) facets exposed,
whereas the interior remained unchanged. The dissolution of using a CVD reactor (Fig. 8a).104 More recently, Shoaib et al.
organic compounds in a Pb‐containing precursor results in the demonstrated that the controlled growth of in‐plane
formation of pores in the nanowire, assisting the conversion of directional halide perovskite nanowires with a diameter of few
the nanowire precursor to a halide perovskite nanowire (Fig. hundred nanometers and length up to several millimeters can
6d).129 A SEM image of porous MAPbBr3 is shown in Fig. 7d. be achieved by CVD.132 The ultralong halide perovskite
nanowires were aligned along the groove direction of the M‐
3.2.1.2. By extrusion plane sapphire substrates. The halide perovskite vapor
Recently, Oener et al. demonstrated that the halide perovskite precursor including CsBr and PbBr2 were first graphoepitaxy‐
nanowire can be fabricated through the extrusion of a nucleated at the nanogrooves of the sapphire substrate which
perovskite precursor through an anodized aluminium oxide further grew into 1D halide perovskite nanowires along the
(AAO) template.130 A schematic illustrating the extrusion (100) planes with low surface energy (Fig. 8b). The growth
process is displayed in Fig. 6e. At first, a solution of MAPbB3 in pressure and temperature play important roles in this process
dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was dropped onto a free‐standing in order to obtain directional, ultralong, halide perovskite
AAO template placed on an O‐ring. A syringe was connected nanowires.132 In another work, Waleed et al. reported the
with a plastic tube in order to reduce the pressure in the diameter of a vertically aligned CsPbI3 in nanoengineering
sealed air, facilitating the filling of the halide perovskite templates using a vapor–solid–solid reaction.133 The
solution into AAO pores.130 As a result of the low pressure in fabrication procedure is shown in the Fig. 6f. The anodic
the sealed air, the halide perovskite solution was extruded nanoporous alumina membranes (AAMs) were employed as a
through the AAO template. Next, the halide perovskite template for the growth of all‐inorganic halide perovskite
nanowire was obtained by annealing the AAO template on a nanowires (CsPbI3). It should be noted that, in this report, Pb
hot plate at a temperature of 120 C. A SEM image of extruded nanoclusters were used to grow the perovskite nanowire
nanowire is shown in Fig. 7e. The length and diameter of the instead of PbI2. By using this process, the diameter and length
halide perovskite nanowire produced by this method depend of the halide perovskite nanowire can be controlled precisely.
on the pore size and the applied pressure gradient time.130 SEM cross‐sectional and top‐view images of vertically aligned
halide perovskite nanowire are shown in Fig. 8c–d.
3.2.1.3. By surfactant‐directed solution‐phase growth

Journal
Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C

Fig. 10 Monodisperse CsPbX3 NCs and their structural characterization (a) schematic of
the cubic perovskite lattice, (b,c) transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of
CsPbBr3 NCs, (d) X‐ray diffraction patterns for typical ternary and mixed‐halide
perovskite NCs, (e) colloidal solution of CsPbX3 in toluene under UV lamp (λ = 350 nm),
(f) PL spectra of CsPbX3 NCs (f) typical optical absorption and PL spectra, (g) time‐
resolved PL decays for all sample shown in (g) except CsPbCl3. Reproduced with
permission from ref. 136.
Fig. 9 Schematic illustration the synthesis of perovskite nanodots via (a) ligand‐ achieved by reacting lead halide (PbX2) and Cs‐oleate in a high‐
assisted reprecipitation method, (b) hot injection method and, (c) SiO2
boiling‐point organic solvent such as octadecene at (140–200 C).
mesoporous template. Reproduced with permission from refs. 135 and 137.
Long‐chain organic ligands such as oleic acid and oleylamine are
employed to confine the crystal size of the resulting nanocrystals.
The majority of crystal growth occurred within the first 3 s after the
3.3. 0D halide perovskites injection of Cs‐oleate into PbX2 in octadecene owing to the fast
3.3.1. By ligand‐assisted precipitation nucleation and growth kinetics. The crystal size of the CsPbX3
The non‐template synthesis of MAPbBr3 was performed by nanocrystal fabricated by this process depends on the reaction
Schmidt et al. for the first time.134 In this work, MAPbBr3 temperature rather than the reaction time. Thus, by tuning the
nanocrystals were obtained at room temperature by crystal temperature, the crystal size of nanocrystals can be precisely
employing octylammonium bromide and octadecylammonium controlled. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image, PL,
bromide as organic capping ligands. As a result, these halide absorption, and time result in PL of monodispersed halide
perovskite nanocrystals showed bright PL at 527 and 530 nm perovskite nanocrystal are shown in Fig 10a. The obtained halide
with a quantum yield of 20%.134 The ligand‐assisted perovskite nanocrystals exhibit significantly high quantum yields of
reprecipitation method (LARP) for the fabrication of halide 50–90%.136 However, this method is not applicable to the synthesis
perovskite nanocrystals was further developed by Zhang and of organometal lead halide perovskite nanocrystals owing to the
co‐workers (Fig. 9a) .135 Specifically, halide perovskite low stability of organic cations at high temperature.
nanocrystals were simply achieved by vigorously stirring a
halide perovskite precursor solution including PbX2, MAX, 3.3.3. By using templates
DMF, and long‐chain organic ligands such as n‐octylamine and Another strategy to fabricate perovskite nanocrystals is by
oleic acid in a poor solvent such as toluene or hexane. The PL using mesoporous templates. Kovalenko and colleagues
quantum yield of the halide perovskite nanocrystal prepared discovered that mesoporous silica function well as templates
by LARP was reported to be up to 70%.135 It should be noted for preparing perovskite nanocrystals on a large scale.137 The
that by changing the type and concentration of organic synthesis method is shown in Fig. 9e. The halide perovskite
ligands, the crystal morphology of the halide perovskite can be nanocrystals were obtained by simply dipping and drying the
tuned from nanodots to nanosheets and nanowires.61 mesoporous templates in a perovskite precursor. The crystal
size and quantum confinement of the perovskite nanocrystal
3.3.2. By hot injection growth fabricated using this method was determined by the size of
Colloidal synthesis of halide perovskite nanocrystals at relatively pores of the templates. Despite all these of advantages, the
high temperatures of 140–200 C was reported by Protesescu and applications of this method in electronic and optoelectronic
coworkers in 2014.136 The synthesis process is illustrated in Fig. 9d. devices are still very limited owing to the insulating property of
This method takes advantage of the ionic nature of chemical the mesoporous template.
bonding in CsPbX3 compounds. The crystallization of CsPbX3 is

Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
4. Applications of low‐dimensional halide al.114 The highest performance of a 2D halide perovskite‐based

perovskites solar cell was reported by Quan and coworkers.139 In this work, the
effect of layer number on the performance of halide perovskite
4.1. Solar cells solar cells was investigated. The number of layers was tuned from n

Apart from 3D bulk halide perovskite, 2D halide perovskite have = 1 (pure 2D) to n = 40–60 (quasi‐2D) and 3D (Fig. 11a).
also been intensively investigated as active layers in solar cells. Interestingly, the halide perovskite with n = 40–60 show improved
Compared with 3D halide perovskite, the stability of 2D halide absorption, carrier mobility, and exciton diffusion length compared
perovskite is significantly increased. The first 2D halide perovskite‐ to the pure 2D halide perovskite, and its stability was superior to
based solar cell was reported by Smith et al.138 In this work, the 2D that of 3D halide perovskites. The J–V curves and stability of
halide perovskite was obtained by mixing C6H5(CH3)2NH3I (PEAI), perovskites with different n are shown in Fig. 11c–e. As can be
MAI (MAI) and PbI2 with a molar ratio of 2:2:3. As a result, a 2D observed from Fig. 11f, the layer perovskite with n < 60 maintained
halide perovskite with a structure of (PEA)2(MA)2[Pb3I10] was their initial value up to 1440 h under air ambient. On the contrary,
obtained. The number of layers (n) was determined to be 3. The the efficiency of 3D halide perovskite‐based solar cells significantly
decrease in dimension results in an increase in the bandgap and dropped after a few hours. The improved stability of 2D and quasi‐
exciton binding energy. Halide perovskite solar cells with a structure 2D halide perovskite was suggested to originate from the van der
of fluorinated indium tin oxide Walls interactions between the capping organic molecules, which
(FTO)/TiO2/(PEA)2(MA)2[Pb3I10]/Spiro‐OMeTAD/gole show a PCE of was confirmed by DFT simulation.138 One approach to improve the
4.71%. It should be noted that the 2D halide perovskite remained stability of perovskite solar cells is to use an all‐inorganic halide
stable after 46 days, whereas the 3D halide perovskite started to perovskite (CsPbX3), which have been reported by many groups.
decompose after 4–5 days, as is evident from the XRD spectra in CsPbI3 with the absorption bandgap of 1.73 eV is the most suitable
Fig. 11b. Other than PEAI, butylammonium (BA) can also be used to material for solar cells. Unfortunately, at a temperature less than
fabricate 2D halide perovskites, which was demonstrated by Cao et 320 C, the orthorhombic phase (δ‐CsPbI3) with an absorption
Fig. 11 (a) Unit cell structure of (C8H9NH3)2(MA)n‐1PbnI3n+1 perovskites with different n values, showing the evolution of dimensionality from 2D (n = 1) to 3D (n = ∞), (b) DFT
simulation of the formation energy of perovskite with different n values in different atmospheres. Comparison of J–V curves for different number of perovskite layers. (c)
Simulation using experimental absorption spectra and bandgaps, and mobility of 0.1 cm2 V‐1s‐1. (d) Simulation with radiative recombination of 5 × 10−10 cm3 s‐1 and gradually
decreasing mobility for lower n. The same trap density is used for all cases. Perovskite layer was estimated to be 200 nm thick. (e) Experimental curve. (f) Device stability test as a
function of n value. Reproduced with permission from ref. 139. (g) Schematic of device with (TEM images of CsPbI3 NCs). (h) SEM cross‐section of CsPbI3 perovskite solar cells. (i) J–
V curves of device measured in air as a function of keeping time. Reproduced with permission from ref. 140.

