GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY – a branch of geology that

deals with the shapes, arrangement, and
interrelationships of bedrock units and the forces
that causes them.

 Geologic structures are produced when rocks break

or bend due to the applied stresses within the earth.

 Due to these applied stresses, rocks/ rock

formations deform. FOLDED STRUCTURES
 Deformation of rocks are brought about by plate  are warps in rock layers and occur bended upwards,
tectonics processes and burial of sediments. downwards, or sideways--compressional forces are
the prime causes of folds.
 the movement of a large or small part of the crust
creates stress, a force that acts on a body and tends Kinds of Folds
to change its size and shape.
 ANTICLINE
 the adjustment of the rock unit to stress is called
strain. It is the change in the rock size (volume) or  is a series of up-arched strata with side
shape in response to stress. portions (limbs) dipping in opposite
directions away from the central portion of
STRIKE AND DIP fold split by a plane called the axial plane
and observed in the top (plan) view as the
 are attitudes in the rocks produced by geologic
fold axis--an eroded surface indicates the
forces and present after the rocks are folded (bent)
rocks become progressively younger away
or faulted (cracked and moved along the crack)
from the fold axis
Strike

 is an imaginary line with compass direction

constructed on the surface of a sedimentary bed or
fault in which all points on that line are of equal
elevation--the compass direction is usually
expressed as a bearing

Dip

 is an imaginary line constructed down-slope on a

sedimentary bed or fault--the dip direction is
perpendicular to the strike direction and usually  SYNCLINE
expressed in bearing and an angle of tilt (dip)
 is a series of down-arched strata with limbs
measured from the horizontal plane to the top of a
dipping inwards in opposite directions
bed or fault--a dip angle may not exceed 90 degrees
towards the fold axis--an eroded surface
indicates the rocks become progressively
older away from the fold axis
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FOLDING AND FAULTING  is a bend in the strata resulting in a local
steepening in dip of the strata which is
almost flat lying on both sides away from
the bend-- there is only one direction of dip
in the monocline

 Because different rocks behave differently under

stress, we expect that some rocks when subjected to
the same stress will fracture or fault, while others Specific types of anticlines and synclines
will fold.
 1. Symmetrical fold--is a fold with the sides showing
 When such contrasting rocks occur in the same a mirror image with respect to the axial plane
area, such as ductile rocks overlying brittle rocks, the
brittle rocks may fault and the ductile rocks may  2. Asymmetrical fold--a fold without a mirror image
bend or fold over the fault in respect to the axial plane

 Also since even ductile rocks can eventually fracture  3. Overturned fold--a fold in which the axial plane is
under high stress, rocks may fold up to a certain tilted and beds may dip in same direction on both
point then fracture to form a fault. sides of the axial plane

 DOMES  4. Recumbent fold--a fold with the axial plane

horizontal
 is an up-arched series of strata with beds on
all sides dipping away from the center  5. Non-plunging and plunging folds
throughout 360 degrees--an eroded surface
indicates the rocks become progressively Non-plunging and plunging folds
younger away from the center of the
 plunging is the tilting of the fold towards the front or
structure
back end--most anticlines and synclines have some
 BASIN degree of plunge

 is a down-arched series of strata with beds  in non-plunging folds contact lines separating
on all sides dipping in towards the center formations shown in the surface view are parallel
throughout 360 degrees--an eroded surface and straight---the contact lines in one of the two
indicates the rocks become progressively profile views are horizontal and parallel---the
older away from the center of the structure contacts in the other profile view are arched up or
down--in plunging folds contact lines in the surface
view are curved---contact lines in one of the profile
views dip in the direction of plunge---contact lines in
the other profile view are arched up or down--the
surface contact lines between formations are
convexed (closed) in the direction of plunge for the
anticline and concave (open) in the direction of
plunge for the syncline

 MONOCLINES
SYMMETRICAL, ASYMMETRICAL AND OVERTURNED FOLDS hanging over a lower portion before movement is
called the hanging wall and that on the bottom, the
footwall

