ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | LABORATORY

NERVOUS SYSTEM MOTOR/EFFERENT DIVISION

o carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs,
the muscles and glands.
(1) ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
o Somatic Nervous System: allows us to
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
consciously/voluntarily control our skeletal
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) muscles.
o Consist of brain and spinal cord o Autonomic Nervous System: regulates events
o integrating and command centers of the that are automatic/involuntary (activity of
nervous system smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands)
o interpret and formulate the response. ▪ SYMPATHETIC – fight or flight
response (ex: urge to fight dogs)
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ▪ PARASYMPATHETIC – rest and digest
o includes all parts of the nervous system outside response (ex: hindi na makagalaw
the CNS (nerves) sa pwesto)
o connects the impulse
o pathway (2) NERVOUS TISSUE
o Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the
SUPPORTING CELLS
spinal cord.
o Cranial nerves carry impulses to and from the ASTROCYTES - CNS
o star-shaped cells that help protect the neurons
brain.
from harmful substances that might be in the
blood.
o also control the chemical environment in the brain.
o Protection and balance the different chemical.

MICROGLIA - CNS
o spider-like phagocytes that monitor the health of
nearby neurons and dispose of debris, such as
dead brain cells and bacteria.
o Defense mechanism

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION

SENSORY/AFFERENT DIVISION
o consists of nerves that convey impulses to the
central nervous system from sensory receptors
located in various parts of the body.
o Somatic sensory fibers: delivers impulses from the
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints.
o Visceral sensory fibers: from the visceral organs.
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EPENDYMAL - CNS o Has nucleus containing a large nucleolus,
o neuroglia that lines the central cavities of the brain
cytoplasm, the usual cell organelles (except
and the spinal cord.
centrioles), rough ER/Nissl bodies, and neurofibrils.
o helps circulate the cerebrospinal fluid and forms a
o Forms different information.
protective watery cushion. o Where nucleus, organelles, cytoplasm. Etc. were
o Secretes and protects the brain and spinal cord.
found.
o Interprets signals

PROCESSES
o The Arm-like fibers that vary in length from
microscopic to about 7 feet in the tallest humans.
▪ DENDRITES: convey incoming messages
(electrical signals) toward the cell body.
• Receives signals
▪ AXONS: generate nerve impulses and
OLIGODENDROCYTES - CNS typically conduct them away from the cell
o Neuroglia that wraps their flat extensions
body.
(processes) tightly around the nerve fibers,
• highway
producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin
▪ AXON HILLOCK: cone-like region where axon
sheaths.
arises.
o not able to transmit nerve impulses and never lose
▪ AXON TERMINAL: gives off response.
their ability to divide.
• Contains hundreds of tiny vesicles or
o form most brain tumors.
membranous sacs.
▪ An occasional axon gives off a collateral
branch along its length, but all axons branch
profusely at their terminal end, forming
hundreds to thousands of axon terminals.
▪ NEUROTRANSMITTERS: chemicals contained
in the tiny vesicles of axon terminals.
• Signals that triggers/sent by nervous
cells.
▪ SYNAPTIC CLEFT: tiny gap of each axon
terminal. ; spaces between synapses
SCHWANN CELLS AND SATELLITE CELLS - PNS
o SCHWANN CELLS – form the myelin sheaths around ▪ SYNAPSE: site/junction where an impulse is

nerve fibers in the PNS. transmitted from one neuron to another.

▪ can share neurons only to 1:1. ▪ Although they are close, neurons never

o SATELLITE CELLS – act as protective, cushioning cells actually touch other neurons.

for peripheral neuron cell bodies.

NEURONS (ANATOMY)

CELL BODY / SOMA

o The metabolic center of the neuron.
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MYELIN SHEATHS CLUSTERS OF NEURON CELL BODIES:
o Protection; protects the axons.
o MYELIN: whitish, fatty, has a waxy appearance ➢ GANGLION – a group of neurons outside the CNS.

material covering of most long nerve fibers, which ➢ NUCLEUS – A group of neurons within the CNS.

protects and insulates the fibers and increases the

BUNDLE OF NERVE FIBERS:
transmission rate of nerve impulses.
o Axons outside the CNS are myelinated by ➢ NERVE – A group of nerve fibers (axons) outside the CNS.