Journal
Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C

Fig. 12 (a) Device architecture for a PeLED with perovskite nanoplatelets as emitter, and the flat‐band energy level diagram of different layers of materials, showing conduction
and valance band levels with respect to vacuum. (b) Electroluminescence spectrum from a standard device with PVK:PBD weight ratio of 64/36 at applied voltage of 4–7 V. Inset:
Photograph of a working device at 7 V. (c) Current–voltage and brightness–voltage characteristics for the control device (neat perovskite without PVK:PBD) and devices with
PVK:PBD (w/w ratio of 70:30, 64:36, and 58:42) layer. Reproduced with permission from ref. 142. (d) Evolution of the PLQY with increasing excitation intensity for perovskites with
different 〈n〉 values. (e) The carrier transfer process in <n> = 3 perovskite. (f) Carrier transfer process in <n> = 5 perovskite. (g) Multiphase perovskite materials PEA2(MA)n−1PbnI3n+1
channel energy across an inhomogeneous energy landscape, concentrating carriers to smallest bandgap emitters. The arrows represent the carrier transfer process. Reproduced
with permission from ref. 144. (h) The device structure. (i) Cross‐sectional TEM image showing the multiple layers of material with distinct contrast. Scale bar, 50 nm. (j) Flat‐band
energy level diagram. (k) The EL spectra (straight line) of CsPbX3 quantum dots LEDs under applied voltage of 5.5 V, and the PL spectra (dashed line) of QDs dispersed in hexane.
Reproduced with permission from ref. 145.
bandgap of 2.82 eV is thermodynamically preferred.139 Swanrnkar 4.2. Light emitting diodes

and co‐workers found that a α‐CsPbI3 perovskite in the form of Recently, perovskite materials have been considered as the
quantum dots is stable for months in ambient air and could function most promising emissive materials for light emitting diodes.
well as an active layer in solar cells.38 The method to deposit highly One of the effective strategies to improve the performance as
conductive CsPbI3 nanocrystals film was developed in order to use it well as stability of halide perovskite LEDs is to utilize low‐
in solar cells. Typically, the CsPbX3 colloid in octane was spin‐coated dimensional halide perovskites.
on TiO2/FTO substrates. The CsPbI3 nanocrystal‐coated Cao and co‐workers are the first group to use low‐
substrates were then immersed in saturated methyl acetate dimensional perovskites in LEDs.141 Typically, MAPbBr3
(MeOAc). This process was repeated several times to produce nanoplates with a quantum yield of 85% were obtained
a perovskite nanocrystal film with the desired thickness. As a through a modified ligand‐assisted precipitation method and
result, CsPbI3 nanocrystal‐based solar cells exhibit a PCE of used as an emissive layer in LED. The schematic of the device
10.77% with a Voc of 1.23 eV and fill factor of 0.65. The structure and device performance of halide perovskite
structure, FE‐SEM image, and J–V curve of CsPbI3 solar cells are nanoplate‐based LEDs is shown in Fig. 12a. A pure green color
shown in Fig. 11g–i. This work demonstrated that 0D with maximum luminescence high as 10590 cd m−2 was
perovskite materials are feasible for solar cell applications. recorded (Fig. 12b and c). However, the external quantum
More recently, Sanehira et al. improved the PCE of CsPbI3 efficiency (EQE) still remains relatively low of 0.48%. More
quantum dot solar cells up to 13.43% by increasing the charge recently, Si et al. demonstrated the in situ growth of CsPbBr3
carrier mobility of quantum dot film through the surface nanoplates passivated by phenylbutylamine (PBA), resulting in
chemistry based on A‐site cation halide salt (MA or FA cation) 2D halide perovskites with a structure of
treatments.140 PBA2(CsPbBr3)n−1PbBr4.142 The PBA2(CsPbBr3)n−1PbBr4 film with

Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
n ranging from 12–16 shows a smooth surface, low trap optoelectronics. Liu et al. reported a CVD‐grown 2D MAPbI3
densities, narrow emission bandwidths, and high PL quantum nanoplatelets‐based photodetector.72 Although the gate
yield, improving the EQE of LED up to 10.4%.142 Other than 2D voltage did not affect the source–drain current of the
perovskites, quasi‐2D halide perovskites have also been widely photodetector, which is different from bulk counterpart, the

used in LEDs. Yuan et al. demonstrated the brightest and most current of the device was significantly enhanced even under
efficient near‐infrared LED based on quasi‐2D perovskites with the illumination of a dim light. The significantly enhanced
an EQE of 8.8% and a radiance of 80 W srm−2.143 In this work, photocurrent is attributed to the strong light–matter
quasi‐2D halide perovskites were prepared by incorporating interaction and broadband photoresponse of a single unit‐cell
phenylethyl ammonium (PEA) in the MAPbI3 perovskite, halide perovskite nanosheet. The photodetector showed
resulting PEA2(MA)n‐1PbnI3n+1 structures. The numbers of layers higher responsivity (22 A W−1 under 405 nm laser, 12 A W−1
were modulated by changing the molar ratio of PEAI to MAI. under 532 laser) and faster response time that photodetectors
Interestingly, the quasi‐2D halide perovskites with n = 3 and n based on bulk halide perovskite polycrystalline films. Song and
= 5 displayed a significantly increased PL quantum yield (QY) of co‐workers reported solution‐processed flexible
10.1 and 10.6 % whereas that of the 3D perovskite was photodetectors based on 2D CsPbBr3 nanosheets (Fig. 13a).150
negligible. The layer‐dependent QY of quasi‐2D perovskites are The 2D CsPbBr3 nanosheet‐based photodetector showed
shown in Fig. 12d. The enhancement of QY in quasi‐2D electronic transport properties, high on/off ratio (> 103), and
perovskites with n = 3 and n = 5 can be explained by a carrier fast response & recovery time (19 μs and 25 μs, respectively).
funneling effect, as shown in Fig. 12e–g. Moreover, 2D CsPbBr3 nanosheets‐based photodetectors
Since halide perovskite quantum dots with PL of 90% were showed much higher ambient stability and mechanical
demonstrated, halide perovskite quantum dots have been flexibility than bulk halide perovskite thin film‐based
widely used in LEDs. The first all‐inorganic halide perovskite photodetectors. As shown in Fig 13b and c, the photodetectors
quantum dot (CsPbX3) LEDs was reported by Zeng’s group.144 showed a constant current value regardless of the bending
The device structure and their full color emission are shown in state and maintained the device performance after 10000
Fig. 12h–k. Although the halide perovskite quantum dots cycles of the bending–recovery test. Compared with an
exhibit extremely high QY, the performance of the perovskite MAPbBr3‐based photodetector, 2D CsPbBr3 nanosheet‐based
quantum dot‐based LEDs is relatively low, with an EQE of photodetectors showed less degradation under ambient
0.12% and maximum luminance of 946 cd∙m−2. Therefore, condition. By incorporating carbon nanotubes within CsPbBr3
aside from the QY, assembly of quantum dots into the thin film nanosheets as conductive carrier tracks, a highly conductive
and the removal of organic ligands need to be considered to composite film was obtained.151 As a result, a highly efficient
obtain high‐efficiency halide perovskite quantum dot LEDs. For
instant, Li and colleagues improved the EQE of all‐inorganic
halide perovskite quantum dot LEDs up to 6.27% by carefully
controlling the purification process of quantum dots with
hexane/ethyl acetate mixed solvents.145 In another work, Li et
al. obtained high efficient halide perovskite quantum dot LEDs
with EQE of 5.7% by employing trimethylaluminum (TMA) as
cross‐linking agent for improving the surface coverage of
halide perovskite quantum dot layer.146 Zhang et al. applied
another strategy to improve the performance of halide
perovskite LEDs by doping Cs‐cation into FAPbBr3 quantum
dots. The resulting device exhibited EQE of 2.8% and
remarkably high luminance of 55005 cd m‐2.147 These results
confirmed the important role of halide perovskites quantum
dots in LEDs.
4.3. Photodetectors
The photodetectors based on polycrystalline halide perovskite
thin films exhibit performance degradation because the
Fig. 13 (a) Schematic illustration of the flexible photodetector. (b)
defects can be migrated by external bias.29 The performance
Photoresponse at 5 V of the CsPbBr3 nanosheet photodetector for the 1st and
degradation can be avoided using low‐dimensional halide 10000th bending–recovery cycle. (c) Stability comparison of normalized
perovskites which have high crystallinity and nanostructures.72, photocurrent of CsPbBr3 and MAPbBr3 photodetectors Reproduced with
75, 148, 149 For example, unlike their 3D bulk‐phase counterpart, permission from ref. 150. (d) Schematic illustration of MAPbI3 NW array
photodetector. (e–f) SEM images of the photodetector with different
2D nanostructure semiconductors exhibit strong quantum
magnification. Reproduced with permission from ref. 154. (g) Probable
confinement and tunable optical bandgap varying with schematics of carrier transportation of CsPbBr3 film with drop‐coating and
thickness, which is a fascinating property for optoelectronics centrifugal‐casting under light irradiation. (h) I‐V logarithm curves of PD with
applications, especially photodetectors. There have been different film fabrication under 532 nm laser (0.40 mW cm‐2). Reproduced with
attempts to apply 2D nanostructure halide perovskites in permission from ref. 156.

