Bio 200N

BIO 200N l ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BIO 200N l ENDTERM
An example will illustrate how these functions

together.
REVIEWER
When you are driving and see a red light just ahead
NERVOUS SYSTEM (SENSORY INPUT), your nervous system integrates
this information (red light means “stop”) and sends
motor output to the muscles of your right leg and foot.
NERVOUS SYTEM Your foot goes for the brake pedal (THE RESPONSE).
• Is the master control and communication
system of the body. Every thought, action, and
emotion reflects its activity. It communicates ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
with body cells using electrical impulses,
• It does not work alone to regulate and
maintain body homeostasis; the endocrine
system is a second important regulating
system.
• Whereas the nervous system controls with
rapid electrical nerve impulses, the endocrine
system produces hormones that are released
into the blood.
NERVOUS SYSTEM 3 OVERLAPPING FUNCTIONS
1. It uses its millions of sensory receptors to

monitor changes occurring both inside and
outside the body. These changes are called
stimuli, and the gathered information is called
SENSORY INPUT
2. It processes and interprets the sensory input
and decides what should be done at each
moment—a process called INTEGRATION.
3. It then causes a response, or effect, by
activating muscles or glands (effectors) via
MOTOR OUTPUT
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM’S FUNCTIONS THE TWO SUBDIVISIONS
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Central nervous system (CNS) consists of the

brain and spinal cord, which occupy the dorsal
body cavity and act as the integrating and
command centers of the nervous system.
• They interpret incoming sensory information
and issue instructions based on past
experience and current conditions. Command
center
KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM B. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM =
INVOLUNTARY
• Includes all parts of the nervous system
• Automatically controls smooth and cardiac
outside the CNS.
muscles and glands
• It consists mainly of the nerves that extend
• Further divided into the sympathetic and
from the spinal cord and brain.
parasympathetic nervous systems
o SPINAL NERVES carry impulses to
and from the spinal cord.
o CRANIAL NERVES carry impulses to
NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
and from the brain.
• These NERVES serve as
COMMUNICATION LINES.
• They link all parts of the body by carrying NEUROGLIA
impulses from the sensory receptors to the • Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped
CNS and from the CNS to the appropriate together” as NEUROGLIA, literally, “nerve
glands or muscles. glue,” also called GLIAL CELLS OR GLIA.
• NEUROGLIA includes many types of cells that
support, insulate, and protect the delicate
2 PRINCIPAL SUBDIVISIONS OF PERIPHERAL neurons.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
ASTROCYTES
SENSORY DIVISION OR AFFERENT DIVISION • abundant star-shaped cells that account for
nearly half of neural tissue
• “to go toward” division
• Their numerous projections have swollen ends
• consists of nerves (composed of many
that cling to neurons, bracing them and
individual nerve fibers) that convey impulses to
anchoring them to their nutrient supply lines,
the central nervous system from sensory
the blood capillaries.
receptors located in various parts of the body.
• Astrocytes form a living barrier between
• The sensory division keeps the CNS constantly
capillaries and neurons, help determine
informed of events going on both inside and
capillary permeability, and play a role in
outside the body.
making exchanges between the two. In this
• SOMATIC (SOMA = BODY) delivering
way, they help protect the neurons from
impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and
harmful substances that might be in the blood.
joints
• Astrocytes also help control the chemical
• VISCERAL SENSORY (AFFERENT)(AFFERENT)
environment in the brain by “mopping up”
FIBERS, transmitting impulses from the
leaked potassium ions, which are involved in
visceral organs
generating a nerve impulse, and recapturing
chemicals released for communication
purposes
THE MOTOR DIVISION OR EFFERENT DIVISION
• Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the

central nervous system organs to effector MICROGLIA
organs (muscles and glands)
• spiderlike phagocytes that monitor the health
of nearby neurons and dispose of debris, such
TWO SUBDIVISIONS as dead brain cells and bacteria
A. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM = VOLUNTARY

• Consciously (voluntarily) controls skeletal
EPENDYMAL CELL
muscles
• Neuroglia that line the central cavities of the
brain and the spinal cord.

• The beating of their cilia helps to circulate the • Nucleus with large nucleolus
cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and • NISSL BODIES
forms a protective watery cushion around the o Rough endoplasmic reticulum
CNS. • NEUROFIBRILS
o Intermediate filaments that maintain
cell shape
OLIGODENDROCYTES
• neuroglia that wrap their flat extensions

PROCESSES (FIBERS)
(processes) tightly around the nerve fibers,
producing fatty insulating coverings called • fibers that extend from the cell body
myelin sheaths
• DENDRITES
o conduct impulses toward the cell body
o Neurons may have hundreds of
dendrites
Structurally (both cell types have cell extensions), they
are not able to transmit nerve impulses, a function that • AXONS
is highly developed in neurons. o conduct impulses away from the cell
Another important difference is that neuroglia never body
lose their ability to divide, whereas most neurons do. o Neurons have only one axon arising
Consequently, most brain tumors are GLIOMAS, or from the cell body at the axon hillock
tumors formed by neuroglia. o End in axon terminals, which contain
vesicles with neurotransmitters
o Axon terminals are separated from the
next neuron by a gap
2 MAJOR VARIETIES OF SUPPORTING CELLS IN THE
PNS
• SYNAPTIC CLEFT
o gap between axon terminals and the
next neuron
SCHWANN CELLS
• form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in • SYNAPSE

the PNS. o functional junction between nerves
where a nerve impulse is transmitted
SATELLITE CELLS
• MYELIN
• act as protective, cushioning cells for o White, fatty material covering axons
peripheral neuron cell bodies o Protects and insulates fibers
o Speeds nerve impulse transmission
NEURONS = NERVE CELLS HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