Schwann cells, and many of these cells wrap ➢ NUCLEUS – A group of nerve fibers (axons) within the

themselves around the axon in a jelly-roll fashion CNS.

o NEURILEMMA: outermost nucleated cytoplasmic

GRAY MATTER VS. WHITE MATTER
layer of Schwann cells that plays an important role
in fiber regeneration GRAY MATTER WHITE MATTER
40% of the brain 60% of the brain
o NODES OF RANVIER: gaps between the myelin Made up of bundles which
Contains most of the brain’s
insulation of Schwann cells which insulates the axon of connect various gray matter
neuronal cell bodies.
areas.
a neuron, and allows the generation of a fast electrical Allows communication, to
impulse. and from grey matter areas
Serves to process and between the grey
o In the PNS, it takes many Schwann cells to make a information matter areas and bet. The
single myelin sheath; but in the CNS, the gray matter and the other
parts of the body.
oligodendrocytes (form CNS myelin sheaths) with their Develops throughout the
Full develops once a person
many flat extensions can coil around as many as 60 20’s and peaks in middle
reaches his/her 20’s.
age.
different fibers at the same time but lack neurilemma Contains unmyelinated Consists of myelinated fibers
(Neurilemma – outermost nucleated cytoplasmic fibers and cell body (tracts)

layer of Schwann cells).

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS

MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS - gradually destroys the myelin

sheaths around CNS fibers by converting them to
hardened sheaths called scleroses.
o As this happens, the electrical current is short-
circuited and may “jump” to another
demyelinated neuron. In other words, nerve
signals do not always reach the intended
target. The affected person may have visual
and speech disturbances, lose the ability to
control his or her muscles, and become
increasingly disabled.
PROCESS:
o an autoimmune disease in which the
person’s own immune system attacks a - Sensory neurons detect stimuli from the external or internal
protein component of the sheath. environment.
o Damaged myelin sheaths; can be - Sensory neurons transmit signals through afferent nerves to
voluntarily/involuntarily. the spinal cord or directly to the brain.
- Once the signals reach the brain, the information is being
processed.
- The information will then pass through the motor neuron or
efferent nerves.
- The motor neurons will carry the information to the muscles
and glands, enabling the execution of responses and
actions.

TYPES OF SENSORY RECEPTORS:

• FREE NERVE ENDINGS – pain and temperature receptors.

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• MEISSNER’S CORPUSCLE – touch receptor PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE IMPULSES
• LAMELLAR CORPUSCLE – deep pressure receptor ACTION POTENTIAL INITIATION AND GENERATION
• GOLGI TENDON ORGAN – proprioceptor
- Happens from nerve to nerve.
• MUSCLE SPINDLE – proprioceptor
(1) RESTING MEMBRANE IS POLARIZED
- In the resting state, the external face of the membrane
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS:
is slightly positive; its internal face is slightly negative.
- Based on the number of processes, including both
- The chief extracellular ion is sodium (Na+), whereas the
dendrites and axons, extending from the cell body.
chief intracellular ion is potassium (K+).
- The membrane is relatively impermeable to both ions.
• MULTIPOLAR NEURON
- -70 milivolts
o With several number of processes
o Consists of all motor and association neurons

(2) STIMULUS INITIATES LOCAL DEPOLARIZATION

- A stimulus changes the permeability of a local "patch"
• BIPOLAR NEURON
o With neurons with two processes— 1 axon & 1 of the membrane, and sodium ions diffuse rapidly into

dendrite. the cell.

o rare in adults, found only in some special sense - This changes the polarity of the membrane (the inside

organs where they act in sensory processing as becomes more positive; the outside becomes more

receptor cells. negative) at that site.

