GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY Folds

Structural geology - are one of the most common
geological structures found in rocks.
 is the study of factors such as origin,
- When a set of horizontal layers are
occurrence, classification, type and
subjected to compressive forces,
effects of various secondary
they bend either upward or
structures like folds, faults, joints,
downward.
rock cleavage and are different from
- it is the bend noticed in rocks.
those primary structures such as
- in terms of their nature, it may occur
bedding and vesicular structure,
as single local bends or may occur
which develop in rocks at the time of
repeatedly and intricately folded to
their formation.
the tectonic history of the region.
Outcrop
Classification and Types of Folds
 any geological formation exposed on
 Symmetrical Character
the surface.
 Upward or Downward Bend
Strike and Dip  Occurrence of Plunge
 Uniformity of Bed Thickness
 Strike
 Behavior of the Fold Pattern with
- refers to the direction in which a
Depth.
geological structure is present. The
1. Anticline and Syncline
strike direction may be defined as
 Anticline
the direction of the trace of the
- it is the resulting fold when the beds
intersection between the bedding
are bent upwards.
plane.
- this fold convex upwards.
 Dip
- Naturally, in such a fold, the older
- literally means slope or inclination.
beds occur towards the concave
- In structural geology, it is expressed
side.
both as direction and amount.
- In a simple case, the limbs of
- the dip direction is the direction
anticline slope in opposite directions
along which the inclination of the
with reference to its axial plane.
bedding plane occurs.
- when the anticline is refolded, the
inclined character of limbs will be
complicated.
 Syncline
- is just opposite to anticline in its
nature, i.e. when the beds are bent
downwards the resulting fold is
called syncline.
- this fold convex downwards.
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

- in this, the younger beds occur  Depending on the intensity of

towards the concave side and in a deformation, the beds of the fold may
simple type of syncline, its limbs dip or may not have uniform thickness. If
towards each other with reference to the thickness of beds is uniform
the axial plane throughout the folds, it is called an
2. open fold. On the other hand, in a
S fold, if the beds are thinner in the
limb portions and thicker at crest and
trough, such a fold is called closed
fold.
5. Similar and Parallel Folds
 Based on whether the shape of folds
remain the same or altered with
depth, folds are grouped as similar or
parallel folds. In the case of similar
ymmetrical and Asymmetrical Folds folds, the shape or pattern of folds
 Symmetrical Folds remain the same at depths also. But in
- it is when the axial plane the case of parallel folds, the crest and
divides a fold into two equal trough become pointed or angular
halves in such a way that one 6. Miscellaneous Folds
half is the mirror image.  Overturned Folds
 Asymmetrical Folds - Usually, in simple folds, the show
- it is formed if the compressive the order of limbs superposition.
forces responsible for folding But when one of the limbs is
are not of the same magnitude. overturned, the order of
3. Plunging and Non-Plunging Folds superposition of beds in that limb
 The plunge of a fold has already will be in reverse order and such a
been described as the inclination fold is called an overturned fold.
of the fold axis to the horizontal  Cheveron folds
plane. Based on this, i.e, whether - Usually, the crest and troughs of
the axis of a fold is inclined or beds are smoothly curved, but
horizontal, the folds are grouped some folds have sharply bent,
as plunging folds or non- angular crest and troughs, such
plunging folds. folds are known as "Chevron
 In geological maps, when strike lines folds".
are drawn for both the limbs, for a  Isoclinal Folds
non-plunging fold, they will be - Usually the folds have inclined
mutually parallel and for a plunging limbs, i.e. the limbs will be
fold they will be either converging or mutually diverging or converging
diverging but not parallel. with reference to axial planes. But
4. Open and Closed Folds
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