• Cells specialized to transmit messages (nerve
impulses)
• The importance of MYELIN INSULATION is
best illustrated by observing what happens
MAJOR REGIONS OF ALL NEURONS when myelin is not there.
• The disease MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS)
gradually destroys the myelin sheaths around
CNS fibers by converting them to hardened
CELL BODY
sheaths called SCLEROSES.
• nucleus and metabolic center of the cell

• As this happens, the electrical current is short- MOTOR (EFFERENT) NEURONS
circuited and may “jump” to another
• Carry impulses from the central nervous
demyelinated neuron. In other words, nerve
system to viscera and/or muscles and glands
signals do not always reach the intended
target.
• The affected person may have visual and
speech disturbances, lose the ability to control INTERNEURONS (ASSOCIATION NEURONS)
his or her muscles, and become increasingly • Cell bodies located in the CNS
disabled. Multiple sclerosis is an • Connect sensory and motor neurons
autoimmune disease in which the person’s
own immune system attacks a protein
component of the sheath. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
• As yet there is no cure, but injections of
• Based on number of processes extending from
interferon (a hormonelike substance the cell body
released by some immune cells) appear to
hold the symptoms at bay and provide some
relief. Other drugs aimed at slowing the MULTIPOLAR NEURONS
autoimmune response are also being used,
• many extensions from the cell body
though further research is needed to
• All motor and interneurons are multipolar
determine their long-term effects.
• Most common structural type
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION BIPOLAR NEURONS
• Based on number of processes extending from • one axon and one dendrite
the cell body • Located in special sense organs, such as nose
and eye
• Rare in adults
MULTIPOLAR NEURONS
• many extensions from the cell body UNIPOLAR NEURONS

• All motor and interneurons are multipolar • have a short single process leaving the cell
• Most common structural type body
• Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia
• Conduct impulses both toward and away from
BIPOLAR NEURONS the cell body
• one axon and one dendrite
• Located in special sense organs, such as nose
and eye FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF NEURONS
• Rare in adults
IRRITABILITY
UNIPOLAR NEURONS
• Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it
• have a short single process leaving the cell to a nerve impulse
body
• Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia CONDUCTIVITY
• Conduct impulses both toward and away from
the cell body • Ability to transmit the impulse to other
neurons, muscles, or glands

ELECTRICAL CONDITIONS OF A RESTING • SODIUM channels now open, and sodium
NEURON’S MEMBRANE (NA+) diffuses into the neuron
• The inward rush of sodium ions changes the
polarity at that site and is called
• The plasma membrane at rest is inactive DEPOLARIZATION
(polarized)
• Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s
plasma membrane than outside
o K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell
o Na+ is the major positive ion outside the
cell
• As long as the inside of the membrane is more
negative (fewer positive ions) than the outside,
the cell remains inactive
ACTION POTENTIAL INITIATION AND GENERATION
• A GRADED POTENTIAL (LOCALIZED

DEPOLARIZATION) exists where the inside of
the membrane is more positive and the
outside is less positive
• If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium
influx great enough, local depolarization
activates the neuron to conduct an action
potential (nerve impulse)
• Many different types of stimuli excite neurons

to become active and generate an impulse.
• For example, light excites the eye receptors,
sound excites some of the ear receptors, and
pressure excites some cutaneous receptors of
the skin. However, most neurons in the body
are excited by neurotransmitter chemicals PROPAGATION OF THE ACTION POTENTIAL
released by other neurons
• If enough sodium enters the cell, the action
potential (nerve impulse) starts and is
propagated over the entire axon
• ALL-OR-NONE RESPONSE means the nerve
impulse either is propagated or is not
• Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve
impulses more quickly
• A stimulus changes the permeability of the

neuron’s membrane to sodium ions

REPOLARIZATION
• MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY CHANGES

AGAIN—becoming impermeable to sodium
ions and permeable to potassium ions
• POTASSIUM IONS rapidly diffuse out of the
neuron, repolarizing the membrane
STEP 2
• REPOLARIZATION involves restoring the
inside of the membrane to a negative charge • Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles
and the outer surface to a positive charge containing the neurotransmitter chemical to
• Initial conditions of sodium and potassium fuse with the axonal membrane
ions are restored using the sodium-potassium
pump
• This pump, using ATP, restores the original
configuration
• THREE SODIUM IONS are ejected from the
cell while two potassium ions are returned to
the cell
• UNTIL REPOLARIZATION is complete, a
neuron cannot conduct another nerve impulse
STEP 3
• The entry of calcium into the axon terminal

causes pore like openings to form, releasing
the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
TRANSMISSION OF THE SIGNAL AT SYNAPSES
STEP 1
• When the action potential reaches the axon

terminal, the electrical charge opens calcium
channels

STEP 4
• The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across

the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the
membrane of the next neuron
NEURONS
• Although there are many types of

communication between neurons, much of
what the body must do every day is
programmed as reflexes.
REFLEXES
STEP 5
• are rapid, predictable, and involuntary
• If enough neurotransmitter is released, a
responses to stimuli
graded potential will be generated
• Reflexes occur over neural pathways called
• Eventually an action potential (nerve impulse)
REFLEX ARCS
will occur in the neuron beyond the synapse
TWO TYPES OF REFLEXES
A. SOMATIC REFLEXES
• Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
• Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is
normally under voluntary control
• Example: pulling your hand away from a hot
object
B. AUTONOMIC REFLEXES
• Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the
heart, and glands
STEP 6 • Example: regulation of smooth muscles, heart
and blood pressure, glands, digestive system
• The electrical changes prompted by
neurotransmitter binding are brief
• The neurotransmitter is quickly removed from
the synapse either by reuptake or by
enzymatic activity
• Transmission of an impulse is electrochemical
o Transmission down neuron is ELECTRICAL
o Transmission to next neuron is CHEMICAL