- Depolarization - inward rush of sodium ions changes
the polarity of the neuron’s membrane at that site,

• UNIPOLAR NEURON
o has a single process emerging from the cell body.
o the process is very short and divides almost (3) DEPOLARIZATION AND GENERATION OF AN ACTION
immediately into proximal (central)/axon and distal POTENTIAL
- If the stimulus is strong enough, depolarization causes
(peripheral) processes/dendrites.
membrane polarity to be completely reversed, and an
o the axon actually conducts nerve impulses both
action potential is initiated.
toward and away from the cell body.
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(4) PROPAGATION OF THE ACTION POTENTIAL 4. Since it is open, sodium will continue to enter, causing ito
- Depolarization of the first membrane patch causes
move in the other portion. (magiging over positively
permeability changes in the adjacent membrane,
charged)
and the events described in step 2 are repeated. Thus,
5. Since it is over positively charged, it will increase the volts
the action potential propagates rapidly along the within that terminal. From -70 it will increase to -50 millivolts.
entire length of the membrane.
6. Once it increases to -50 millivolts, the sodium voltage
channel will open.
7. It will give way for more Sodium to come in.
8. Then, it will move again to another portion hanggang sa
dulo. (-50 millivolts per portion tsaka mag bubukas yung
voltage channel allowing more sodium to come in).
(5) REPOLARIZATION 9. Kapag sobrang dami na ng Sodium yung nakapasok,
- Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as the membrane
mag-iincrease uli yung charge ng axon into 30 millivolts,
permeability changes again, restoring the negative
that causes the closure of Na channel.
charge on the inside of the membrane and the
10. Simultaneously, it will cause the opening of the Potassium
positive charge on the outside surface.
voltage channel, then lalabas na yung mga potassium na
- Repolarization occurs in the same direction as
nasa loob.
depolarization.
11. Kapag marami namang nakalabas na potassium, the
- Repolarization - outflow of positive ions from the cell
charge will drop to -90 milivolts.
restores the electrical conditions at the membrane to
the polarized, or resting, state.

(6) INITIAL IONIC CONDITIONS RESTORED

- The ionic conditions of the resting state are restored
later by the activity of the sodium-potassium pump.
- Three sodium ions are ejected for every two potassium
TRANSMISSION OF SIGNAL AT THE SYNAPSES
ions carried back into the cell.
1. Action Potential Arrives
2. Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane.
3. Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft.
4. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s
membrane.
5. Once it is bind, the ion channel opens.
6. Ion channel closes.

ACTION-POTENTIAL PROCESS:

1. Neurons have a resting membrane potential, typically

around -70 millivolts, maintained by ion pumps and
channels. (neurotransmitter – glutamate)
2. Glutamate will bind with glutamate receptor, causing it to
open.
3. Once it is open, the Sodium will enter inside, and the
portion will be converted into positively charged.
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o IPSILATERAL - Reflex arcs that involve sensory
receptors, sensory nerve fibers, motor
neurons, and effectors all on the same side
of the body.
o CONTRALATERAL REFLEX ARCS - involve
sensory receptors and neurons on one side of
the body and motor neurons and effectors
on the opposite side.
o BILATERAL (CONSENSUAL) REFLEXES - involve
both sides of the body simultaneously.
- SPINAL REFLEXES – reflexes mediated by spinal nerves.
- CRANIAL REFLEXES - reflexes mediated by cranial
nerves.
- SOMATIC REFLEXES - include all reflexes that stimulate
the skeletal muscles.
o these are still involuntary reflexes even
though skeletal muscle normally is under
voluntary control.
o When you quickly pull your hand away from
a hot object, a somatic reflex is working.
- AUTONOMIC REFLEXES - regulate the activity of
smooth muscles, the heart, and glands. Secretion of
saliva (salivary reflex) and changes in the size of the
eye pupils (pupillary reflex) are two such reflexes.
o regulate such body functions as digestion,
elimination, blood pressure, and sweating.