Journal
Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
halide perovskite photodetector with EQE and responsivity as

high as 7488 % and 31.1 AW−1, respectively, were recorded.
Cheng et al. reported a novel heterojunction where the 2D
halide perovskite were sandwiched between WSe2 and

graphene.152 The study shows that a graphene/2D halide
perovskite/graphene vertical stack displays exceptionally high
photoresponsivity up to 950 AW−1, whereas a
graphene/WSe2/2D halide perovskite/graphene
heterojunction shows high on/off ratio of 106. 1D
nanostructures such as nanowires and nanorods have been
considered as a building block for future optoelectronics,
especially photodetectors, owing to their unique properties.
Compared with their bulk counterparts, 1D nanostructure
semiconductors have higher crystallinity, larger surface‐to‐
volume ratio, lower trap density, lower recombination rate,
and long lifetime of photogenerated carriers. Therefore, there
have been reports of 1D halide perovskites‐based
photodetector using these unique properties. For example,
Horváth et al. reported a MAPbI3 nanowire‐based broadband
photodetector.59 The MAPbI3 nanowires in photodetectors
were fabricated by using solvent‐evaporation‐induced Fig. 14 (a) Schematic of measurement setup. (b) I‐V curves under different
illumination intensities (white color light). Inset: band structure of a single‐pixel
recrystallization method, and Pt contacts were deposited
device under zero bias and in the dark. (c) Photograph of an image sensor
through a simple hard mask. The device showed higher mounted on a printing circuit board. (d) Schematic of measurement setup. (e)
performance than the state‐of‐the‐art photodetectors made of Original and imaged letter (“H”). (f) Original and imaged heart symbol.
few‐layer MoS2 and graphene. However, the large‐scale Reproduced with permission from ref. 1.
fabrication of 1D halide perovskites photodetector and
fabrication into integrated optoelectronics is difficult, because
the 1D halide perovskites are randomly aligned with poor enhancement is attributed to the improved photogenerated
uniformity. To fabricate aligned 1D halide perovskite with high charge carrier transportation. Another strategy to use
uniformity, Deng et al. reported a facile method to produce perovskite nanocrystals in photodetectors is to incorporate it
highly aligned single‐crystalline MAPb(I1−xBrx)3 nanowire arrays with TiO2 nanowire/nanotube, which reported by Zheng et
and their application to photodetectors.153 As shown in Fig. al.156
13d–f, single‐crystalline halide perovskite nanowire arrays
were fabricated by a fluid‐guided antisolvent vapor‐assisted 4.4. Image sensors
crystallization method. The photodetector showed broad
photoresponse from 380 nm to 780 nm, and the figure‐of‐ One of interesting applications of nanostructured of perovskite
merits, especially responsivity, are the highest values that have materials is for image sensing.106 In this research, 2D halide
ever reported. By controlling halide composition, the first perovskite nanowire arrays with desirable optical properties
absorption peak can be tuned. With various halide and crystallinity were fabricated through a vapor‐phase
compositions of MAPb(I1−xBrx)3, Deng and co‐workers have growth on a porous alumina membrane (PAM) and used in
successfully fabricated integrated device for wavelength proof‐of‐concept image sensor with 1024 photodiode pixels.
detection. The ultrahigh performance of 1D halide perovskites The concept of the device is shown in Fig. 14a. In this study,
nanowire array resulted from single‐crystalline structure, each pixel has footprint of 200 × 200 μm with a periodicity of
smooth surface, large area uniformity, and long carrier 400 μm, which consists approximately of 1.6 × 105 perovskite
diffusion length. nanowires. The I–V curves of individual pixels are shown in Fig.
All‐inorganic perovskite nanocrystals of CsPbI3 was 14b. The asymmetric nature of the I–V curve implies that the
employed in photodetectors by Ramasamy in 2016 for the first pixel device is a Schottky photodiode. The nanowire device
time.154 Halide perovskite nanocrystals in colloidal solution can shows specific detectivity of 1010 Jones in the wavelength
be assembled into thin films via spin‐coating or centrifugal range from 450–780 nm. The photocurrent rise time and fall
casting. Large‐area, dense packs and pinhole‐free is the time ware measured to be 20.47 ms and 13.81 ms, which are
prerequisite conditions to obtain high performance of halide faster than human‐eye pattern recognition (> 40 ms).
perovskite nanocrystal based photodetectors. Dong and co‐ Therefore, this device can be considered for use in electronic‐
workers reported that high‐quality films of perovskite eye applications. The full sensor device was characterized
nanocrystals with preferred‐orientation can be achieved by using the setup displayed in Fig. 14c and d. The projections of
centrifugal‐casting (Fig. 13g).155 As a result, the photocurrent imaged character “H” and a heart symbol on the image sensor
increased from 0.67 to 2.77 μA with centrifugal‐casting film are shown in Fig. 14e and f. It is obvious that these symbols
compare to that of drop‐coating film (Fig. 13h).155 The

Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
this work, the perovskite nanoplates were chemically

deposited onto a mica substrate (Fig. 15a). Well‐defined
polygonal MAPb3‐aXa perovskite WGM nanocavities were
grown with remarkably high quality, resulting a lasing

threshold of 37 μJ cm−2. The use of 2D halide perovskite in
laser was further improved by Quing Liao and colleagues.159
The solution grown MAPbBr3 WGM microdisk laser shows
single‐mode lasing with a low threshold of 3.6 μJ cm−2.159
Single‐crystal halide perovskite nanowire lasing has been
reported by several groups. Remarkably, Zhu et al. reported
room temperature and wave‐tunable lasing from MAPbX3 (X: I,
Br, Cl) single‐crystal nanowire with very low lasing threshold of
220 nJ cm−2, high quality factor of 3600 and lasing QY
approaching 100%.160 The broad range lasing based on
MAPbX3 was also demonstrated (Fig. 15d).The outstanding
lasing performance is owing to their long charge carrier
lifetime and low nonradiative recombination rate. To increase
the stability, the all‐inorganic perovskite CsPbX3 were
fabricated and tested in lasers. Eaton et al. reported that
Fig. 15 (a) Schematic of optical setup. A pulsed laser (400 nm, 150 fs, 1 kHz) excites the synthesis of high‐quality 1D CsPbBr3 and CsPbCl3 nanowire and
sample from the top globally. The spot size is large enough to cover the whole cavity to their application for nanolasers.30 The 1D CsPbX3 (X = Br, I)
ensure high pumping injection efficiency and reduce the local heating effect. The NIR nanowire showed strong emissive properties and the emission
PL from perovskites waveguides inside the cavities confined by their planar polygonal
structures. (b) Far‐field optical image of two typical MAPbI3 nanoplatelets Reproduced
wavelength can be tuned by halide substitution over 100 nm.
with permission from ref. 159. Visible lasing from MAPbBr3 NWs. (c) 2D pseudo‐color The 1D CsPbBr3 nanowires exhibited low lasing thresholds and
plots of NW emission spectra as a function of pump fluence for MAPbBr3. (d) Widely comparable quality factors. Unlike other halide perovskites,
tunable lasing emission wavelength at room temperature from single‐crystal NW lasers the 1D CsPbBr3 nanowires were stable for weeks under
of mixed lead halide perovskites. Reproduced with permission from ref. 161. Lasing in
ambient condition and during continuous lasing.
perovskite CsPbX3 NC films. (e) Evolution from PL to whispering‐gallery‐mode (WGM)
lasing with increasing pump intensity in a microsphere resonator of diameter 15 mm, All‐inorganic halide perovskite (CsPbX3) nanocrystal Lasing
covered by a film of CsPbBr3 NCs. (f) Single pump laser shot mode structure of random was reported by Yukanin.161 The study suggests that room
lasing from CsPb(Br/Cl)3 NC film. The inset shows path‐length distribution averaged temperature optical amplification can be obtained in the
over 256 pump laser shots. Reproduced with permission from ref. 162. entire visible range, owing to the tunable bandgap of
perovskite nanocrystals. The pump threshold was measured to
were clearly resolved, suggesting the reliable imaging function be 5 μJ cm−2. Two different of Lasing modes were observed are
of the sensor.106 WGM utilizing silica microspheres as high‐finesse resonators,
conformally coated with CsPbX3 nanocrystal and random
4.5. Lasers Lasing in film of CsPbX3 nanocrystals.161
Lasers have great potential as light sources if they can be
integrated with optoelectronic circuits. With the 4.6. Memories
miniaturization of devices, nanolasers have become more Resistive switching memory (ReRAM) is composed of metal–
important. Nanostructured semiconductors have been insulator–metal structure which can store information by two
considered as strong candidates for nanolasers. However, stable resistive states. In 2015, Yoo et al. discovered that
harsh synthesis condition of nanostructured semiconductor for organolead halide perovskite is applicable as an insulator in
nanolaser and their poor stability are major limitations in ReRAM, was which further confirmed by several groups.162 The
integrating nanolasers into future optoelectronics devices. use of low‐dimensional perovskite materials such as 2D and 0D
With facile solution synthesis methods, tunable bandgap, and perovskite has also been demonstrated.
remarkable physical properties, low‐dimensional halide Seo and co‐workers reported the resistive switching of
perovskites have been attempted to be applied to nanolasers. (C4H9NH3)(MA)n−1PbnI3n+1.163 The performance of ReRAM
Biexciton lasing in the layered perovskite (C6H13NH3)2PbI3 based on (C4H9NH3)(MA)n−1PbnI3n+1 as a function of n was
was observed by Kondo et al. in 1998.157 However, the studied. The I–V characteristics of ReRAM with n ranging from
developments of halide perovskite materials in lasers have 1–3 and ∞ were displayed in Fig. 16a–f. As can be seen the
started in earnest during the last few years. Compare to their (C4H9NH3)(MA)n–1PbnI3n+1 showed resistive switching behavior
3D bulk halide perovskite counterparts, nanostructures exhibit regardless of the value of n. However, as the value of n
significantly improved performance. Whispering gallery mode increased, the on/off ratio and accuracy of switching was
(WGM) cavities have been widely employed in nanostructured significantly decreased. The decreases in device performance
halide perovskite‐based lasers. Planner WGM lasers using were thought to come from the increase of dimensionality
perovskite nanoplates were demonstrated by Zang et al.158 In from 2D to quasi‐2D and 3D, which lead to the changes of