TYPES OF SENSORY RECEPTORS • The proprioceptors detect the amount of
stretch, or tension, in skeletal muscles, their
tendons, and joints.
• They send this information to the brain so that
the proper adjustments can be made to
maintain balance and normal posture.
a. FREE NERVE ENDINGS (PAIN AND TEMPERATURE

RECEPTORS)
• The PAIN RECEPTORS (actually bare nerve

endings) are the least specialized of the
CUTANEOUS RECEPTORS.
• They are also the most numerous, because
pain warns us that some type of body damage
is occurring or is about to occur.
• However, strong stimulation of any of the e. Muscle spindle (proprioceptor)
CUTANEOUS RECEPTORS (for example, by
searing heat, extreme cold, or excessive
pressure) is also interpreted as pain.
FIVE ELEMENTS OF A REFLEX ARC
SENSORY RECEPTOR
• reacts to a stimulus
SENSORY NEURON
b. MEISSNER’S CORPUSCLE (TOUCH RECEPTOR) • carries message to the integration center
INTEGRATION CENTER (CNS)
• processes information and directs motor

output
MOTOR NEURON
• carries message to an effector

c. LAMELLAR CORPUSCLE (DEEP PRESSURE RECEPTOR)
EFFECTOR ORGAN
• is the muscle or gland to be stimulated
d. Golgi tendon organ (proprioceptor)

TWO-NEURON REFLEX ARCS THREE MAIN REGIONS OF CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE
• Simplest type • Cortex is superficial gray matter

• Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex • White matter
• Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray matter
THREE-NEURON REFLEX ARCS
• Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory

neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and
effector
• Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex
CEREBRAL CORTEX
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
PRIMARY SOMATIC SENSORY AREA
• Located in parietal lobe posterior to central

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN sulcus
• Receives impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors
BRAIN REGIONS o Pain, temperature, light touch (except for
special senses)
Cerebral Hemispheres are paired (left and right) • Sensory homunculus is a spatial map
superior parts of the brain Cerebrum (Collectively • Left side of the primary somatic sensory area
Called) receives impulses from right side (and vice
versa)
• Include more than half of the brain mass
• The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
grooves (sulci) CEREBRAL AREAS INVOLVED IN SPECIAL SENSES
• Fissures are deeper grooves
• Lobes are named for the cranial bones that lie • Visual area (occipital lobe)
over them • Auditory area (temporal lobe)
• Olfactory area (temporal lobe)

o Hypothalamus
o Epithalamus
CEREBRAL CORTEX
PRIMARY MOTOR AREA

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
• Located anterior to the central sulcus in the
frontal lobe Individuals who have problems with their basal nuclei
• Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles are often unable to walk normally or carry out other
• MOTOR NEURONS form pyramidal voluntary movements in a normal way.
(corticospinal) tract, which descends to spinal HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE AND PARKINSON’S
cord DISEASE are two examples of such syndromes.
• MOTOR HOMUNCULUS is a spatial map
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
BROCA’S AREA (MOTOR SPEECH AREA)
• an example of a basal nuclei problem,
• Involved in our ability to speak typically strikes people in their fifties and
• Usually in left hemisphere sixties (actor Michael J. Fox is an unlucky
exception who developed it around age 30).
• It results from a degeneration of specific
OTHER SPECIALIZED AREAS neurons in the substantia nigra of the
midbrain, which normally supply dopamine to
• Anterior association area (frontal lobe) the basal nuclei.
• Posterior association area (posterior cortex) • The dopamine-deprived basal nuclei, which
• Speech area (for sounding out words) help regulate voluntary motor activity, become
overactive, causing symptoms of the disease.
Afflicted individuals have a persistent tremor
CEREBRAL WHITE MATTER at rest (exhibited by head nodding and a “pill-
• Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray rolling” movement of the fingers), a forward
bent walking posture and shuffling gait, and a
matter
o Corpus callosum connects hemispheres stiff facial expression.
o Tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are • In addition, they have trouble initiating
known as COMMISSURES movement or getting their muscles going.
o Association fiber tracts connect areas within • The cause of Parkinson’s disease is still
unknown. The drug L-dopa, which is
a hemisphere
o Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum converted to dopamine in the brain, helps
with lower CNS centers alleviate some of the symptoms. However, L-
dopa is not a cure, and as more and more
neurons die, it becomes ineffective
BASAL NUCLEI
• “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within the HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE

white matter of the cerebrum
• Regulate voluntary motor activities by • is a genetic disease that strikes during middle
age and leads to massive degeneration of
modifying instructions sent to skeletal muscles
by the primary motor cortex the basal nuclei and later of the cerebral
cortex.
• Its initial symptoms in many patients are wild,
DIENCEPHALON jerky, and almost continuous flapping
movements called chorea (Greek for
• Sits on top of the brain stem
“dance”).
• Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
• Although the movements appear to be
• Made of three structures
voluntary, they are not.
o Thalamus