5 BASIC ELEMENTS OF REFLEX ARC:

➢ RECEPTOR - reacts to the stimulus by transducing

environmental signals into a cellular response that directly
or indirectly produces action potential along a sensory
neuron.
➢ SENSORY NEURON/ CNS AFFERENT - carry action potentials,
resulting from receptor activation to the Central Nervous
System.
o They enter the spinal cord through the dorsal roots,
or enter the brain via cranial nerves.
➢ INTEGRATION CENTER - is the synapse in the CNS where
REFLEXES
information is processed.
o located within the gray matter of the central
REFLEXES
nervous system (CNS), and transfers information
- Are rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to
from the sensory neuron to the motor neuron.
stimuli.
o Most reflex arc is polysynaptic, meaning one or
- REFLEXES ARC – neural pathways which are involved in
more interneurons connect afferent and efferent
both CNS and PNS structures.
signals.
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o It causes the stimulation of sensory, association, o In adults, plantar flexion and flexed (curled) toes
and motor neurons. Monosynaptic reflex does not occur when the plantar surface of the foot is
have interneurons, but rather just a single synapse stroked.
between a sensory and motor neuron. o A reaction of dorsiflexion with extended flared
➢ MOTOR NEURON/ CNS EFFERENT - carries action potentials toes (Babinski’s sign) is seen in infants because all
from the CNS toward the synapse with the target the nerve fibers are not myelinated.
(effector) organ. o Babinski’s sign is abnormal in adults; possibly
o They leave the spinal cord through the ventral roots, indicating upper motor neuron lesions such as
and leave the brain via cranial nerves. corticospinal tract damage, multiple sclerosis, or
➢ EFFECTOR - causes the reflex response. This can be a amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's
muscle or gland stimulated. disease).
➢ BICEPS REFLEX - is the contraction of the biceps brachii
DIFFERENT KINDS OF REFLEXES:
muscle that occurs when the biceps tendon is
➢ PATELLAR REFLEX (KNEE-JERK) - It is initiated by tapping stretched.
the patellar tendon, which stretches the muscle fibers o This test activates the stretch receptors inside the
(quadriceps) the tendon is attached to. biceps brachii muscle which communicates
o This stimulates the muscle's stretch receptor. mainly with the C5 spinal nerve and partially with
Sensory neurons connected to the muscle the C6 spinal nerve to induce a reflex
spindles are activated and carry the nerve contraction of the biceps muscle and jerk of the
impulse (through L2, L3 & L4 spinal nerves) to the forearm.
spinal cord, where they synapse onto motor ➢ PUPILLARY LIGHT REFLEX – signals are sent via the optic
neurons. nerve to the midbrain.
o These motor neurons carry the nerve impulse o Some optic nerve fibers synapse in the midbrain
(through L2, L3 & L4 spinal nerves) back to the on the same side that the eye was stimulated,
quadriceps muscle. while others cross and synapse in the midbrain on
o The motor nerve passes the signal to the the opposite side.
quadriceps muscle which results in shortening o As a result, the neurons in the midbrain process
the length of the muscle fibers and knee the signal on both sides of the brain.
extension. o The oculomotor nerve signals the muscles in both
o The knee-jerk reflex has no CNS interneurons irises to either constrict (in bright light) or dilate (in
involved. Under normal circumstances, brain low light).
pathways descend onto the same motor o The components of these nerves are devoted to
neurons, constantly modulating the strength of the pupillary light reflex synapse on
the stretch reflexes. Therefore, stretch reflexes parasympathetic neurons outside of the eye,
tend to be hypoactive or absent in cases of activating the smooth muscle cells of the
peripheral nerve damage, and hyperactive in pupillary sphincter muscle.
corticospinal tract lesions. o Pupils of both eyes constrict due to the bilateral
➢ ACHILLES REFLEX (ANKLE JERK) - monosynaptic stretch processing in the midbrain.
reflex similar to the patellar reflex. o There is a direct pupillary light reflex in the eye
o In the Achilles reflex, the hammer taps the that was originally stimulated and a consensual
Achilles tendon while the foot is dorsiflexed, and pupillary light reflex in the other eye.
the foot, in response, should jerk toward the o The absence of the normal pupillary light reflex is
plantar surface. generally an indication of severe trauma or
o The Achilles reflex originates in the S1 and S2 deterioration of the vital brain.
nerve roots. o This reflex helps ensuring clear vision.
➢ PLANTAR (BABINSKI’S) REFLEX - is a superficial cord
reflex that is an important neurological test.
o This test stimulates the cutaneous receptors and
involves the brain in addition to the spinal cord.
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Dorsal Root Dorsal Root
Ganglion Interneuron
Central Canal
Cell body
Dorsal Horn
Spinal nerve
Gray Matter