Journal
Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
synthesis methods, optical properties, electrical properties,

and applications. It is suggested that 1D halide perovskites are
superior in photodetection and lasing devices, whereas 2D and
0D halide perovskites are better in LEDs and solar cells. The

cutting‐edge techniques and key parameters to obtain high‐
quality of low‐dimensional halide perovskites were discussed.
The advantages and disadvantages of each type of low‐
dimensional halide perovskite in each application were
identified and compared, providing a guideline for optimizing
the device performance and finding new applications of these
nanostructured materials. The potential applications of low‐
dimensional halide perovskite materials for electronic and
optoelectronic devices can be classified as follows.
(1) 2D halide perovskite: Due to the facile fabrication process,
controllable morphology, high absorption, high PLQY and
good stability, 2D and quasi‐2D halide perovskite
materials can be diversely applied in wide range of
applications such as photodetectors, lasers, resistive
switching memories, solar cells and LEDs.
(2) 1D halide perovskite: Perovskite nanowires were
suggested as the most promising materials for
Fig. 16 I–V characteristics of (a) BA2PbI4, (b) BA2MAPb2I7, (c) BA2MA2Pb3I10, and (d)
optoelectronic devices such as photodetectors and lasers,
MAPbI3. Reproduced with permission from ref. 164. (e) Schematic of the flexible PeQDs owing to their high crystallinity, superior charge carrier
memory device with a structure of PET/ITO/PMMA/PeQDs:PMMA/PMMA/Ag. Inset: mobility, low defects and high PLQY. However, the
energy band diagram of the PeQDs memory device. (f) I–V characteristics of flexible applications of these materials in other devices were very
memory device before and after 10 cycles of bending. Inset: photograph of the as‐
limited due to their rough morphology and incomplete
fabricated flexible PeQDs memory device under the bending condition. Reproduced
with permission from ref. 42. surface coverage which severely deteriorate the device
performance.
(3) 0D halide perovskite: Halide perovskite quantum dots
valance band maximum and conduction band maximum,
were mostly employed as emissive layers in LEDs and
resulting in the different in Schottky barrier height at the
lasers due to their exceptional PLQY up to 90%. Besides,
interface of both electrodes (Ag and Pt).
the utilizations of these quantum dots in solar cells,
The resistive switching behavior was also observed in halide
photodetectors and resistive switching memories have
perovskite quantum dots, which were reported by Yang and
also been demonstrated. However, the efficiencies of
colleagues.42 In this work, in order to be used as an insulating
these devices were inferior to that of other low
layer, halide perovskite quantum dots (MAPbBr3) were
dimensional and 3D halide perovskite based devices due
embedded in a PMMA matrix. The structure of perovskite
to the random orientation and the excess of long‐chain
quantum dots‐based ReRAM is displayed in Fig. 16e.
organic ligands on the surface of quantum dots which
Interestingly, the halide perovskite quantum dots‐based
substantially reduced the charge carrier mobility of the
ReRAM exhibits stable resistive switching effect with an on/off
quantum dot film. Thus, the self‐assembly of halide
ratio over 103. The I–V curves of perovskite quantum dots
perovskite quantum dots into thin film and the removal of
ReRAM are shown in Fig. 16f. The switching mechanism of this
organic ligands were considered as the key parameters to
ReRAM is related to charge trapping and detrapping in
improve the performance of halide perovskite quantum
perovskite quantum dots.
dot based devices.
Although low‐dimensional halide perovskite nanomaterials

5. Summary and outlook
have been intensively and extensively investigated in recent
Halide perovskites have been considered as novel active years, there are still many problems to be resolved in order
materials in recent years owing to their exceptional employ them in practical applications. Among those, the
performance in solar cells, LEDs, photodetectors, X‐ray imaging stability is one the most important parameters in order to
detectors, resistive switching memories, and lasers. The commercialize the halide perovskite‐based devices. It was
nanostructured engineering of halide perovskite materials reported that low‐dimensional perovskites exhibit better
from 3D to 0D plays an important role in maximizing the stability in comparison with 3D structure. Still, it does not meet
potential of these materials in electronic as well as the requirement for the practical applications. Thus,
optoelectronic devices. In this review, we summarized the investigations in stability of low‐dimensional halide perovskite
current progress of low‐dimensional halide perovskite materials such as optimizing the composition to stabilize the
materials including 2D, quasi‐2D, 1D, and 0D in terms of their perovskite structure or finding new passivation materials that

Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
can protect the halide perovskite structure without changing of Korea (NRF) and the International Energy Joint R&D
their optical and electrical properties are urgent. The poor Program (20168510011350) of the Korea Institute of Energy
stability of halide perovskite materials can be improved by Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP).
optimizing the Goldschmidt tolerance factor (t). The tolerance