• Late in the disease, marked mental • Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles,
deterioration occurs, resulting in a lack of convey ascending and descending impulses
focus, fatigue, and irritability. • Four rounded protrusions, corpora
• Huntington’s disease is progressive, and the quadrigemina, are visual and auditory reflex
prognosis varies from 10 to 30 years from the centers
onset of symptoms.
• The signs and symptoms of early Huntington’s
BRAIN STEM: PONS
disease are essentially the opposite of
Parkinson’s disease (overstimulation rather • The rounded structure protruding just below
than inhibition of the motor drive), and the midbrain
Huntington’s is usually treated with drugs that • Mostly composed of fiber tracts
block, rather than enhance, dopamine’s effects. • Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
DIENCEPHALON: THALAMUS
BRAIN STEM: MEDULLA OBLONGATA
• Encloses the third ventricle
• The most inferior part of the brain stem that
• Relay station for sensory impulses passing
merges into the spinal cord
upward to the cerebral cortex
• Includes important fiber tracts
• Transfers impulses to the correct part of the
• Contains important centers that control:
cortex for localization and interpretation
o Heart rate
o Blood pressure
DIENCEPHALON: HYPOTHALAMUS o Breathing
o Swallowing
• Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
o Vomiting
• Important autonomic nervous system center
• Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and
o Regulates body temperature
medulla
o Regulates water balance
o Regulates metabolism
• Houses the limbic center for emotions
BRAIN STEM: RETICULAR FORMATION
• Regulates the nearby pituitary gland
• Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction (smell) • Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain
stem
• Involved in motor control of visceral organs
DIENCEPHALON: EPITHALAMUS
• Reticular activating system (RAS)
• Forms the roof of the third ventricle o Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and
• Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland) consciousness
• Includes the choroid plexus—forms o Filter for incoming sensory information
cerebrospinal fluid
CEREBELLUM
BRAIN STEM
• has two hemispheres and a convoluted
• Attaches to the spinal cord surface.
• Parts of the brain stem • has an outer cortex made up of gray matter
and an inner region of white matter.
• provides the precise timing for skeletal muscle
BRAIN STEM: MIDBRAIN activity and controls our balance.
• sends messages to initiate the appropriate
• Extends from the mammillary bodies to the corrective measures.
pons inferiorly
• Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the
third and fourth ventricles

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE o CHOROID PLEXUSES—capillaries in the
ventricles of the brain
• If the cerebellum is damaged (for example, by
• CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the
a blow to the head, a tumor, or a stroke),
brain and spinal cord
movements become clumsy and
• Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles,
disorganized—a condition called ATAXIA.
and central canal of the spinal cord
• Victims cannot keep their balance and may
appear drunk because of the loss of muscle
coordination.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID CIRCULATION
• They are no longer able to touch their finger to
their nose with eyes closed—a feat that 1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each
healthy individuals accomplish easily. ventricle
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into the
subarachnoid space via the median and lateral
PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM apertures. Some CSF flows through the central
canal of the spinal cord
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space
MENINGES 4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses
via the arachnoid villi
The CSF in and around the brain and cord forms a

DURA MATER watery cushion that protects the fragile nervous tissue
o Outermost leathery layer from blows and other trauma and helps the brain
o Double-layered external covering “float” so it is not damaged by the pressure of its own
▪ PERIOSTEUM: attached to inner surface of weight.
the skull • Ordinarily, CSF forms and drains at a constant
▪ MENINGEAL LAYER: outer covering of the rate so that its normal pressure and volume
brain (150 ml—about half a cup) are maintained.
o FOLDS INWARD IN SEVERAL AREAS • Any significant changes in CSF composition (or
▪ Falx cerebri the appearance of blood cells in it) could
▪ Tentorium cerebelli indicate meningitis or certain other brain
pathologies (such as tumors or multiple
sclerosis).
ARACHNOID LAYER • A PROCEDURE CALLED A LUMBAR (SPINAL)
PUNCTURE can obtain a sample of CSF for
• Middle layer
• Weblike extensions span the subarachnoid testing. Because the withdrawal of fluid
space to attach it to the pia mater decreases CSF fluid pressure, the patient must
• Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal remain horizontal (lying down) for 6 to 12 hours
fluid after the procedure to prevent an agonizingly
painful “spinal headache.”
• Arachnoid granulations protrude through the
dura mater and absorb cerebrospinal fluid into
venous blood
PIA MATER
• Internal layer
• Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal HYDROCEPHALUS
cord • literally, “water on the brain.”
• If something obstructs its drainage (for
example, a tumor), CSF begins to accumulate
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID and exert pressure on the brain.
• Similar to blood plasma in composition
• Formed continually by the choroid plexuses

• This condition in a newborn baby causes the • If the cerebral cortex is injured, the individual
head to enlarge as the brain increases in size. may remain conscious, but severe brain stem
• This is possible in an infant because the skull contusions always result in a coma lasting from
bones have not yet fused. However, in an adult hours to a lifetime due to injury to the reticular
this condition is likely to result in brain activating system.
damage because the skull is hard, and the • Death may occur after head blows due to:
accumulating fluid creates pressure that o Intracranial hemorrhage
crushes soft nervous tissue and could restrict o Cerebral edema
blood flow into the brain.
• Today hydrocephalus is treated surgically by
inserting a shunt (a plastic tube) to drain the CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT (CVA) OR STROKE
excess fluid into a vein in the neck or
abdomen. • Results when blood circulation to a brain area
is blocked and brain tissue dies
• Loss of some functions or death may result
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER HEMIPLEGIA
• Includes the least permeable capillaries of the • one-sided paralysis; the right motor cortex of
body the frontal lobe is most likely involved.
• Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass
through the capillary walls
• Excludes many potentially harmful substances APHASIA
from entering the brain, such as wastes
• Useless as a barrier against some substances • damage to speech center in left hemisphere
• The blood-brain barrier is virtually useless MOTOR APHASIA
against fats, respiratory gases, and other fat-
soluble molecules that diffuse easily through • which involves damage to Broca’s area and a
all plasma membranes. This explains why loss of ability to speak
bloodborne alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics
SENSORY APHASIA
can affect the brain.
• in which a person loses the ability to
understand written or spoken language
TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES
• Head injuries are a leading cause of accidental