in some folds, the limbs will be - These are the minor asymmetrical
mutually largely parallel. Such folds within major folds but
folds are called isoclinals folds. confined only to incompetent beds
- These folds may be vertical which are sandwiched between
inclined or horizontal. competent formations. These
 Fan Folds develop because of the shearing/
- Usually in simple anticlines, the dragging effect.
limbs dip away from one another
Mechanisms of Folding
and in simple synclines they dip
towards each other. But in the case  Folding of rocks takes place by
of fan folds, this trend is just the different ways of accommodation of
opposite, i.e. in anticlines of fan stress. In many cases, slips or shear
folds, the limbs dip towards each occur in between the beds.
other with reference to their axial  The process is similar to slipping of
plane. In synclines of this kind, the cards which occurs when the set is
limbs dip away from each other. fold. If they are not allowed to slip
As the term suggests, these folds over one another, folding of the set
are fan shaped. cannot take place.
 Domes and Basins  This is the way in which folding
- Usually, a fold will have two generally occur in the case of hard
distinct limbs. But some folds do and competent rock like quartzites,
not have any such specific limbs  In another kind of folding, folds are
and appear as beds locally pushed characterized by thinning of the
up or down, 1.e. their shapes limbs and thickening of crest and
appear as dome or basin. In a troughs. This takes place commonly
dome, which resembles an upper in weak and incompetent rocks like
hemisphere, the dips are found in shales,
all sides from the common central
Causes and Effects of Folding
top point. Thus, this is a type of
anticline. In the basin, which is  Most of the important folds, as
like a bowl, the slopes are just already pointed out, are due to
opposite tectonic causes. But a few folds of a
 Geanticlines and Geosynclines minor type are due to non-tectonic
- The anticlines and synclines with a causes,
normal shape but a very large
magnitude is called Geanticlines
and Geosynclines

 Drag Folds
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

 Mainly, the compressive and shear Joints and Faults

type of tectonic forces are
 Structurally, faults may be described
responsible for the folding
as fractures along which relative
phenomenon. Igneous intrusion of
displacement of adjacent blocks has
viscous magmas such as laccoliths
taken place.
and lopoliths also contribute to
 If such relative displacement does
folding.
not take place on either side of
 non-tectonic landslides, causes
fracture plane, it is called a joint.
creeping, like differential
Thus, both joint and faults are
compaction, isostatic setting and
fractures in rocks but with difference
glaciations too are responsible for
in the kind of displacement. Joints
some folds. These are minor in terms
may be described as a set of aligned
of frequency of occurrence and
parallel cracks or openings in
magnitude.
geological formations.
Faults
Magnitude of Faults
 From the Civil engineering point of
 Like folds, faults also have
view, faults are the most unfavorable
considerable range in their
and undesirable geological structures
magnitude. Some occur for short
at the site for any given purpose, ie.
distance, while other can be traced
for location of reservoir, as
for very long distances. In some
foundations site for construction of
cases, displacement may be less than
dams, importance bridges or huge
a centimeter while in other it may be
buildings, for tunneling, for laying
many or even kilometers. The
roads, railways tracks, etc,
magnitude of faulting obviously
 This is because faults considerably
depends on the intensity and the
weaken the rocks and render the sites
nature of shearing stresses involved.
in which they occur as unfavorable
places for all constructional Nature of Fault Plane
purposes,
 Rarely the displacement during
 Further, if the faults are active, the
faulting occurs along a single fault
site is unstable and susceptible to
plane. In many cases, faulting takes
upward, downward or sideward
place along several parallel fractures,
movement along the fault plane,
such a zone which contains several
thereby making the places highly
closely spaced sub-parallel fractures
hazardous for foundation purposes.
along which the relative
Thus, by virtue of the harm they can
displacement has taken place is
cause, faults are necessarily
called shear zone or fault zone.
investigated with special care in
dealing with any major construction.
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

 A fault plane may be plain or straight  When the fault plane is inclined, the
or may be curved or irregular, it may faulted block which lies below the
be horizontal or inclined or vertical. fault plane is called the "foot wall"
and the other block which rests
Recurrence of Faulting
above the fault plane is called
 Faulting occurs when shearing "hanging wall", In this case of
resistance of the geological vertical faults, naturally the faulted
formation is overcome by the blocks cannot be described as foot
tectonics forces, Occurrence of wall or hanging wall.
faulting is often accompanied by
earthquakes, and it is an indication of
subsurface instability of the region 3. Slip
concerned.  The displacement that occurs during
 Thus, faulting may be treated as an faulting is called the slip. The total
attempt to reach stability. Because of displacement is known as the next
the hard, rigid and solid nature of the slip. This may be along the strike
rock masses involved, this stability is direction or the dip direction or
not achieved in one stroke but by along both.
repetition of the process. Thus, once 4. Heave and Throw
if a faulting occurs in a place, it shall  The horizontal component of
remain active for some time, ie, displacement is called "heave”, and
subsequent recurring faulting takes the vertical component of
place there only. displacement is called "throw"
 In vertical faults, there is only
Parts of a Fault
throw, but no heave. In horizontal
1. Fault Plane faults, there is only heave, but no
 This is the plane along which the throw.
adjacent blocks were relatively
Classification and Types of Faults
displaced. In other words, this is the
fracture surface on either side of 1. Types of displacement along the plane
which the rocks had moved past one  Based on this principle, faults are
another. divisible into transitional faults and
 Its intersection with the horizontal rotational faults.
plane gives the strike direction of  In the case of transitional faults, the
the fault. type of displacement of the foot wall
 The direction along which the fault with reference to the hanging wall is
plane has the maximum slope is its uniform along the fault plane.
true dip direction.  In the case of the rotational fault the
2. Foot Wall and Hanging Wall displacement varies from place to
place.
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