factor can be modulated by changing the A site or X site. The
organic cations in the composition have a huge impact on the References
stability of halide perovskite materials. The most investigated 1. A. Kojima, K. Teshima, Y. Shirai and T. Miyasaka, J. Am.
perovskite material is MAPbI3. However, it was reported that Chem. Soc., 2009, 131, 6050‐6051.
MAPbI3 is intrinsically unstable. By partially replacing MA (2.17 2. M. M. Lee, J. Teuscher, T. Miyasaka, T. N. Murakami and H.
Å) by FA (2.53 Å), the value of tolerance factor was increased J. Snaith, Science, 2012, 338, 643‐647.
from 0.91 to 0.99 improving the stability of halide perovskite 3. N. J. Jeon, J. H. Noh, Y. C. Kim, W. S. Yang, S. Ryu and S. I.
materials.164 It should be noted that pure FAPbI3 is also Seok, Nat. Mater., 2014, 13, 897.
4. J. Burschka, N. Pellet, S.‐J. Moon, R. Humphry‐Baker, P.
unstable with the tolerance factor larger than 1. Cs or Rb were
Gao, M. K. Nazeeruddin and M. Grätzel, Nature, 2013,
found be suitable candidates as dopants to reduce the
499, 316.
tolerance factor of FAPbI3, and thus improve its stability.164 5. C. C. Stoumpos, C. D. Malliakas and M. G. Kanatzidis, Inorg
The use of mixed halide (I with Br or Cl) was also reported to Chem, 2013, 52, 9019‐9038.
be a good strategy to improve the stability of halide perovskite 6. J. H. Heo, S. H. Im, J. H. Noh, T. N. Mandal, C.‐S. Lim, J. A.
materials.164, 165 Therefore, we believe that the lifetime of low‐ Chang, Y. H. Lee, H.‐j. Kim, A. Sarkar, M. K. Nazeeruddin,
dimensional halide perovskite materials can be improved by M. Grätzel and S. I. Seok, Nat. Photon., 2013, 7, 486.
considering the t factor. Moreover, the synthesis processes 7. D. Liu and T. L. Kelly, Nat. Photon., 2013, 8, 133.
that allow the fabrication of highly uniform low‐dimensionality 8. H. J. Snaith, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2013, 4, 3623‐3630.
perovskite materials on a large scale need to be addressed. 9. P. Calado, A. M. Telford, D. Bryant, X. Li, J. Nelson, B. C.
The toxicity of Pb‐based halide perovskite materials is another O’Regan and P. R. F. Barnes, Nat. Commun., 2016, 7,
13831.
big concern. It is obvious that Pb2+ in perovskite can be easily
10. H.‐S. Kim, C.‐R. Lee, J.‐H. Im, K.‐B. Lee, T. Moehl, A.
dissolved in a polar solvent such as water, and spread into the
Marchioro, S.‐J. Moon, R. Humphry‐Baker, J.‐H. Yum, J. E.
living environment, causing a significant health hazard. So far, Moser, M. Grätzel and N.‐G. Park, Sci. Rep., 2012, 2, 591.
the replacement of Pb2+ by Sn2+ has been reported. 11. Y. G. Kim, K. C. Kwon, Q. V. Le, K. Hong, H. W. Jang and S. Y.
Unfortunately, Sn‐based halide perovskite materials are far Kim, J Power Sources, 2016, 319, 1‐8.
less stable than Pb‐based halide perovskite owing to the 12. Best Research Cell .Efficiencies:
oxidation of Sn+2 to Sn+4. Nevertheless, several groups have http://www.nrel.gov/pv/assets/images/efficiency‐
successfully improved the stability of Pb‐free halide perovskite. chart.png
Liao et al. reported that the incorporation of PEA in FASnI3 13. B. S. Passmore, J. Wu, M. O. Manasreh and G. J. Salamo,
resulted in the change of 3D to quasi 2D perovskite, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2007, 91, 233508.
significantly increasing the stability of a solar cell device up to 14. L. Dou, Y. Yang, J. You, Z. Hong, W.‐H. Chang, G. Li and Y.
Yang, Nat. Commun., 2014, 5, 5404.
100 h without appreciable degradation.110 Waleed et al.
15. Z.‐K. Tang, Z.‐F. Xu, D.‐Y. Zhang, S.‐X. Hu, W.‐M. Lau and L.‐
fabricated MASnI3 nanowire arrays using an alumina template
M. Liu, Sci. Rep., 2017, 7, 7843.
and applied this material as a photodetector.166 The MASnI3 16. M. A. Green, Y. Jiang, A. M. Soufiani and A. Ho‐Baillie, J.
nanowire arrays‐based photodetector is operable up to 8 days, Phys. Chem. Lett., 2015, 6, 4774‐4785.
which is much longer than the MASnI3 thin film (30 min). 17. G. Xing, N. Mathews, S. Sun, S. S. Lim, Y. M. Lam, M.
Therefore, the outlook toward the stabilization of low‐ Grätzel, S. Mhaisalkar and T. C. Sum, Science, 2013, 342,
dimensional lead‐free halide perovskite materials is very 344‐347.
optimistic and needs more attention in the near future. 18. Q. Dong, Y. Fang, Y. Shao, P. Mulligan, J. Qiu, L. Cao and J.
Huang, Science, 2015, 347, 967‐970.
19. Y. Chen, H. T. Yi, X. Wu, R. Haroldson, Y. N. Gartstein, Y. I.
Conflicts of interest Rodionov, K. S. Tikhonov, A. Zakhidov, X. Y. Zhu and V.
Podzorov, Nat. Commun., 2016, 7, 12253.
There are no conflicts to declare. 20. D. Kiermasch, P. Rieder, K. Tvingstedt, A. Baumann and V.
Dyakonov, Sci. Rep., 2016, 6, 39333.
21. Y.‐H. Kim, H. Cho, J. H. Heo, T.‐S. Kim, N. Myoung, C.‐L. Lee,
Acknowledgements S. H. Im and T.‐W. Lee, Adv. Mater., 2015, 27, 1248‐1254.
This work is supported by the Basic Science Research Program 22. A. B. Wong, M. Lai, S. W. Eaton, Y. Yu, E. Lin, L. Dou, A. Fu
(2017R1A2B3009135), the Future Material Discovery Program and P. Yang, Nano Lett., 2015, 15, 5519‐5524.
23. S. A. Veldhuis, P. P. Boix, N. Yantara, M. Li, T. C. Sum, N.
(2016M3D1A1027666, 2017M3D1A1039379), and the National
Mathews and S. G. Mhaisalkar, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28,
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the
6804‐6834.
Korean government (MSIP) (No. 2017K1A3A1A67014432) and 24. Q. V. Le, J. B. Kim, S. Y. Kim, B. Lee and D. R. Lee, J. Phys.
the Nano Material Technology Development Program Chem. Lett., 2017, 8, 4140‐4147.
(2016M3A7B4910) through the National Research Foundation 25. Q. V. Le, M. Park, W. Sohn, H. W. Jang and S. Y. Kim, Adv.

Journal
Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
Electron. Mater, 2017, 3, 1600448. Spiccia, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2014, 53, 9898‐9903.
26. X. Hu, X. Zhang, L. Liang, J. Bao, S. Li, W. Yang and Y. Xie, 50. P.‐W. Liang, C.‐Y. Liao, C.‐C. Chueh, F. Zuo, S. T. Williams,
Adv. Funct. Mater., 2014, 24, 7373‐7380. X.‐K. Xin, J. Lin and A. K. Y. Jen, Adv. Mater., 2014, 26,
27. R. Dong, Y. Fang, J. Chae, J. Dai, Z. Xiao, Q. Dong, Y. Yuan, 3748‐3754.
A. Centrone, X. C. Zeng and J. Huang, Adv. Mater., 2015, 51. N. K. Elumalai and A. Uddin, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells,