death in the United States. Consider, for
example, what happens if you crash into the TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK (TIA)
rear end of another car. If you’re not wearing a
• Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood
seatbelt, your head will jerk forward and then
flow)
violently stop as it hits the windshield.
• Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired
• Brain trauma is caused not only by injury at the
speech
site of the blow, but also by the effect of the
ricocheting brain hitting the opposite end of
the skull.
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE (AD)
CONCUSSION
• Is a progressive degenerative disease of the
• Slight brain injury brain that ultimately results in dementia
• Typically little permanent brain damage occurs (mental deterioration).
• Alzheimer’s patients represent between 5 and
15 percent of people over 65, and the disease
CONTUSION is a major contributing cause in the deaths of
as many as half of those over 85.
• Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs
• Coma may occur

• Its victims exhibit memory loss (particularly for • If the spinal cord is transected (cut
recent events), a short attention span and crosswise) or crushed, SPASTIC
disorientation, and eventual language loss. PARALYSIS results.
• Over several years, formerly good nature • The affected muscles stay healthy because
people may become moody, confused, they are still stimulated by spinal reflex
delusional, and sometimes violent. arcs, and movement of those muscles does
• AD is associated with a shortage of occur.
acetylcholine (ACh). AD also exhibits structural • However, movements are involuntary and
changes in the brain, particularly in areas not controllable, as described
involved with thought and memory; the gyri • This can be as much of a problem as
shrink, and the brain atrophies. complete lack of mobility.
• The precise cause of AD is unknown, but some • In addition, because the spinal cord carries
cases appear to run in families. both sensory and motor impulses, a loss of
feeling or sensory input occurs in the body
areas below the point of cord destruction.
SPINAL CORD • Physicians often use a pin to see whether
a person can feel pain after spinal cord
• Extends from the foramen magnum of the injury—to find out whether regeneration is
skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra occurring.
• CAUDA EQUINA is a collection of spinal • Pain is a hopeful sign in such cases. If the
nerves at the inferior end spinal cord injury occurs high in the cord,
• Provides a two-way conduction pathway to so that all four limbs are affected, the
and from the brain individual is a quadriplegic
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal • If only the legs are paralyzed, the
cord individual is a paraplegic
GRAY MATTER OF THE SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL
ROOTS
WHITE MATTER OF THE SPINAL CORD
• INTERNAL GRAY MATTER is mostly cell
bodies • Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
• Dorsal (posterior) horns house interneurons • THREE REGIONS: dorsal, lateral, ventral
• Receive information from sensory neurons in columns
the dorsal root; cell bodies housed in dorsal • SENSORY (AFFERENT) TRACTS conduct
root ganglion impulses toward brain
• ANTERIOR (VENTRAL) HORNS house motor • MOTOR (EFFERENT) TRACTS carry impulses
neurons of the somatic (voluntary) nervous from brain to skeletal muscles
system
• Send information out ventral root
• Gray matter surrounds the central canal, which PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the
CNS
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE STRUCTURE OF A NERVE
• Damage to the ventral root results in • NERVES are bundles of neurons found outside
flaccid paralysis of the muscles served. the CNS
• In FLACCID PARALYSIS, nerve impulses • ENDONEURIUM is a connective tissue sheath
do not reach the muscles affected; thus, no that surrounds each fiber
voluntary movement of those muscles is • PERINEURIUM wraps groups of fibers bound
possible. into a fascicle
• The muscles BEGIN TO ATROPHY • EPINEURIUM binds groups of fascicles
because they are no longer stimulated. • MIXED NERVES
o Contain both sensory and motor fibers

• SENSORY (AFFERENT) NERVES DORSAL RAMI
o Carry impulses toward the CNS
• serve the skin and muscles of the posterior
trunk
• MOTOR (EFFERENT) NERVES
o Carry impulses away from the CNS
VENTRAL RAMI (T1–T12)
• form the intercostal nerves that supply muscles

CRANIAL NERVES
and skin of the ribs and trunk
• 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and
neck
VENTRAL RAMI (EXCEPT T1–T12)
• Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to
thoracic and abdominal cavities • form a complex of networks (plexus) for the
• Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory anterior
only
1. Optic
2. Olfactory PLEXUS
3. Vestibulocochlear
• networks of nerves serving motor and sensory
needs of the limbs
• Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the
cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
FOUR PLEXUSES
• Cervical
• Brachial
• Lumbar
• Sacral
SOMATIC AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS

COMPARED
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside the

SPINAL NERVES CNS
• Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are
• 31 pairs
served
• Formed by the combination of the ventral
and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
• Named for the region of the spinal cord
from which they arise AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord • Chain of two motor neurons
into a dorsal ramus and a ventral ramus o Preganglionic neuron is in the brain or
spinal cord
RAMUS o Postganglionic neuron extends to the
organ
• branch of a spinal nerve; contains both motor
• Has two arms
and sensory fibers
o Sympathetic division
o Parasympathetic division