THE HANGING WALL AND FOOTWALL CONCEPT

OVERTURNED FOLDS

RECUMBENT FOLDS
TYPES OF VERTICAL/DIP - SLIP FAULTS

 NORMAL FAULTS - hanging wall moves down in

respect to footwall

 REVERSE FAULT--hanging wall moves up in respect

to footwall--a low angled reverse fault is called a
thrust fault

 Thrust fault - a low angle reverse fault

NORMAL FAULTS
FAULTS  In normal faulting, the largest (most compressive)
stress is vertical. The smallest and intermediate
 A fault is a structure with major displacement of
stresses are horizontal. The shear fracture (fault)
rock material along a crack in a rock
makes an angle of less than 45 degrees with the
Types of faults major (most compressive) principal stress direction,
in this case the vertical. If the average stress is
 The types of faults are based on relative movement subtracted from all the principal stresses, the crust is
along the cracked rock and include horizontal, in relative tension
vertical, or a combination of movements
REVERSE FAULT
Vertical or dip slip fault
 In reverse faulting, the smallest (least compressive)
 is that type with movement along the dip of the stress is vertical. The largest and intermediate
fault--the concepts of hanging wall and footwall are stresses are horizontal. The shear fracture (fault)
important in defining the different types of vertical makes an angle of less than 45 degrees with the
faults major (most compressive) principal stress direction,
in this case the horizontal. If the average stress is
 if the angle of dip is not 90 degrees the side of the subtracted from all the principal stresses, the crust is
fault with the portion of land which appears to be in relative compression.
HORIZONTAL OR STRIKE – SLIP FAULTS JOINTS

 Movement along strike-slip faults is horizontal.  fractures in the rocks in which there is no
appreciable displacement along the crack--often
 is that type with horizontal movement along the joints occur in 2 sets of cracks intersecting between
cracked rock--movement can be left lateral or right 45-90 degrees dividing the rocks into rectangular
lateral--best example of right lateral strike slip fault blocks
is the San Andreas fault in California--looking down
the fault line in the front plan view, the right side of Causes of joints
the fault appears to have moved towards you if a
right lateral fault or left side moves towards you if a 1. Unloading or sheeting effects
left lateral fault
2. Stresses in a cooling magma
STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS
 can cause columnar jointing in which there
are 6-sided fractures comprising the jointing
pattern. (eg. Devil’s Tower, Wyoming)

HORIZONTAL OR STRIKE – SLIP FAULTS

UNCONFORMITIES
 In strike-slip faulting, the intermediate stress is
vertical. The largest and smallest stresses are  is a surface of non-deposition or erosion which
horizontal. The shear fracture (fault) makes an angle represents a break in the rock record--is a structure
of less than 45 degrees with the major (most comprised of a sequence of geologic events in which
compressive) principal stress direction, in this case there is often a significant portion of the geologic
again the horizontal. There is no vertical movement. history lost through massive erosion--
unconformities are used to help separate geologic
 In strike-slip faulting, the two blocks move either to time divisions
the left (sinistral ) or to the right (dextral) relative to
one another. Strike-slip faults are associated with Kinds of unconformities
crustal shear and are also known as wrench faults.
1. Disconformity
HORST AND GRABEN a series of sedimentary rocks form, next a non-
 a wedge of land which moves up (horst) or down deposition or massive erosion event occurs, then a series of
(graben) between 2 normal faults--best example is more sedimentary rocks are deposited
the Rhine River graben in Europe
STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF A DISCONFORMITY