2. Relative movement of the footwall and  Step Faults

the Hanging Wall. - When a set of parallel normal
 In the case of inclined faults, if the faults occur at a regular interval,
hanging wall goes down with they give a step-like appearance
reference to the footwall, it is called and are called step faults.
normal fault or Gravity fault. These  Parallel Faults
terms are very appropriate because of - As the name indicates, these are a
the hanging wall is normally expected set of parallel normal faults with
to move down along the slope of the the same strike and dip.
fault plane under the influence of - They are like step faults but may
gravity. or may not have a regular interval.
6. Horst and Grabens
3. Types of Slip Involved  When normal faults with
 Slip has been already described as the mutually diverging or converging
displacement along the fault plane. If fault plane occurs, then a few
the displacement is along the strike wedge-shaped blocks called
direction of the fault plane, such a "horst" are displaced upwards
fault is described as strike slip fault. and a few other called "grabens"
On the other hand. If the are displaced downwards.
displacement occurs partly along the  Horst and Grabens of large
strike direction of the fault plane, magnitude are called block
such a fault is called an oblique slip mountain and rift valleys.
fault.
Effects of Faulting
4. Mode of Occurrence
 Radial Faults  The faulting phenomenon produces
- When a set of faults occur on the dislocation in lithology and
surface and appears to be radiating topography. Hence, they offer
from a common point, they are evidence to recognize faults in the
called radial faults. field. Proper geological investigation
 Enechelon Faults followed by geological mapping
- These refer to a series of minor enables one to detect the occurrence
faults which appear to be of faults in any area.
overlapping one another.  Slickness, fault drags, brecciation,
 Arculate or Peripheral Faults mineralization zones, repetition and
- These also refers to a set of omission of strata and offsets of beds
relatively minor faults which have are some of the lithological
curved outcrop and are arranged in evidences of Faulting.
a peripheral manner, enclosing a  Topographical evidence includes
circular area. various surface features like, offset
5. Miscellaneous ridges, parallel deflection of valley,
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

reversal of drainage, straight reverse  However, in joints the fracturing

courses, and a straight and steep blocks are not named as footwall or
coastal line. hanging wall.
Joints Classification of Joints
 are fractures found in all types of  Classification based on the relative
rocks. attitude of joints
They are cracks or openings formed - When the joints are parallel to the
due to various reasons. strike and dip of adjacent beds,
 Naturally, the presence of joints they are called Strike Joints or
divides the rock into number of parts Dip Joints, respectively.
or blocks. - If the strike direction of joints is
 In simple terms, through the joints parallel neither to the strike nor dip
may be described as mere cracks in direction of adjacent beds, then
rocks, they differ mutually. such joints are called Oblique
 Joints, like cleavages of minerals, Joints.
occur oriented in a definite direction - If the strike direction, dip direction
and as a set. and dip amount) coincides
completely with the attitude of
Effects of Joints
adjacent beds, they are called
 From the civil engineering point of bedding joints.
view, joints are important because  Classification based on the Origin
they split the rocks into a few pieces of Joints
which, in turn, reduce the - Most of the joints are formed due
competence of rock mass, increase to either tensional forces or
the porosity and permeability and shearing forces.
make them susceptible to quick - Accordingly, they are described as
decay and weathering. Tension or Shear Joint.
 Joints But a few advantages that
accompany joints are their
occurrence increases the ground
water potential in any place.
Parts of a Joint
 Joints like faults, refer to the fracture
in rocks. Hence, like faults, inclined
and vertical joints also can be
Unconformities
described by their attitude.
 are one of the common geological
structures found in rocks. It is
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