MOTOR SUBDIVISION OF THE PNS o Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the
spinal cord
o Consists only of motor nerves
• After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may
o Controls the body automatically (and is also
synapse with a second neuron at the same or
known as the involuntary nervous system)
different level
o Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and
• Or the preganglionic neuron may pass through
glands
the ganglion without synapsing and form part
of the splanchnic nerves
o SPLANCHNIC NERVES travel to the
collateral ganglion
o COLLATERAL GANGLIA serve the
abdominal and pelvic organs
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
• PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION is also known

as the CRANIOSACRAL DIVISION
• PREGANGLIONIC NEURONS originate in:
o Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
o S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
• Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal
ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons
extend to organs that are served
AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING
• Body organs served by the autonomic nervous

system receive fibers from both divisions
o EXCEPTIONS: blood vessels, structures of
the skin, some glands, and the adrenal
medulla
o These exceptions receive only sympathetic
fibers
• When body divisions serve the same organ,
they cause antagonistic effects due to different
neurotransmitters
o PARASYMPATHETIC (CHOLINERGIC) FIBERS
• SYMPATHETIC DIVISION is also known as the release acetylcholine
thoracolumbar division o SYMPATHETIC POSTGANGLIONIC
• PREGANGLIONIC NEURONS originate from (ADRENERGIC) fibers release norepinephrine
T1 through L2 o PREGANGLIONIC AXONS of both divisions
o Axons pass through a ramus communicans release acetycholine
to enter a sympathetic trunk ganglion

SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC
• “fight or flight” division • “housekeeping” activites

• Response to unusual stimulus when • “Rest-and-digest” system
emotionally or physically stressed or • Conserves energy
threatened • Maintains daily necessary body functions
• Takes over to increase activities • Remember as the “D” division
• Remember as the “E” division o Digestion
o Exercise o Defecation
o Excitement o Diuresis
o Emergency
o Embarrassment
• For example, if you have just had surgery or
run a marathon, your adrenal glands (activated • In difficult deliveries, temporary lack of oxygen
by the sympathetic nervous system) will be may lead to cerebral palsy, but this is only one
pumping out EPINEPHRINE AND of the suspected causes.
NOREPINEPHRINE • CEREBRAL PALSY is a neuromuscular
• The effects of sympathetic nervous system disability in which the voluntary muscles are
activation continue for several minutes until its poorly controlled and spastic because of brain
hormones are destroyed by the LIVER. Thus, damage.
although SYMPATHETIC NERVE IMPULSES • About half of its victims have seizures, are
themselves may act only briefly, the hormonal intellectually disabled, and/or have impaired
effects they provoke linger. hearing or vision.
• The widespread and prolonged effects of • CEREBRAL PALSY is the largest single cause
sympathetic activation help explain why we of physical disabilities in children.
need time to calm down after an extremely • A number of other congenital malformations—
stressful situation triggered by genetic or environmental
factors—also plagues the CNS.
Most serious are HYDROCEPHALUS, ANENCEPHALY,

and SPINA BIFIDA
ANENCEPHALY
• is a birth defect in which the cerebrum fails to

develop.
• CHILDREN WITH ANENCEPHALY cannot see,
hear, or process sensory information; these
babies typically die soon after birth.
• Some illnesses or diseases are at least aggravated, SPINA BIFIDA

if not caused, by excessive sympathetic nervous
system stimulation. • (“forked spine”) results when the vertebrae
• Certain individuals, called Type A People, always form incompletely (typically in the lumbosacral
work at breakneck speed and push themselves region).
continually. • There are several varieties of spina bifida.
• These are people who are likely to have heart • In the least serious, a dimple, and perhaps a
disease, high blood pressure, and ulcers, all of tuft of hair, appears over the site of
which may be worsened by prolonged sympathetic malformation, but no neurological problems
nervous system activity or the rebound from it. occur.

• In the most serious, meninges, nerve roots,
and even parts of the spinal cord protrude
from the spine, rendering the lower part of the
spinal cord functionless.
• The child is unable to control the bowels or
bladder, and the lower limbs are paralyzed.
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
• The nervous system is formed during the first

month of embryonic development
• Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
• Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of
the brain to develop
• Severe congenital brain diseases include:
o Cerebral palsy
o Anencephaly
o Hydrocephalus
o Spina bifida
• PREMATURE BABIES have trouble regulating

body temperature because the hypothalamus
is one of the last brain areas to mature
prenatally
• DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR CONTROL
indicates the progressive myelination and
maturation of a child’s nervous system
• BRAIN GROWTH ends in young adulthood.

NEURONS die throughout life and are not
replaced; thus, brain mass declines with age
• ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION is low blood
pressure due to changes in body position
• HEALTHY AGED PEOPLE maintain nearly
optimal intellectual function
• DISEASE—particularly CARDIOVASCULAR
DISEASE—is the major cause of declining
mental function with age
o ARTERIOSCLEROSIS is decreased
elasticity of blood vessels

SPECIAL SENSES
LACRIMAL APPARATUS = LACRIMAL GLAND +
DUCTS
SPECIAL SENSES
LACRIMAL GLAND
• Smell
• Taste • produces lacrimal fluid (tears); situated on
• Sight lateral end of each eye
• Hearing
TEARS
• Equilibrium
• drain across the eye into the lacrimal canaliculi,
then the lacrimal sac, and into the nasolacrimal
SPECIAL SENSE RECEPTORS
duct, which empties into the nasal cavity
• Large, complex sensory organs
TEARS CONTAIN:
• Localized clusters of receptors
• Dilute salt solution
• Mucus
THE EYE AND VISION • Antibodies
• Lysozyme (enzyme that destroys bacteria)
• 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the
eyes
• Each eye has over 1 million nerve fibers FUNCTION OF TEARS
carrying information to the brain
• Cleanse, protect, moisten, lubricate the eye
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLES
• Extrinsic eye muscles
• Six muscles attach to the outer surface of the
• Eyelids
eye
• Conjunctiva
• Produce gross eye movements
• Lacrimal apparatus
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
EXTERNAL AND ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
• Inflammation of the conjunctiva, called
CONJUNCTIVITIS, results in reddened,
EYELIDS irritated eyes.
o PINKEYE, its infectious form caused by
• Meet at the medial and lateral commissure
bacteria or viruses, is highly contagious.
(canthus)
EYELASHES
• Because the nasal cavity mucosa is continuous
• Tarsal glands produce an oily secretion that
with that of the lacrimal duct system, a COLD
lubricates the eye
OR NASAL inflammation often causes the
• Ciliary glands are located between the
LACRIMAL MUCOSA TO BECOME
eyelashes
INFLAMED AND SWELL.
CONJUNCTIVA o This impairs the drainage of tears from the
eye surface, causing “watery” eyes.
• Membrane that lines the eyelids and eyeball
• Connects with the transparent cornea
• Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye and keep
it moist