27, 1912‐1918. 2016, 157, 476‐509.
28. Y. Fang and J. Huang, Adv. Mater., 2015, 27, 2804‐2810. 52. B. Chen, M. Yang, S. Priya and K. Zhu, J. Phys. Chem. Lett.,
29. K. C. Kwon, K. Hong, Q. V. Le, S. Y. Lee, J. Choi, K.‐B. Kim, S. 2016, 7, 905‐917.
Y. Kim and H. W. Jang, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2016, 26, 4213‐ 53. F. Xu, T. Zhang, G. Li and Y. Zhao, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2017,
4222. 5, 11450‐11461.
30. S. W. Eaton, M. Lai, N. A. Gibson, A. B. Wong, L. Dou, J. 54. Q. Chen, H. Liu, H.‐S. Kim, Y. Liu, M. Yang, N. Yue, G. Ren,
Ma, L.‐W. Wang, S. R. Leone and P. Yang, Proceedings of K. Zhu, S. Liu, N.‐G. Park and Y. Zhang, Phys. Rev. X, 2016,
the National Academy of Sciences, 2016, 113, 1993‐1998. 6, 031042.
31. P. Liu, X. He, J. Ren, Q. Liao, J. Yao and H. Fu, ACS Nano, 55. E. Tenuta, C. Zheng and O. Rubel, Sci. Rep., 2016, 6, 37654.
2017, 11, 5766‐5773. 56. C. Eames, J. M. Frost, P. R. F. Barnes, B. C. O’Regan, A.
32. J. Xing, X. F. Liu, Q. Zhang, S. T. Ha, Y. W. Yuan, C. Shen, T. C. Walsh and M. S. Islam, Nat. Commun., 2015, 6, 7497.
Sum and Q. Xiong, Nano Lett., 2015, 15, 4571‐4577. 57. W. Tress, N. Marinova, T. Moehl, S. M. Zakeeruddin, M. K.
33. Y. Fu, H. Zhu, C. C. Stoumpos, Q. Ding, J. Wang, M. G. Nazeeruddin and M. Gratzel, Energy Environ. Sci., 2015, 8,
Kanatzidis, X. Zhu and S. Jin, ACS Nano, 2016, 10, 7963‐ 995‐1004.
7972. 58. A. A. Petrov, N. Pellet, J.‐Y. Seo, N. A. Belich, D. Y. Kovalev,
34. J. Choi, S. Park, J. Lee, K. Hong, D.‐H. Kim, C. W. Moon, G. A. V. Shevelkov, E. A. Goodilin, S. M. Zakeeruddin, A. B.
D. Park, J. Suh, J. Hwang, S. Y. Kim, H. S. Jung, N.‐G. Park, S. Tarasov and M. Graetzel, Chem. Mater., 2017, 29, 587‐
Han, K. T. Nam and H. W. Jang, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28, 594.
6562‐6567. 59. E. Horváth, M. Spina, Z. Szekrényes, K. Kamarás, R. Gaal,
35. J. Choi, Q. V. Le, K. Hong, C. W. Moon, J. S. Han, K. C. Kwon, D. Gachet and L. Forró, Nano Lett., 2014, 14, 6761‐6766.
P.‐R. Cha, Y. Kwon, S. Y. Kim and H. W. Jang, ACS Appl. 60. H. Deng, D. Dong, K. Qiao, L. Bu, B. Li, D. Yang, H.‐E. Wang,
Mater. Interfaces, 2017, 9, 30764‐30771. Y. Cheng, Z. Zhao, J. Tang and H. Song, Nanoscale, 2015, 7,
36. C. Gu and J.‐S. Lee, ACS Nano, 2016, 10, 5413‐5418. 4163‐4170.
37. X. Y. Chin, D. Cortecchia, J. Yin, A. Bruno and C. Soci, Nat. 61. S. Sun, D. Yuan, Y. Xu, A. Wang and Z. Deng, ACS Nano,
Commun., 2015, 6, 7383. 2016, 10, 3648‐3657.
38. Y. Fang, Q. Dong, Y. Shao, Y. Yuan and J. Huang, Nat. 62. I. C. Smith, E. T. Hoke, D. Solis‐Ibarra, M. D. McGehee and
Photon., 2015, 9, 679. H. I. Karunadasa, Angew. Chem., 2014, 126, 11414‐11417.
39. E. T. Hoke, D. J. Slotcavage, E. R. Dohner, A. R. Bowring, H. 63. Z. Ning, X. Gong, R. Comin, G. Walters, F. Fan, O. Voznyy, E.
I. Karunadasa and M. D. McGehee, Chem. Sci., 2015, 6, Yassitepe, A. Buin, S. Hoogland and E. H. Sargent, Nature,
613‐617. 2015, 523, 324.
40. Q. Chen, N. De Marco, Y. Yang, T.‐B. Song, C.‐C. Chen, H. 64. W. Deng, X. Xu, X. Zhang, Y. Zhang, X. Jin, L. Wang, S.‐T. Lee
Zhao, Z. Hong, H. Zhou and Y. Yang, Nano Today, 2015, 10, and J. Jie, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2016, 26, 4797‐4802.
355‐396. 65. T. Chiba, K. Hoshi, Y.‐J. Pu, Y. Takeda, Y. Hayashi, S. Ohisa, S.
41. D. P. McMeekin, G. Sadoughi, W. Rehman, G. E. Eperon, Kawata and J. Kido, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2017, 9,
M. Saliba, M. T. Hörantner, A. Haghighirad, N. Sakai, L. 18054‐18060.
Korte, B. Rech, M. B. Johnston, L. M. Herz and H. J. Snaith, 66. Q. V. Le, J. W. Shin, J.‐H. Jung, J. Park, A. Ozturk and S. Y.
Science, 2016, 351, 151‐155. Kim, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 2017, 17, 8169‐8174.
42. K. Yang, F. Li, C. P. Veeramalai and T. Guo, Appl. Phys. Lett., 67. W. Wei, Y. Zhang, Q. Xu, H. Wei, Y. Fang, Q. Wang, Y. Deng,
2017, 110, 083102. T. Li, A. Gruverman, L. Cao and J. Huang, Nat. Photon.,
43. G. E. Eperon, S. D. Stranks, C. Menelaou, M. B. Johnston, L. 2017, 11, 315.
M. Herz and H. J. Snaith, Energy Environ. Sci., 2014, 7, 68. H. Wei, Y. Fang, P. Mulligan, W. Chuirazzi, H.‐H. Fang, C.
982‐988. Wang, B. R. Ecker, Y. Gao, M. A. Loi, L. Cao and J. Huang,
44. C. Lee, J. Hong, A. Stroppa, M.‐H. Whangbo and J. H. Shim, Nat. Photon., 2016, 10, 333.
RSC Adv., 2015, 5, 78701‐78707. 69. M. Lorenzo, A. Giovanni, B. Elisa, G. Diego, P. Andrea, G.
45. P. Kanhere, S. Chakraborty, C. J. Rupp, R. Ahuja and Z. Erik and L. Carlo, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 2013, 46, 423001.
Chen, RSC Adv., 2015, 5, 107497‐107502. 70. F. P. García de Arquer, X. Gong, R. P. Sabatini, M. Liu, G.‐H.
46. W. Zhang, S. Pathak, N. Sakai, T. Stergiopoulos, P. K. Nayak, Kim, B. R. Sutherland, O. Voznyy, J. Xu, Y. Pang, S.
N. K. Noel, A. A. Haghighirad, V. M. Burlakov, D. W. Hoogland, D. Sinton and E. Sargent, Nat. Commun., 2017,
deQuilettes, A. Sadhanala, W. Li, L. Wang, D. S. Ginger, R. 8, 14757.
H. Friend and H. J. Snaith, Nat. Commun., 2015, 6, 10030. 71. S. T. Ha, X. Liu, Q. Zhang, D. Giovanni, T. C. Sum and Q.
47. J.‐H. Im, H.‐S. Kim and N.‐G. Park, APL Materials, 2014, 2, Xiong, Adv. Opt. Mater., 2014, 2, 838‐844.
081510. 72. J. Liu, Y. Xue, Z. Wang, Z.‐Q. Xu, C. Zheng, B. Weber, J.
48. Z. Xiao, Y. Yuan, Y. Shao, Q. Wang, Q. Dong, C. Bi, P. Song, Y. Wang, Y. Lu, Y. Zhang and Q. Bao, ACS Nano, 2016,
Sharma, A. Gruverman and J. Huang, Nat. Mater., 2014, 10, 3536‐3542.
14, 193. 73. H. Tsai, W. Nie, J.‐C. Blancon, C. C. Stoumpos, R. Asadpour,
49. M. Xiao, F. Huang, W. Huang, Y. Dkhissi, Y. Zhu, J. B. Harutyunyan, A. J. Neukirch, R. Verduzco, J. J. Crochet,
Etheridge, A. Gray‐Weale, U. Bach, Y.‐B. Cheng and L. S. Tretiak, L. Pedesseau, J. Even, M. A. Alam, G. Gupta, J.

Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
Lou, P. M. Ajayan, M. J. Bedzyk, M. G. Kanatzidis and A. D. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2017.07.014.

Mohite, Nature, 2016, 536, 312. 98. Y. Shao, Y. Fang, T. Li, Q. Wang, Q. Dong, Y. Deng, Y. Yuan,
74. Y.‐H. Kim, C. Wolf, Y.‐T. Kim, H. Cho, W. Kwon, S. Do, A. H. Wei, M. Wang, A. Gruverman, J. Shield and J. Huang,
Sadhanala, C. G. Park, S.‐W. Rhee, S. H. Im, R. H. Friend Energy Environ. Sci., 2016, 9, 1752‐1759.
and T.‐W. Lee, ACS Nano, 2017, 11, 6586‐6593. 99. Y. Fu, F. Meng, M. B. Rowley, B. J. Thompson, M. J. Shearer,