Ventral Horn
Ventral root
Sensory Neuron
White matter

Motor Neuron

Effector

Receptor

(3) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL HEMISPHERE/CEREBRUM
- most superior part of the brain which enclose and
CEREBRAL CORTEX - Responsible for speech, memory,
obscure most of the brain stem.
logical and emotional responses, consciousness, the
- GYRI / GYRAS - entire surface that has elevated ridges
interpretation of sensation, and voluntary movement.
of tissue.
o Impulses traveling from the body’s sensory
- SULCI / SULCUS - separated by shallow grooves.
receptors (except for the special senses) are
o PARIETO OCCIPITAL SULCUS – separates the
localized and interpreted in the primary somatic
Occipital lobe and Parietal Lobe
sensory cortex of the parietal lobe.
- FISSURES – deeper grooves which separate large
o SENSORY HOMUNCULUS - a spatial map, to show
regions of the brain.
how much tissue in the primary somatic sensory
o LATERAL FISSURE – separates the temporal
area is devoted to various sensory functions.
lobe and parietal lobe.
o The sensory pathways are crossed pathway
- Other fissures or sulci divide each cerebral hemisphere
o Allows us to consciously move our skeletal
into a number of lobes, named for the cranial bones
muscles.
that lie over them:
o Body is represented upside-down.
o FRONTAL LOBE – site of motor cortex – motor
o Most of the neurons control body areas having
movement.
the finest motor control: face, mouth, and hands.
o PARIETAL LOBE – for senses;
o The axons of these motor neurons form the major
▪ Pre-Central Gyrus – before central
voluntary motor tract the
gyrus (Supplementary Motor
pyramidal/corticospinal tract, which descends
Cortex)
to the cord.
▪ Post-central Gyrus – back portion
o MOTOR HOMUNCULUS – body map.
(Somato Sensory Cortex)
o OCCIPITAL LOBE – for visual cortex
o TEMPORAL LOBE – for hearing/auditory cortex
- Each cerebral hemisphere has three basic regions:
o a superficial cortex of gray matter - which
looks gray in fresh brain tissue
o an internal area of white matter
o basal nuclei - islands of gray matter situated
deep within the white matter.

o BROCA’S AREA – motor speech area, found at the

base of the precentral gyrus, is a specialized cortical
area that is very involved in our ability to speak.
▪ Highest aspect of cognitive function
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▪ ANTERIOR ASSOCIATION AREA – areas DIENCEPHALON
involved in higher intellectual reasoning and
- interbrain, which sits atop the brain stem and is
socially acceptable behavior.
enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres.
▪ POSTERIOR ASSOCIATION AREA -
encompasses part of the posterior cortex.
• This area plays a role in recognizing
patterns and faces and blending
several different inputs into an
understanding of the whole situation.
• speech area - allows you to sound out
words.

MAJOR STRUCTURES:

THALAMUS - encloses the shallow third ventricle of the

brain.
CEREBRAL WHITE MATTER - is composed of fiber tracts
o Relay center; passing upward to the sensory cortex.
carrying impulses to, from, or within the cortex.
o CORPUS CALLOSUM - very large fiber tract that
HYPOTHALAMUS - makes up the floor of the diencephalon.
connects the cerebral hemispheres allows them
o is an important autonomic center because it plays a
to communicate with one another
role in regulating body temperature, water balance,
(commissures). Connects left and right
and metabolism.
hemispheres.
o LIMBIC SYSTEM - center for many drives and
o ASSOCIATION FIBER TRACTS - connect areas
emotions
within a hemisphere.
o Master regulation of endocrine system
o PROJECTION FIBER TRACTS – connects the
o regulates the pituitary gland and produces two
cerebrum with lower CNS centers.
hormones of its own.
o The mammillary bodies, reflex centers involved in
BASAL NUCLEI - “islands” of gray matter buried deep
olfaction, bulge from the floor of the hypothalamus
within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres.
posterior to pituitary gland.
o help regulate voluntary motor activities by
modifying instructions sent to the skeletal muscles
EPITHALAMUS – forms the roof of the third ventricle.
by the primary motor cortex.
o contains the pineal gland (part of the endocrine
o has a tight band of projection fibers - internal
system) and the choroid plexuses (knots of
capsule.
capillaries that form the cerebrospinal fluid)
o sleep/awake system
o body clock
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BRAIN STEM CEREBELLUM
- has many small gray matter areas autonomic - large, cauliflower-like cerebellum projects dorsally from
behaviors necessary for survival, and some are under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
associated with the cranial nerves and control vital - Like cerebrum, the cerebellum has two hemispheres
activities, such as breathing and blood pressure. and a convoluted surface.
- The cerebellum also has an outer cortex made up of
MIDBRAIN – cerebral aqueduct, a tiny canal that travels gray matter and an inner region of white matter.
through the midbrain, connects the third ventricle of the - provides the precise timing for skeletal muscle activity
diencephalon to the fourth ventricle below. and controls our balance.
o Anteriorly composed two bulging fiber tracts: - Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium
▪ the cerebral peduncles, which convey apparatus of the inner ear, the eye, the proprioceptors
ascending and descending impulses. of the skeletal muscles and tendons, and many other
o CORPORA QUADRIGEMINA - Dorsally located are areas.
four rounded protrusions which are reflex centers - When needed, the cerebellum sends messages to
involved with vision and hearing. initiate the appropriate corrective measures.
- It plays its role less well when it is sedated by alcohol.
PONS – the rounded structure that protrudes just below
the midbrain and is mostly fiber tracts.
o Responsible for controlling breathing. PROTECTION OF THE CNS:

➢ MENINGES
MEDULLA OBLONGATA – most inferior part of the brain o DURA MATER - outermost and topmost double-layered

stem. membrane where it surrounds the brain.

o is an important fiber tract area where the pyramidal ▪ Periosteal layer - is attached to the inner surface

tracts (motor fibers) cross over to the opposite side. of the skull.

o contains many nuclei that regulate vital visceral ▪ Meningeal layer - forms the outermost covering

activities. of the brain and continues as the dura mater of

the spinal cord.
▪ falx cerebri and the tentorium cerebelli - folds
which separate the cerebellum from the
cerebrum.

o ARACHNOID MATER - middle meningeal layer.

▪ Its thread-like extensions span the subarachnoid
space to attach it to the innermost membrane.
▪ Spider web-like

RETICULAR FORMATION – is a diffuse mass of gray matter ▪ provides the means for draining cerebrospinal

that extends the entire length of the brain stem. fluid back into the blood.

o its neurons are involved in motor control of the

visceral organs. o PIA MATER – deepest layer that is attached to the

o RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS) - plays a role brain by spinal cord.

in consciousness and the awake/sleep cycle. ▪ clings tightly to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord, following every fold.
▪ Arachnoid granulations - specialized projections
of the arachnoid membrane where
cerebrospinal fluid is absorbed into the venous
blood in the dural sinuses.
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o HYDROCEPHALUS – over production of CSF; incapable of

reabsorption.
▪ SHUNT – tube that is inserted to absorb the
o MENINGITIS - an inflammation of the meninges, is a serious
overproduced CSF.
threat to the brain because bacterial or viral meningitis may
spread into the nervous tissue of the CNS.
- usually diagnosed by taking a sample of cerebrospinal
fluid from the subarachnoid space surrounding the
spinal cord.

➢ THE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER - is a selectively permeable

barrier that separates the bloodstream from the neural
tissue of the brain and spinal cord.
o protects the brain from many potentially harmful
➢ CEREBREOSPINAL FLUID - is a watery “broth” with
substances.
components similar to blood plasma, from which it forms. o neurons are kept separated from blood-borne
o it contains less protein and more vitamin C, and its ion
substances by the blood-brain barrier.
composition is different. o composed of the least permeable capillaries in the
o choroid plexuses - clusters of capillaries hanging from
whole body, bound together by tight junctions all
the “roof” in each of the brain’s ventricles, continually around.
form CSF from blood –
o only water, glucose, and essential amino acids pass
o Inside the brain, CSF is continually moving and replaced.
easily through the walls of these capillaries, unlike
o CSF forms and drains at a constant rate so that its normal metabolic wastes.
pressure and volume (150 ml—about half a cup) are
o Nonessential amino acids and potassium ions not
maintained. only are prevented from entering the brain, but also
o A procedure called a lumbar (spinal) puncture can
are actively pumped from the brain into the blood
obtain a sample of CSF for testing. across capillary walls.
▪ The space in the lumbar region is wider
o is virtually useless against fats, respiratory gases, and
compared to the upper region.
other fat-soluble molecules that diffuse easily
▪ It is used to test if there is an infection in the brain
through all plasma membranes.
and also to detect the viscosity of the fluid, w/
the presence of abscess.
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BRAIN DYSFUNCTIONS: GRAY MATTER OF THE SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL ROOTS