INTERNAL STRUCTURES: THE EYEBALL
• Three layers, or tunics, form the wall of the CHOROID

eyeball
• is a blood-rich nutritive layer that contains
o FIBROUS LAYER: outside layer
a pigment (prevents light from scattering)
o VASCULAR LAYER: middle layer
• is modified anteriorly into two smooth
o SENSORY LAYER: inside layer
muscle structures
• HUMORS are fluids that fill the interior of the
eyeball CILIARY BODY
• LENS divides the eye into two chambers
IRIS
• regulates amount of light entering eye

• Pigmented layer that gives eye color
PUPIL
• rounded opening in the iris
SENSORY LAYER
RETINA
• contains two layers

• OUTER PIGMENTED layer absorbs light and
prevents it from scattering
• Inner neural layer contains receptor cells
(PHOTORECEPTORS)
o Rods
o Cones
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS
• pass from photoreceptors via a TWO-

FIBROUS LAYER NEURON CHAIN
o Bipolar neurons
o Ganglion cells
SCLERA
• White connective tissue layer

SIGNALS
• Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
• leave the retina toward the brain through the optic
nerve
CORNEA
• Transparent, central anterior portion

• Allows for light to pass through OPTIC DISC (BLIND SPOT)
• Repairs itself easily
• The only human tissue that can be • is where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball
transplanted without fear of rejection • Cannot see images focused on the optic disc
VASCULAR LAYER RODS

• Most are found toward the edges of the retina
• Allow vision in dim light and peripheral vision
VITREOUS HUMOR
• All perception is in gray tones
• Gel-like substance posterior to the lens
• Prevents the eye from collapsing
ACT AS PHAGOCYTES • Helps maintain intraocular pressure
• to remove dead or damaged receptor cells and

store vitamin A needed for vision.
OPHTHALMOSCOPE
• Instrument used to illuminate the interior of

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE the eyeball and fundus (posterior wall)
• Can detect diabetes, arteriosclerosis,
• Anything that interferes with rod function hinders
degeneration of the optic nerve and retina
our ability to see at night.
• This condition, called NIGHT BLINDNESS,
dangerously impairs our ability to drive safely at
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
night.
• Its most common cause is prolonged vitamin A
deficiency, which eventually causes the neural
retina to deteriorate. • In youth, the lens is transparent and has the
• VITAMIN A is one of the building blocks of the consistency of firm jelly, but as we age it
pigments the photoreceptor cells need to respond becomes increasingly hard and cloudy.
to light • CATARACTS, the loss of lens transparency,
• VITAMIN A supplements will restore function if cause vision to become hazy and distorted and
taken before degenerative changes in the neural can eventually cause blindness.
retina occur • Other risk factors for forming cataracts include
diabetes mellitus, frequent exposure to intense
sunlight, and heavy smoking.
LENS • Current treatment of cataracts is either special
cataract glasses or surgical removal of the lens
• Flexible, biconvex crystal-like structure
and replacement with a lens implant.
• Held in place by a suspensory ligament
attached to the ciliary body
LENS DIVIDES THE EYE INTO TWO CHAMBERS • If drainage of aqueous humor is blocked, fluid
backs up like a clogged sink.
ANTERIOR (AQUEOUS) SEGMENT
• Pressure within the eye may increase to
• Anterior to the lens dangerous levels and compress the delicate
• Contains aqueous humor, a clear, watery fluid retina and optic nerve.
• The resulting condition, GLAUCOMA (“vision
going gray”), can lead to blindness unless
POSTERIOR (VITREOUS) SEGMENT
detected early.
• Posterior to the lens
GLAUCOMA is a common cause of blindness in
• Contains vitreous humor, a gel-like substance
the elderly.
• Unfortunately, many forms of glaucoma

AQUEOUS HUMOR progress slowly and have almost no symptoms
at first.
• Watery fluid found between lens and cornea • Thus, sight deteriorates slowly and painlessly
• Similar to blood plasma until the damage is done.
• Helps maintain intraocular pressure • Signs of advanced glaucoma include seeing
• Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea halos around lights, headaches, and blurred
• Reabsorbed into venous blood through the vision.
scleral venous sinus, or canal of Schlemm

• TONOMETER instrument use to measure the • Contain fibers from the lateral side of the eye
INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE, which should be on the same side and the medial side of the
tested yearly in people over 40. opposite eye
• commonly treated with eyedrops that increase • Synapse with neurons in the thalamus
the rate of aqueous humor drainage.
• Laser or surgical enlargement of the drainage
channel is another option. OPTIC RADIATION
• Axons from the thalamus run to the occipital

lobe
PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
• Synapse with cortical cells, and vision
interpretation (seeing) occurs
PATHWAY OF LIGHT THROUGH THE EYE AND