75. H. Deng, X. Yang, D. Dong, B. Li, D. Yang, S. Yuan, K. Qiao, D. Ma, R. J. Hamers, J. C. Wright and S. Jin, J. Am. Chem.
Y.‐B. Cheng, J. Tang and H. Song, Nano Lett., 2015, 15, Soc., 2015, 137, 5810‐5818.
7963‐7969. 100. M. N. F. Hoque, N. Islam, Z. Li, G. Ren, K. Zhu and Z. Fan,
76. Y. Deng, E. Peng, Y. Shao, Z. Xiao, Q. Dong and J. Huang, ChemSusChem, 2016, 9, 2692‐2698.
Energy Environ. Sci., 2015, 8, 1544‐1550. 101. G. E. Eperon, G. M. Paterno, R. J. Sutton, A. Zampetti, A. A.
77. Z. Xiao, D. Wang, Q. Dong, Q. Wang, W. Wei, J. Dai, X. Zeng Haghighirad, F. Cacialli and H. J. Snaith, J. Mater. Chem. A,
and J. Huang, Energy Environ. Sci., 2016, 9, 867‐872. 2015, 3, 19688‐19695.
78. Q. Wang, Y. Shao, Q. Dong, Z. Xiao, Y. Yuan and J. Huang, 102. R. J. Sutton, G. E. Eperon, L. Miranda, E. S. Parrott, B. A.
Energy Environ. Sci., 2014, 7, 2359‐2365. Kamino, J. B. Patel, M. T. Hörantner, M. B. Johnston, A. A.
79. Z. Xiao, C. Bi, Y. Shao, Q. Dong, Q. Wang, Y. Yuan, C. Wang, Haghighirad, D. T. Moore and H. J. Snaith, Adv. Energy
Y. Gao and J. Huang, Energy Environ. Sci., 2014, 7, 2619‐ Mater., 2016, 6, 1502458.
2623. 103. B. Conings, J. Drijkoningen, N. Gauquelin, A. Babayigit, J.
80. N. J. Jeon, J. H. Noh, W. S. Yang, Y. C. Kim, S. Ryu, J. Seo D'Haen, L. D'Olieslaeger, A. Ethirajan, J. Verbeeck, J.
and S. I. Seok, Nature, 2015, 517, 476. Manca, E. Mosconi, F. D. Angelis and H.‐G. Boyen, Adv.
81. M. V. Kovalenko, L. Protesescu and M. I. Bodnarchuk, Energy Mater., 2015, 5, 1500477.
Science, 2017, 358, 745‐750. 104. J. Chen, Y. Fu, L. Samad, L. Dang, Y. Zhao, S. Shen, L. Guo
82. J. Huang, S. Tan, P. D. Lund and H. Zhou, Energy Environ. and S. Jin, Nano Lett, 2017, 17, 460‐466.
Sci., 2017, 10, 2284‐2311. 105. J. Chen, S. Zhou, S. Jin, H. Li and T. Zhai, J. Mater. Chem. C,
83. Q. Wang, B. Chen, Y. Liu, Y. Deng, Y. Bai, Q. Dong and J. 2016, 4, 11‐27.
Huang, Energy Environ. Sci., 2017, 10, 516‐522. 106. L. Gu, M. M. Tavakoli, D. Zhang, Q. Zhang, A. Waleed, Y.
84. Y. Deng, Z. Xiao and J. Huang, Adv. Energy Mater., 2015, 5, Xiao, K. H. Tsui, Y. Lin, L. Liao, J. Wang and Z. Fan, Adv.
1500721. Mater., 2016, 28, 9713‐9721.
85. P. Luo, W. Xia, S. Zhou, L. Sun, J. Cheng, C. Xu and Y. Lu, J. 107. R. K. Misra, B.‐E. Cohen, L. Iagher and L. Etgar,
Phys. Chem. Lett., 2016, 7, 3603‐3608. ChemSusChem, 2017, 10, 3712‐3721.
86. J. Xu, A. Buin, A. H. Ip, W. Li, O. Voznyy, R. Comin, M. Yuan, 108. L. Dou, J. Mater. Chem. C, 2017, 5, 11165‐11173.
S. Jeon, Z. Ning, J. J. McDowell, P. Kanjanaboos, J.‐P. Sun, 109. L. Dou, A. B. Wong, Y. Yu, M. Lai, N. Kornienko, S. W. Eaton,
X. Lan, L. N. Quan, D. H. Kim, I. G. Hill, P. Maksymovych A. Fu, C. G. Bischak, J. Ma, T. Ding, N. S. Ginsberg, L.‐W.
and E. H. Sargent, Nat. Commun., 2015, 6, 7081. Wang, A. P. Alivisatos and P. Yang, Science, 2015, 349,
87. L. Wang, D. Moghe, S. Hafezian, P. Chen, M. Young, M. 1518‐1521.
Elinski, L. Martinu, S. Kéna‐Cohen and R. R. Lunt, ACS Appl. 110. Y. Liao, H. Liu, W. Zhou, D. Yang, Y. Shang, Z. Shi, B. Li, X.
Mater. Interfaces, 2016, 8, 23086‐23094. Jiang, L. Zhang, L. N. Quan, R. Quintero‐Bermudez, B. R.
88. A. Guerrero, J. You, C. Aranda, Y. S. Kang, G. Garcia‐ Sutherland, Q. Mi, E. H. Sargent and Z. Ning, J. Am. Chem.
Belmonte, H. Zhou, J. Bisquert and Y. Yang, ACS Nano, Soc., 2017, 139, 6693‐6699.
2016, 10, 218‐224. 111. K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y.
89. Y. Zheng, W. Shi, J. Kong, D. Huang, H. E. Katz, J. Yu and A. Zhang, S. V. Dubonos, I. V. Grigorieva and A. A. Firsov,
D. Taylor, Small Methods, 2017, 1, 1700244. Science, 2004, 306, 666‐669.
90. Q. Wang, Q. Dong, T. Li, A. Gruverman and J. Huang, Adv. 112. T. F. Jaramillo, K. P. Jørgensen, J. Bonde, J. H. Nielsen, S.
Mater., 2016, 28, 6734‐6739. Horch and I. Chorkendorff, Science, 2007, 317, 100‐102.
91. J. Min, Z.‐G. Zhang, Y. Hou, C. O. Ramirez Quiroz, T. 113. J. Wang, F. Ma and M. Sun, RSC Adv., 2017, 7, 16801‐
Przybilla, C. Bronnbauer, F. Guo, K. Forberich, H. Azimi, T. 16822.
Ameri, E. Spiecker, Y. Li and C. J. Brabec, Chem. Mater., 114. L. Li, Y. Yu, G. J. Ye, Q. Ge, X. Ou, H. Wu, D. Feng, X. H. Chen
2015, 27, 227‐234. and Y. Zhang, Nat. Nanotech., 2014, 9, 372.
92. Z. Zhou, S. Pang, Z. Liu, H. Xu and G. Cui, J. Mater. Chem. 115. D. H. Cao, C. C. Stoumpos, O. K. Farha, J. T. Hupp and M. G.
A, 2015, 3, 19205‐19217. Kanatzidis, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2015, 137, 7843‐7850.
93. G. Grancini, C. Roldán‐Carmona, I. Zimmermann, E. 116. W. Niu, A. Eiden, G. V. Prakash and J. J. Baumberg, Appl.
Mosconi, X. Lee, D. Martineau, S. Narbey, F. Oswald, F. De Phys. Lett., 2014, 104, 171111.
Angelis, M. Graetzel and M. K. Nazeeruddin, Nat. 117. Z. Cheng and J. Lin, CrystEngComm, 2010, 12, 2646‐2662.
Commun., 2017, 8, 15684. 118. H. G. Kim and H.‐B.‐R. Lee, Chem. Mater., 2017, 29, 3809‐
94. A. Shit and A. K. Nandi, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2016, 3826.
18, 10182‐10190. 119. Z. Yang and J. Hao, J. Mater. Chem. C, 2016, 4, 8859‐8878.
95. Z. Chu, M. Yang, P. Schulz, D. Wu, X. Ma, E. Seifert, L. Sun, 120. K. C. Kwon, S. Choi, K. Hong, C. W. Moon, Y.‐S. Shim, D. H.
X. Li, K. Zhu and K. Lai, Nat. Commun., 2017, 8, 2230. Kim, T. Kim, W. Sohn, J.‐M. Jeon, C.‐H. Lee, K. T. Nam, S.
96. T. S. Sherkar, C. Momblona, L. Gil‐Escrig, J. Ávila, M. Han, S. Y. Kim and H. W. Jang, Energy Environ. Sci., 2016, 9,
Sessolo, H. J. Bolink and L. J. A. Koster, ACS Energy Letters, 2240‐2248.
2017, 2, 1214‐1222. 121. K. C. Kwon, K. S. Choi and S. Y. Kim, Adv. Funct. Mater.,
97. J.‐W. Lee, S.‐H. Bae, N. De Marco, Y.‐T. Hsieh, Z. Dai and Y. 2012, 22, 4724‐4731.
Yang, Mater. Today Energy, 2017, DOI: 122. K. Chang Kwon, S. Choi, J. Lee, K. Hong, W. Sohn, D. M.

Journal
Pleaseof
View Article Online
DOI: 10.1039/C7TC05658C
Andoshe, K. S. Choi, Y. Kim, S. Han, S. Y. Kim and H. W. Nanotech., 2016, 11, 872.
Jang, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2017, 5, 15534‐15542. 144. J. Song, J. Li, X. Li, L. Xu, Y. Dong and H. Zeng, Adv. Mater.,
123. J. Bai, L. Liao, H. Zhou, R. Cheng, L. Liu, Y. Huang and X. 2015, 27, 7162‐7167.
Duan, Nano Lett., 2011, 11, 2555‐2559. 145. J. Li, L. Xu, T. Wang, J. Song, J. Chen, J. Xue, Y. Dong, B. Cai,
124. G. He, K. Ghosh, U. Singisetti, H. Ramamoorthy, R. Q. Shan, B. Han and H. Zeng, Adv. Mater., 2017, 29,