 Deposit a series of conformable beds. Following the

Law of SUPERPOSITION OF STRATA the layer on the
bottom was deposited first and the sequence was
deposited from the bottom up. Each different
pattern represents a different kind of sedimentary
Oblique fault rock -- except for the fact that the rocks were
deposited underwater, we don't need to bother
 is a fault which has a major dip slip and strike slip with the rock names for this exercise.
component
 bottom was deposited first and the sequence was
deposited from the bottom up. Each different
pattern represents a different kind of sedimentary
rock -- except for the fact that the rocks were
 In this figure the beds are uplifted. Erosion occurs at deposited underwater, we don't need to bother
the top of the picture. Material is removed from the with the rock names for this exercise.
top down and carried away from the picture area.
Uplift keeps lifting the pile into the erosion zone.
Count the beds in picture #2 and compare with
picture #1. Note that several of the younger beds
have been lost.  In this step deposition stops and the beds are tilted
and faulted. The picture shown in the sketch doesn't
 The erosion surface is shown in dark brown, In let me tell whether the faulting occurred before the
picture #2 this surface is irregular and shows hills tilting or vice versa.
and stream valleys in cross section. Such irregularity
is common but there are cases where erosion has
produced a flat surface. Soil often develops below
the erosion surface and some features of the soil
may be preserved in the rock record -- leaving clues
by which geologists can recognize old erosion
surfaces.
 In this step the faulted, tilted beds are uplifted.
Erosion occurs at the top of the picture. Material is
removed from the top down and carried away from
the picture area. Uplift keeps lifting the pile into the
erosion zone at the earth's surface.
 In the figure, deposition resumes. Maybe the water  The erosion surface is shown in dark brown, In
rose or maybe the land dropped -- you can't tell picture #3 this surface is irregular and shows hills
which from what is shown in these pictures. New and stream valleys in cross section. Such irregularity
sediments shown in red at the top of the picture is common but there are cases where erosion has
bury the old erosion surface and the strata below it. produced a flat surface. Soil often develops below
The valleys are filled first and may contain clasts (the the erosion surface and some features of the soil
red spots) of the older rocks. Soon even the hills are may be preserved in the rock record -- leaving clues
under water and the deposits are flatlying. by which geologists can recognize old erosion
 The Disconformity shows physical signs that uplift surfaces.
and erosion has occurred but bedding is parallel on  The presence of erosion strongly implies that uplift
both sides of the contact. occurred.
2. Angular unconformity

- a series of sedimentary rocks form, next rocks are

folded or tilted, next a non-deposition or massive erosion
occurs, then a series of more sedimentary rocks form.

STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF AN ANGULAR  In the figure, deposition resumes. Maybe the water
UNCONFORMITY rose or maybe the land dropped -- you can't tell
which from what is shown in these pictures. New
sediments shown in red at the top of the picture
bury the old erosion surface and the strata below it.
The valleys are filled first and may contain clasts (the
red spots) of the older rocks. Soon even the hills are
 Deposit a series of conformable beds. Following the under water and the deposits are flatlying.
Law of SUPERPOSITION OF STRATA the layer on the
ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY  Oceanic crust is made of relatively dense rock called
basalt. Continental crust is made of lower density
Nonconformity rocks, such as andesite and granite.
 igneous or metamorphic rock form, next a non-
deposition or massive erosion event occurs, then a
series of sedimentary rocks form The outermost layers of the Earth can be divided by their
physical properties into lithosphere and asthenosphere.