somewhat different from other parallel, then the unconformity is

structures like folds, faults and joints called "angular unconformity". In
in which the rock is distorted, such a case, beds of one set occur
deformed or dislocated at a particular with a greater tilt or folding.
place. Still, unconformity is a 3. Disconformities
product of diastrophism and involve  On the other hand, if the bed of the
tectonic activity in the form of younger and older set is mutually
upliftment and subsidence of land parallel and the contact plane of
mass. two sets is only an erosion surface,
 When sedimentary rocks are formed then the unconformity is called
continuously or regularly one after "disconformities" in this case, the
another without any major brake, lower set of beds have undergone
they are said to be conformable beds, denudation before the deposition
and this phenomenon is called of the overlying strata commenced
conformity. All the beds belonging to
conformable set shall possess the
same strike direction, dip direction 4. Paraconformity
and dip amount.  When the two sets of beds are
 On the other hand, if a major break parallel and the contact is a simple
occurs in sedimentation in between bedding plane, the unconformity is
two sets of conformable beds, it is called "paraconformity". In such
called an unconformity. cases, the unconformities are
inferred by features like sudden
Hiatus
change in fossil content or in
 An unconformity which represents a lithological nature.
long geological period during which
THE GEOLOGICAL MAP
break in sedimentation had occurred
Map
Types of an Unconformity
 is a picture or representation of the
1. Non-Conformity
Earth's surface, showing how things
 When the underlying older
are related to each other by distance,
formation are represented by
direction, and size.
igneous or metamorphic rocks and
 are a way of showing many things
the overlying younger formation
about a portion of the Earth's surface
are sedimentary rocks, the
on a flat piece of paper that can be
unconformity is called "non-
carried and transported easily.
conformity"
 is not a photograph of the Earth's
2. Angular Unconformity
surface
 When the younger bed and older
 It can show many things that a
set of strata are not mutually
picture can't show, and as a result, a
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

map looks different in many ways 1. Topographical Maps

from a photograph of the Earth's  show a 3-dimensional world in 2
surface dimensions, by using contour lines
(lines of equal elevation).
Geological Map
 refer to a graphical representation of
 is a special purpose map made to the three-dimensional configuration
show geological features. of the surface of the Earth,
 is a made of the different types of Moreover, such maps show the size,
rocks or structures that are on the shape, and distribution of landscape
surface of the Earth.
 are used to interpret the structure,
Stratigraphy, Mineralogy,
Paleontology, and the historical
record of the Earth's crust.

Brief history of geological mapping features.

 The map indicating the gold field in
Egypt on the 13th century, is the first
recorded attempt in providing 2. Structural mapping
graphical geological information.  is the identification and
 In the 16th century, D. Owen showed characterization of structural
the Carboniferous outcrop in the expression. Structures include faults,
form of narrow beds. folds, synclines and anticlines and
 First geological map is known to lineaments. Understanding structures
have been compiled M. Lister at end is the key to interpreting crustal
of the 17th century. movements that have shaped the
 The first stratigraphic layer by layer present terrain.
geological map is started appearing  A synoptic view of regional scale is a
at the beginning of the 18th century. much different perspective than point
 In India, the first geological map was ground observations when trying to
prepared by Dr. Henry Westly map structural elements. Remote
Voysey. sensing offers this perspective and
Apt. JD the 1825 and this Herbest allows a geologist to examine other
prepared the first geological map of reference ancillary data
the Himalayan in was published in
1842 for the area between the river
Sutlej and Kali.
Types of Geological Mapping
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

simultaneously and synergistically, Field Equipment

such as geo-magnetic Information.
Basic field equipment for geologic
3. Cross-sectional map (Block
mapping:
Diagrams)
 is not a map but sometimes it is also  GPS device
considered as a geological map,  Brunton Compass
because of showing data like a  Location map for toly mapping
geological map agendas
 it shows the cross-section from the  Map with transparent Mylar sheet
side and the changes along the line plant to it for plotting geologic data
shown on the map. locations
 small chisel
 permanent marker
 acid bottle
 tape measure with metric units
 rock hammer (small sledgehammer
in this case field)
 book and mechanical pencil
 handletown's loupe
Map scale
 it can be expressed as the ratio or
proportion between a distance on a
How Geological maps are prepared?
map and the actual distance on the
 The aim of geologic mapping is to land surface. This ratio is called the
create a map which summarizes the Representative Fraction (RF). A RF
geologic data gathered in the field of 100,000 indicates that I unit of
 Every place that an observation is measure on the map represents
made, a sample is gathered, or any 100,000 units on the land surface
type of data collection takes place, it (ie., I inch 100,000 inches, 1.58
is positioned on the map at the miles)
appropriate X-Y coordinates.
Large Scale vs. Small Scale
 The map can be small scale and
show much detail or be large scale Large scale
and generalized.
 large amount of detail; can only
 Different geologic mapping agencies
show small area
and authorities have different
standards for the colors and symbols Small scale
to be used for rocks of different types
and ages.
GLAN212: Geology for Civil Engineers

 small amount of detail; can show a

large area