Somphonsane, G. Bohra, M. Matsunaga, A. Higuchi, N. 1603885‐n/a.
Aoki, S. Najmaei, Y. Gong, X. Zhang, R. Vajtai, P. M. Ajayan 146. G. Li, F. W. R. Rivarola, N. J. L. K. Davis, S. Bai, T. C. Jellicoe,
and J. P. Bird, Nano Lett., 2015, 15, 5052‐5058. F. de la Peña, S. Hou, C. Ducati, F. Gao, R. H. Friend, N. C.
125. P. Zhu, S. Gu, X. Shen, N. Xu, Y. Tan, S. Zhuang, Y. Deng, Z. Greenham and Z.‐K. Tan, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28, 3528‐
Lu, Z. Wang and J. Zhu, Nano Lett, 2016, 16, 871‐876. 3534.
126. E. Horvath, M. Spina, Z. Szekrenyes, K. Kamaras, R. Gaal, 147. X. Zhang, H. Liu, W. Wang, J. Zhang, B. Xu, K. L. Karen, Y.
D. Gachet and L. Forro, Nano Lett, 2014, 14, 6761‐6766. Zheng, S. Liu, S. Chen, K. Wang and X. W. Sun, Advanced
127. W. Deng, X. Zhang, L. Huang, X. Xu, L. Wang, J. Wang, Q. Materials, 2017, 29, 1606405‐n/a.
Shang, S. T. Lee and J. Jie, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28, 2201‐ 148. W. Deng, X. Zhang, L. Huang, X. Xu, L. Wang, J. Wang, Q.
2208. Shang, S.‐T. Lee and J. Jie, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28, 2201‐
128. M. Spina, E. Bonvin, A. Sienkiewicz, B. Nafradi, L. Forro 2208.
and E. Horvath, Sci Rep, 2016, 6, 19834. 149. J. Song, L. Xu, J. Li, J. Xue, Y. Dong, X. Li and H. Zeng,
129. S. Zhuo, J. Zhang, Y. Shi, Y. Huang and B. Zhang, Angew. Advanced Materials, 2016, 28, 4861‐4869.
Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 2015, 54, 5693‐5696. 150. J. Song, L. Xu, J. Li, J. Xue, Y. Dong, X. Li and H. Zeng, Adv.
130. S. Z. Oener, P. Khoram, S. Brittman, S. A. Mann, Q. Zhang, Mater., 2016, 28, 4861‐4869.
Z. Fan, S. W. Boettcher and E. C. Garnett, Nano Lett, 2017, 151. X. Li, D. Yu, J. Chen, Y. Wang, F. Cao, Y. Wei, Y. Wu, L. Wang,
DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b02213. Y. Zhu, Z. Sun, J. Ji, Y. Shen, H. Sun and H. Zeng, ACS Nano,
131. D. Zhang, S. W. Eaton, Y. Yu, L. Dou and P. Yang, J. Am. 2017, 11, 2015‐2023.
Chem. Soc., 2015, 137, 9230‐9233. 152. H.‐C. Cheng, G. Wang, D. Li, Q. He, A. Yin, Y. Liu, H. Wu, M.
132. M. Shoaib, X. Zhang, X. Wang, H. Zhou, T. Xu, X. Wang, X. Ding, Y. Huang and X. Duan, Nano Lett., 2016, 16, 367‐373.
Hu, H. Liu, X. Fan, W. Zheng, T. Yang, S. Yang, Q. Zhang, X. 153. W. Deng, L. Huang, X. Xu, X. Zhang, X. Jin, S.‐T. Lee and J.
Zhu, L. Sun and A. Pan, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2017, DOI: Jie, Nano Lett., 2017, 17, 2482‐2489.
10.1021/jacs.7b08818. 154. P. Ramasamy, D.‐H. Lim, B. Kim, S.‐H. Lee, M.‐S. Lee and J.‐
133. A. Waleed, M. M. Tavakoli, L. Gu, S. Hussain, D. Zhang, S. S. Lee, Chem. Commun., 2016, 52, 2067‐2070.
Poddar, Z. Wang, R. Zhang and Z. Fan, Nano Lett., 2017, 155. Y. Dong, Y. Gu, Y. Zou, J. Song, L. Xu, J. Li, J. Xue, X. Li and H.
17, 4951‐4957. Zeng, Small, 2016, 12, 5622‐5632.
134. L. C. Schmidt, A. Pertegás, S. González‐Carrero, O. 156. Z. Zheng, F. Zhuge, Y. Wang, J. Zhang, L. Gan, X. Zhou, H. Li
Malinkiewicz, S. Agouram, G. Mínguez Espallargas, H. J. and T. Zhai, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2017, DOI:
Bolink, R. E. Galian and J. Pérez‐Prieto, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 10.1002/adfm.201703115, 1703115.
2014, 136, 850‐853. 157. T. Kondo, T. Azuma, T. Yuasa and R. Ito, Solid State
135. F. Zhang, H. Zhong, C. Chen, X.‐g. Wu, X. Hu, H. Huang, J. Commun., 1998, 105, 253‐255.
Han, B. Zou and Y. Dong, ACS Nano, 2015, 9, 4533‐4542. 158. Q. Zhang, S. T. Ha, X. Liu, T. C. Sum and Q. Xiong, Nano
136. L. Protesescu, S. Yakunin, M. I. Bodnarchuk, F. Krieg, R. Lett., 2014, 14, 5995‐6001.
Caputo, C. H. Hendon, R. X. Yang, A. Walsh and M. V. 159. Q. Liao, K. Hu, H. Zhang, X. Wang, J. Yao and H. Fu, Adv.
Kovalenko, Nano Lett, 2015, 15, 3692‐3696. Mater., 2015, 27, 3405‐3410.
137. D. N. Dirin, L. Protesescu, D. Trummer, I. V. Kochetygov, S. 160. H. Zhu, Y. Fu, F. Meng, X. Wu, Z. Gong, Q. Ding, M. V.
Yakunin, F. Krumeich, N. P. Stadie and M. V. Kovalenko, Gustafsson, M. T. Trinh, S. Jin and X. Y. Zhu, Nat. Mater.,
Nano Lett., 2016, 16, 5866‐5874. 2015, 14, 636‐642.
138. L. N. Quan, M. Yuan, R. Comin, O. Voznyy, E. M. 161. S. Yakunin, L. Protesescu, F. Krieg, M. I. Bodnarchuk, G.
Beauregard, S. Hoogland, A. Buin, A. R. Kirmani, K. Zhao, Nedelcu, M. Humer, G. De Luca, M. Fiebig, W. Heiss and
A. Amassian, D. H. Kim and E. H. Sargent, J. Am. Chem. M. V. Kovalenko, 2015, 6, 8056.
Soc., 2016, 138, 2649‐2655. 162. E. J. Yoo, M. Lyu, J.‐H. Yun, C. J. Kang, Y. J. Choi and L.
139. A. Swarnkar, A. R. Marshall, E. M. Sanehira, B. D. Wang, Adv. Mater., 2015, 27, 6170‐6175.
Chernomordik, D. T. Moore, J. A. Christians, T. Chakrabarti 163. J.‐Y. Seo, J. Choi, H.‐S. Kim, J. Kim, J.‐M. Yang, C. Cuhadar, J.
and J. M. Luther, Science, 2016, 354, 92‐95. S. Han, S.‐J. Kim, D. Lee, H. W. Jang and N.‐G. Park,
140. E. M. Sanehira, A. R. Marshall, J. A. Christians, S. P. Harvey, Nanoscale, 2017, 9, 15278‐15285.
P. N. Ciesielski, L. M. Wheeler, P. Schulz, L. Y. Lin, M. C. 164. T. A. Berhe, W.‐N. Su, C.‐H. Chen, C.‐J. Pan, J.‐H. Cheng, H.‐
Beard and J. M. Luther, Science Advances, 2017, 3. M. Chen, M.‐C. Tsai, L.‐Y. Chen, A. A. Dubale and B.‐J.
141. Y. Ling, Z. Yuan, Y. Tian, X. Wang, J. C. Wang, Y. Xin, K. Hwang, Energy Environ. Sci., 2016, 9, 323‐356.
Hanson, B. Ma and H. Gao, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28, 305‐ 165. G. P. Nagabhushana, R. Shivaramaiah and A. Navrotsky,
311. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2016,
142. J. Si, Y. Liu, Z. He, H. Du, K. Du, D. Chen, J. Li, M. Xu, H. 113, 7717‐7721.
Tian, H. He, D. Di, C. Lin, Y. Cheng, J. Wang and Y. Jin, ACS 166. A. Waleed, M. M. Tavakoli, L. Gu, Z. Wang, D. Zhang, A.
Nano, 2017, DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b05191. Manikandan, Q. Zhang, R. Zhang, Y.‐L. Chueh and Z. Fan,
143. M. Yuan, L. N. Quan, R. Comin, G. Walters, R. Sabatini, O. Nano Lett., 2017, 17, 523‐530.
Voznyy, S. Hoogland, Y. Zhao, E. M. Beauregard, P.
Kanjanaboos, Z. Lu, D. H. Kim and E. H. Sargent, Nat.

Hong 2018

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hong 2018

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hong 2018

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

View Article Online

acceptance, before technical editing, formatting and proof reading.

You can find more information about Accepted Manuscripts in the

Please note that technical editing may introduce minor changes

Journal of Materials Chemistry C

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Low‐dimensional halide perovskites: review and issues

compositional flexibility.38‐45 Owing to this compositional

optical and electrical properties, which have not been seen

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

perovskites are somewhat more promising for future

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

charge confinement in two dimensions. Compared with

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

The solution‐phase growth using surfactants was first

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

3.2.2. By vapor‐phase growth

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

4. Applications of low‐dimensional halide al.114 The highest performance of a 2D halide perovskite‐based

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

bandgap of 2.82 eV is thermodynamically preferred.139 Swanrnkar 4.2. Light emitting diodes

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

halide perovskite photodetector with EQE and responsivity as

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

this work, the perovskite nanoplates were chemically

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

synthesis methods, optical properties, electrical properties,

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Although low‐dimensional halide perovskite nanomaterials

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

Lou, P. M. Ajayan, M. J. Bedzyk, M. G. Kanatzidis and A. D. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2017.07.014.

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

Journal of Materials Chemistry C Accepted Manuscript

Please do not adjust margins

You might also like