 The lithosphere (from the Greek, lithos, stone) is the

Importance of geologic structures rigid outermost layer made of crust and uppermost
mantle. The lithosphere is the "plate" of the plate
 Oil and natural gas are formed and found trapped in tectonic theory.
subsurface folds
 The asthenosphere (from the Greek, asthenos,
 Faults, joints, and fractures can act as a passageway devoid of force) is part of the mantle that flows, a
for groundwater and a host for valuable mineral characteristic called plastic behavior.
deposits as ores of gold, silver, copper etc.
 The flow of the asthenosphere is part of mantle
 Unconformities can be used to mark geologic time convection, which plays an important role in moving
boundaries for eras, periods, and epochs lithospheric plates.
____________________________________________ CONTINENTAL DRIFT
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR  Continental drift was originally proposed by Alfred
Wegener, a German meteorologist, in 1912.
Layers of the Earth
 Wegener used the fit of the continents, the
The Earth is divided into three chemical layers: the core, distribution of fossils, a similar sequence of rocks at
the mantle and the crust. The core is composed of mostly numerous locations, ancient climates, and the
iron and nickel and remains very hot, even after 4.5 billion apparent wandering of the Earth's polar regions to
years of cooling. support his idea. He used his observations to
 The core is divided into two layers: a solid inner core hypothesize that all of the present-day continents
and a liquid outer core. were once part of a single supercontinent called
Pangaea.
 The middle layer of the Earth, the mantle, is made of
minerals rich in the elements iron, magnesium, CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND FOSSIL CORRELATIONS
silicon, and oxygen.  Fossils of the same species were found on several
 The crust is rich in the elements oxygen and silicon different continents.
with lesser amounts of aluminum, iron, magnesium,  Wegener proposed that the species dispersed when
calcium, potassium, and sodium. the continents were connected and later carried to
 There are two types of crust. Basalt is the most their present positions as the continents drifted.
common rock on Earth.  For example, Glossopteris, a fern, was found on the
continents of South America, Africa, India, and
Australia. If the continents are reassembled into
Pangaea, the distribution of Glossopteris can be
 accounted for over a much smaller contiguous specific times in the geologic past. He found that,
geographic area. unlike the present distribution, in which zones
parallel the equator, the past zones occupied very
 The distribution of other species can also be different positions.
accounted for by initially spreading across Pangaea,
followed by the breakup of the supercontinent, and  This implies that the rotational pole was in very
movement of the continents to their present different locations relative to today.
positions.
 Wegener proposed an alternative interpretation. He
CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND GLACIATION believed that the climate zones remained stationary
and the continents drifted to different locations. The
 Glaciation in South America, Africa, India, and drift of the continents caused the apparent
Australia is best explained if these continents were movement of the climate zones.
once connected. Glaciers covered all or part of each
of these continents during the same time period in  Wegener used the distribution of climate zones to
the geologic past. determine the location of the poles at different
times in the geologic past.
 If the continents were in their present position, a
major glaciation event that covered nearly all of the  He found that the rotational pole appears to
continents and extended north of the equator would gradually change location, arriving at its present
be required. position only in the very recent geologic past. The
apparent movement in the pole position over time is
 Geologists have found no evidence of glacial action called polar wandering.
in the northern hemisphere during this time period.
In fact, during this time period, the climate in North  Wegener offered an alternative explanation. He
America was warm. suggested that the poles remained stationary and
that the continents changed their positions relative
 Wegener proposed that the continents were to the poles.
adjacent to each other during the glacial event.
Therefore, glaciers spread over a much smaller area Problems with Wegener's Model of Continental Drift
in the southern hemisphere and probably did not
influence the climate of the northern hemisphere.  Wegener's model was not accepted by all geologists.
Some thought that dispersion by winds or ocean
 Wegener used the distribution of specific rock types currents could explain the distribution of fossil
to determine the distribution of climate zones in the species. Other geologists thought the poles might
geologic past. For example, glacial till and striations wander and continents remain stationary.
(scratches on the rock), sand dunes, and coral reefs,
indicate polar, desert, and tropical climates,
respectively.

 The greatest shortcoming, was the lack of an

adequate mechanism for moving the continents.
Wegener proposed that the Earth's spin caused the
continents to move, plowing through the oceanic
plate and producing mountains on their leading
edges.

 Geologists at that time understood enough about

 Using the distribution of rock types, Wegener the strength of rocks to know that this was highly
reconstructed the distribution of climates zones at unlikely.
  Wegener's work was largely unaccepted in the Sea-Floor Spreading
northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere,
where geologists were familiar with the rocks that  In 1962, a geologist presented an explanation for
Wegener used to support his hypothesis, the global rift system.
continental drift was generally accepted.
 Harry Hess proposed that new ocean floor is formed
at the rift of mid-ocean ridges. The ocean floor, and
the rock beneath it, are produced by magma that
rises from deeper levels.