➢ BRAIN CONCUSSION – occurs when brain injury is slight. The - GRAY MATTER - surrounds the central canal of the

victim may be dizzy, “see stars,” or lose consciousness. cord, which contains CSF.

o brain damage/trauma - the two posterior projections:

o dorsal horns
➢ BRAIN CONTUSION – results from marked tissue destruction.
o bleeding / hemorrhage o posterior horns
- the two anterior projections:
➢ INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGE – bleeding from ruptured
vessels. o ventral horns
o anterior horns.
o cerebral edema – swelling of the brain due to
inflammatory response of injury. - location of neurons with specific functions:

o death may results from this o dorsal horns contain interneurons.

o dorsal root ganglion has the cell bodies of
➢ STROKE (CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENTS) - occur when
blood circulation to a brain area is blocked, as by a blood the sensory neurons (fibers enter the cord by
the dorsal root) –
clot or a ruptured blood vessel, and vital brain tissue dies.
o Main after-effects: APHASIA - are a common result o ventral roots of the gray matter contain cell
bodies of motor neurons of the somatic
of damage to the left cerebral hemisphere, where
the language areas are located. Trouble with (voluntary) nervous system (axons exit the

language and writing. ventral root of the cord).

o The dorsal and ventral roots fuse to form the
spinal nerves.

SPINAL CORD
- Enclosed within the vertebral column, and extends
from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or
second lumbar vertebra, where it ends just below the
ribs.
- is approximately 17 inches (42 cm) long.
- provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from
the brain, and it is a major reflex center. WHITE MATTER OF THE SPINAL CORD
- is cushioned and protected by meninges. - is composed of myelinated fiber tracts—some running
- In humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the cord to higher centers, some traveling from the brain to the
and exit from the vertebral column to serve the body cord, and some conducting impulses from one side of
area close by. the spinal cord to the other.
- The spinal cord is about the size of a thumb for most of - divided into three regions:
its length, but it is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar o dorsal column – ascending (sensory) tracts
regions where the nerves serving the upper and lower o lateral column – ascending and descending
limbs arise and leave the cord. (motor) tracts.
o ventral column - ascending and descending
(motor) tracts.
- SENSORY/AFFERENT TRACTS – tracts conducting
sensory impulses to the brain.
- MOTOR/EFFERENT TRACTS - Those carrying impulses
from the brain to skeletal muscles.
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(4) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- consists of nerves and scattered ganglia
(groups of neuronal cell bodies found outside
the CNS).
- a nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers found
outside the CNS.
- Neuron fibers/processes are wrapped in
protective connective tissue coverings:
o Endoneurium: delicate connective tissue
sheath that surrounds each fiber.
o Perineurium: coarser connective tissue that
wraps around groups of fibers to form fiber
bundles, or fascicles.
o Epineurium: tough fibrous sheath that
➢ PARALYSIS
bounds all the fascicles together to form
o SPASTIC PARALYSIS – if the spinal cord is transected
(cut crosswise or crushed), it results. the cordlike nerve.
- classified according to the direction in which
they transmit impulses:
o Sensory (afferent) nerves - carry impulses
only toward the CNS.
o motor (efferent) nerves - carry only motor
fibers.
o mixed nerves - carry both sensory and
motor fibers (spinal nerves).

TYPES OF PARALYSIS:
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CRANIAL NERVES
- 12 pairs of cranial nerves primarily serve the head and
neck. Only one pair (the vagus nerves) extends to the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.
- are numbered in sequence, and named based on the
most important structures they control.
- Most cranial nerves are mixed nerves, except for the
optic, olfactory, and vestibulocochlear nerves.
- Mnemonics that may help you remember the cranial
nerves in order, and their function: “Oh, oh, oh, to
touch and feel very good velvet at home.” “Some says
marry money but my brother says big brains matter
more”
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
o Olfactory – Optic – Oculomotor – Trochlear –
- the motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body
Trigeminal – Abducens – Facial –
activities automatically.
Vestibulocochlear – Glossopharyngeal –
- is composed of a specialized group of neurons that
Vagus - Accessory – Hypoglossal.
regulate cardiac muscle (the heart), smooth muscles
(found in the walls of the visceral organs and blood
vessels), and glands.
- - the relative stability of our internal environment depends
largely on the workings of the ANS.
- also called the involuntary nervous system because most
of the fine-tuning activities of ANS occur without our
awareness or attention.

PARASYMPHATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:

- The e preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic

division are located in brain nuclei of several cranial
nerves—III, VII, IX, and X, and in the S2 through S4 levels
of the spinal cord (craniosacral division).
- The neurons of the cranial region send their axons out
SPINAL NERVES / NERVE PLEXUSES
in cranial nerves to serve the head and neck organs.
- 31 pairs of human spinal nerves are formed by the
- There they synapse with the ganglionic motor neuron
combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the
in a terminal ganglion. From the terminal ganglion, the
spinal cord.
postganglionic axon extends a short distance to the
- are named for the region of the cord from which they
organ it serves.
arise.
- In the sacral region, the preganglionic axons leave
- each spinal nerve divides into the dorsal ramus and
the spinal cord and form the pelvic splanchnic nerves,
ventral ramus, making each spinal nerve only about ½
also pelvic nerves, which travel to the pelvic cavity. In
inch long (contain both motor and sensory fibers).
the pelvic cavity, the preganglionic axons synapse
- the smaller dorsal rami serve the skin and muscles of
with the second motor neurons in terminal ganglia on,
the posterior body trunk.
or close to, the organs they serve.
- the ventral rami of spinal nerves T1 through T12 supply
the muscles between the ribs and the skin and muscles SYMPHATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
of the anterior and lateral trunk.
- The ventral rami of all other spinal nerves form - also called the thoracolumbar division because its

complex networks of nerves called plexuses, which preganglionic neurons are in the gray matter of the

serve the motor and sensory needs of the limbs. spinal cord from T1 through L2.
- The preganglionic axons leave the cord in the ventral
root, enter the spinal nerve, and then pass through a
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ramus communicans, or small communicating PARASYMPATHETIC FUNCTIONING:
branch, to enter a sympathetic trunk ganglion lying
- most active when the body is at rest and not
alongside the vertebral column.
threatened in any way.
- After it reaches the ganglion, the axon may synapse
- sometimes called the “rest-and-digest” system, and
with the second (ganglionic) neuron in the
the “housekeeping” system of the body.
sympathetic chain at the same level or a different
- is chiefly concerned with promoting normal digestion,
level, and the postganglionic axon then reenters the
with elimination of feces and urine, and with
spinal nerve to travel to the skin.
conserving body energy, particularly by decreasing
- The preganglionic axon may also pass through the
demands on the cardiovascular system.
ganglion without synapsing and form part of the
- Parasympathetic division is the D (digestion,
splanchnic nerves.
defecation, and diuresis [urination]) division and the
- The splanchnic nerves travel to the viscera to synapse
Sympathetic division is the E (exercise, excitement,
with the ganglionic neuron, found in a collateral
emergency, and embarrassment) division.
ganglion anterior to the vertebral column.
- A dynamic balance exists between the two divisions,
- The major collateral ganglia:
and both are continuously making fine adjustments.
o the celiac
- most blood vessels are controlled only by the
o the superior and inferior mesenteric ganglia -
sympathetic fibers regardless of whether the body is
supply the abdominal and pelvic organs.
“on alert” or relaxing.
- The postganglionic axon then leaves the collateral
ganglion and travels to serve a nearby visceral organ.

SYMPATHETIC FUNCTIONING:

- often referred to as the “fight-or-flight” system

- sympathetic postganglionic fibers, called adrenergic
fibers, release norepinephrine, and the preganglionic
axons of both divisions release acetylcholine.
- Its activity is evident when we are excited or find
ourselves in emergency or threatening situations as it
brings about many effects that help the individual
cope with the stressor.
- is also working at full speed when you are physically
stressed.
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- Functions to provide the best conditions for
responding to some threat, whether the best response
is to run, to see better, or to think more clearly.