 Hess suggested that the ocean floor moved laterally

away from the ridge and plunged into an oceanic
trench along the continental margin.
 A mechanism to move continents was proposed by
Arthur Holmes, Scottish geologist in 1928. He  A trench is a steep-walled valley on the sea floor
believed heat trapped in the Earth caused adjacent to a continental margin. As an example,
convection currents, areas where fluids beneath the ocean crust formed at the East Pacific Rise, an
Earth's crust rise, flow laterally, and then fall. oceanic ridge in the east Pacific, plunges into the
trench adjacent to the Andes Mountains on the west
 The currents would rise beneath continents, spread
side of the South American continent. In Hess'
laterally, then plunge beneath the oceans.
model, convection currents push the ocean floor
(Geologists now know that solid rock, not fluids,
from the mid-ocean ridge to the trench. The
convect in the mantle).
convection currents might also help move the
 Wegener died in 1930 while exploring the Greenland continents, much like a conveyor belt.
ice cap. He never had the opportunity to adapt
 As Hess formulated his hypothesis, Robert Dietz
Holmes' ideas to his views of continental drift.
independently proposed a similar model and called
The Revival of the Continental Drift Hypothesis it sea floor spreading. Dietz's model had a significant
addition. It assumed the sliding surface was at the
 During the 1940s and 1950s, great advances were base of the lithosphere, not at the base of the crust.
made in our knowledge of the sea floor and in the
magnetic properties of rocks. Both of these fields of  Hess and Dietz succeeded where Wegener had
study provided new evidence to support continental failed. Continents are no longer thought to plow
drift. through oceanic crust but are considered to be part
of plates that move on the soft, plastic
 Geologists have known for over a century that a asthenosphere.
ridge exists in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. The
Mid-Atlantic Ridge is 6,500 feet (2,000 m) above the  A driving force, convection currents, moved the
adjacent sea floor, which is at a depth of about plates.
20,000 feet (6,000 m) below sea level.
 Technological advances and detailed studies of the
 In the 1950s, a seismologist, a scientist who ocean floor, both unavailable during Wegener's
specializes in the study of earthquakes, showed that time, allowed Hess and Dietz to generate the new
the global system of mid-ocean ridges was also an hypotheses.
active seismic belt, or zone of earthquakes.
Subduction
 An international group of geologists proposed that
 If new oceanic lithosphere is created at mid-ocean
the seismic belt corresponded to a trough, or rift,
ridges, where does it go?
system similar to the trough known at the crest of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The rifts are about 20 miles  Geologists had the answer to this question before
(30 km) wide and 6,500 feet (2,000 m) deep. In all, Vine and Matthews presented their hypothesis.
the oceanic ridges and their rifts extend for more
than 37,500 miles (60,000 km) in all the world's  In 1935, K. Wadati, a Japanese seismologist, showed
oceans. that earthquakes occurred at greater depths
towards the interior of the Asian continent.
Earthquakes beneath the Pacific Ocean occurred at
 shallow depths. Earthquakes beneath Siberia and Asia, are at shallow, intermediate (20-45 miles; 30-
China occurred at greater depths. After World War 70 km), and deep (45-450 miles; 70-700 km) levels.
II, H. Benioff observed the same distribution of
earthquakes but could not offer a plausible  Volcanoes are also distributed in long belts that
explanation. circle the Earth. A dramatic example is the line of
volcanoes that circles most of the Pacific Ocean. This
 The movement of oceanic lithosphere away from belt is known as the "Ring of Fire" because it is the
mid-ocean ridges provides an explanation. site of frequent volcanic eruptions.

 Convection cells in the mantle help carry the  The distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes
lithosphere away from the ridge. The lithosphere coincides at most locations. The Ring of Fire is an
arrives at the edge of a continent, where it is excellent example.
subducted or sinks into the asthenosphere.
 Geologists believe that areas of intense geologic
 Thus, oceanic lithosphere is created at mid-ocean activity, indicated by earthquakes, volcanoes, and/or
ridges and consumed at subduction zones, areas mountain building, mark the boundaries between
where the lithosphere sinks into the asthenosphere. lithospheric plates.

 Earthquakes are generated in the rigid plate as it is  The distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, and
subducted into the mantle. The dip of the plate mountain ranges define 7 large plates and 20
under the continent accounts for the distribution of smaller plates. The Nazca and Juan de Fuca Plates
the earthquakes. Magma generated along the top of consist of only oceanic lithosphere. The Pacific Plate
the sinking slab rises to the surface to form is mostly oceanic lithosphere only a small slice of
stratovolcanoes. continental lithosphere in southern California and
Baja Mexico. Most of the other plates consist of
PLATE TECTONICS both oceanic and continental lithosphere.
 The new hypotheses of the early 1960s explained Types of Plate Motion
several puzzling sets of observations. All that
remained was a synthesis of these hypotheses.  The ways that plates interact depend on their
relative motion and whether oceanic or continental
 The synthesis began in 1965 when Tuzo Wilson crust is at the edge of the lithospheric plate. Plates
introduced the term plate for the broken pieces of move away from, toward, or slide past each other.
the Earth's lithosphere. Geologists call these divergent, convergent, and
transform plate boundaries.
 In 1967, Jason Morgan proposed that the Earth's
surface consists of 12 rigid plates that move relative
to each other. Two months later, Xavier Le Pichon
published a synthesis showing the location and type
of plate boundaries and their direction of
movement.

 Since the mid-1960s, the plate tectonic model has

been rigorously tested. Because the model has been
successfully tested by numerous methods, it is now
called the plate tectonic theory and is accepted by  At a divergent plate boundary lithospheric plates
almost all geologists. move away from each other. The mid-Atlantic Ridge,
a topographically high area near the middle of the
 Earthquakes and volcanoes, evidence of unrest in Atlantic Ocean, is an example of a divergent plate
the Earth, help locate the edges of plates. boundary.
Earthquakes are distributed in narrow, linear belts
that circle the Earth.

 Some of these belts have only shallow (0-20 miles;

0-35 km) earthquakes, like the mid-Atlantic and east
Pacific ridges. In contrast, earthquakes in other
belts, like western South America and south-central
 towering Andes mountains, the backbone of the
continent.

 Oceanic-continental convergence also sustains many

of the Earth's active volcanoes, such as those in the
Andes and the Cascade Range in the Pacific
Northwest.

 The eruptive activity is clearly associated with

 At a convergent plate boundary, lithospheric plates
subduction, but scientists vigorously debate the
move toward each other. The west margin of the
possible sources of magma: Is magma generated by
South American continent, where the oceanic Nazca
the partial melting of the subducted oceanic slab, or
Plate is pushed toward and beneath the continental
the overlying continental lithosphere, or both?
portion of the South American Plate, is an example
of a convergent plate boundary. Oceanic-oceanic convergence

 Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate

convergence also result in the formation of
volcanoes.

 Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic

debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine
volcano rises above sea level to form an island
volcano.

 At a transform plate boundary, plates slide past each  Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains
other. The San Andreas fault in California is an called island arcs. As the name implies, volcanic
example of a transform plate boundary, where the island arcs, which closely parallel the trenches, are
Pacific Plate slides past the North American Plate. generally curved.

DIVERGINGBOUNDARIES  The trenches are the key to understanding how

island arcs such as the Marianas and the Aleutian
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge splitting Iceland and separating the Islands have formed and why they experience
North American and Eurasian Plates. The map also shows numerous strong earthquakes.
Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, the Thingvellir area, and
the locations of some of Iceland's active volcanoes (red  Magmas that form island arcs are produced by the
triangles), including Krafla. partial melting of the descending plate and/or the
overlying oceanic lithosphere. The descending plate
 Perhaps the best known of the divergent boundaries also provides a source of stress as the two plates
is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This submerged mountain interact, leading to frequent moderate to strong
range, which extends from the Arctic Ocean to earthquakes.
beyond the southern tip of Africa, is but one
segment of the global mid-ocean ridge system that Continental-continental convergence
encircles the Earth. The rate of spreading along the
 The Himalayan mountain range dramatically
Mid-Atlantic Ridge averages about 2.5 centimeters
demonstrates one of the most visible and
per year (cm/yr), or 25 km in a million years.
spectacular consequences of plate tectonics. When
CONVERGING BOUNDARIES two continents meet head-on, neither is subducted
because the continental rocks are relatively light
 Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean floor and, like two colliding icebergs, resist downward
and are created by subduction. motion. Instead, the crust tends to buckle and be
pushed upward or sideways.
 Off the coast of South America along the Peru-Chile
trench, the oceanic Nazca Plate is pushing into and  The collision of India into Asia 50 million years ago
being subducted under the continental part of the caused the Eurasian Plate to crumple up and
South American Plate. In turn, the overriding South override the Indian Plate. After the collision, the
American Plate is being lifted up, creating the slow continuous convergence of the two plates over
 millions of years pushed up the Himalayas and the
Tibetan Plateau to their present heights. Most of
this growth occurred during the past 10 million
years.

 The Himalayas, towering as high as 8,854 m above

sea level, form the highest continental mountains in
the world. Moreover, the neighboring Tibetan
Plateau, at an average elevation of about 4,600 m, is
higher than all the peaks in the Alps except for Mont
Blanc and Monte Rosa, and is well above the
summits of most mountains in the United States.

Transform boundaries

 The zone between two plates sliding horizontally

past one another is called a transform-fault
boundary, or simply a transform boundary. The
concept of transform faults originated with
Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson, who proposed
that these large faults or fracture zones connect two
spreading centers (divergent plate boundaries) or,
less commonly, trenches (convergent plate
boundaries). Most transform faults are found on the
ocean floor.

 They commonly offset the active spreading ridges,

producing zig-zag plate margins, and are generally
defined by shallow earthquakes. However, a few
occur on land, for example the San Andreas fault
zone in California. This transform fault connects the
East Pacific Rise, a divergent boundary to the south,
with the South Gorda -- Juan de Fuca -- Explorer
Ridge, another divergent boundary to the north.