LIGHT REFRACTION
SUMMARY OF THE PATHWAY OF IMPULSES FROM
• Light must be focused to a point on the retina THE RETINA TO THE POINT OF VISUAL
for optimal vision INTERPRETATION
• Light is bent, or refracted, by the cornea,
1. Optic nerve
aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor
2. Optic chiasma
• The eye is set for distant vision (over 20 feet
3. Optic tract
away)
4. Thalamus
• Accommodation—the lens must change shape
5. Optic radiation
to focus on closer objects (less than 20 feet
6. Optic cortex in occipital lobe of brain
away)
• IMAGE FORMED ON THE RETINA IS A REAL
IMAGE
o REAL IMAGES ARE: VISUAL FIELDS
▪ Reversed from left to right • Each eye “sees” a slightly different view
▪ Upside down • Field of view overlaps for each eye
▪ Smaller than the object
BINOCULAR VISION RESULTS AND PROVIDES:

VISUAL FIELDS AND VISUAL PATHWAYS TO THE • Depth perception (three-dimensional vision)
BRAIN
OPTIC NERVE
• Bundle of axons that exit the back of the eye

carrying impulses from the retina
OPTIC CHIASMA
• Location where the optic nerves cross

• Fibers from the medial side of each eye cross
over to the opposite side of the brain
OPTIC TRACTS
EMMETROPIA
• eye focuses images correctly on the retina

MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS)
• Distant objects appear blurry ACCOMMODATION PUPILLARY REFLEX
• Light from those objects fails to reach the • viewing close objects causes pupils to constrict
retina and are focused in front of it
• Results from an eyeball that is too long

PART II: THE EAR: HEARING AND BALANCE
HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTEDNESS)
• Ear houses two senses
• Near objects are blurry, whereas distant o Hearing
objects are clear o Equilibrium (balance)
• Receptors are mechanoreceptors
• Distant objects are focused behind the retina
• Different organs house receptors for each
• Results from an eyeball that is too short or sense
from a “lazy lens” • The ear is divided into three areas
o External (outer) ear
o Middle ear
ASTIGMATISM o Internal (inner) ear
• Images are blurry
• Results from light focusing as lines, not points, EXTERNAL (OUTER) EAR
on the retina because of unequal curvatures of • Auricle (pinna)
the cornea or lens • External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
o Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
o Lined with skin and ceruminous (earwax)
glands
o Ends at the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
• External ear is involved only in collecting
sound waves
MIDDLE EAR CAVITY (TYMPANIC CAVITY)
• Air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the

temporal bone
• Involved only in the sense of hearing
• Located between tympanic membrane and
oval window and round window
PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
• PHARYNGOTYMPANIC TUBE (AUDITORY
TUBE)
EYE REFLEXES o Links middle ear cavity with the throat
o Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity
so the eardrum can vibrate
CONVERGENCE
• THREE BONES (OSSICLES) SPAN THE
• reflexive movement of the eyes medially when CAVITY
we focus on a close object o Malleus (hammer)
PHOTOPUPILLARY REFLEX o Incus (anvil)
o Stapes (stirrup)
• bright light causes pupils to constrict

• FUNCTION
o Transmit vibrations from tympanic membrane
to the fluids of the inner ear
o Vibrations travel from the hammer → anvil →
stirrup → oval window of inner ear
INTERNAL (INNER) EAR
• Includes sense organs for hearing and balance
• BONY LABYRINTH (OSSEOUS LABYRINTH) STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

CONSISTS OF:
o Cochlea
o Vestibule
MACULAE
o Semicircular canals
• receptors in the vestibule
• BONY LABYRINTH IS FILLED WITH • Report on the position of the head
PERILYMPH • Help us keep our head erect
o Membranous labyrinth is suspended in • Send information via the vestibular nerve
perilymph and contains endolymph (division of cranial nerve VIII) to the cerebellum
of the brain
ANATOMY OF THE MACULAE

• HAIR CELLS are embedded in the otolithic
• Inflammation of the middle ear, OTITIS
membrane
MEDIA, is a fairly common result of a sore
• OTOLITHS (TINY STONES) float in a gel
throat, especially in children, whose
around hair cells
pharyngotympanic tubes run more
• Movements cause otoliths to roll and bend
horizontally.
hair cells
• In OTITIS MEDIA, the eardrum bulges and
often becomes inflamed. When large amounts
of fluid or pus accumulate in the cavity, an
emergency myringotomy (lancing of the
eardrum) may be required to relieve the
pressure.
• A TINY TUBE is implanted in the eardrum that
allows pus to drain into the external ear canal.
The tube usually falls out by itself within the
year.
EQUILIBRIUM
• Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are

called the vestibular apparatus
• Vestibular apparatus has two functional parts
o Static equilibrium
o Dynamic equilibrium

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
CRISTA AMPULLARIS
• Responds to angular or rotational movements

of the head
• Located in the ampulla of each semicircular
canal
• Tuft of hair cells covered with cupula
(gelatinous cap)
• If the head moves, the cupula drags against
the endolymph
• Hair cells are stimulated, and the impulse
travels the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum
PATHWAY OF VIBRATIONS FROM SOUND WAVES
• Move by the ossicles from the eardrum to the

oval window
• Sound is amplified by the ossicles
• Pressure waves cause vibrations in the basilar
membrane in the spiral organ of Corti
• Hair cells of the tectorial membrane are bent
when the basilar membrane vibrates against it
• An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
(cranial nerve VIII), and the impulse travels to
the temporal lobe
HIGH-PITCHED SOUNDS DISTURB THE SHORT,

STIFF FIBERS OF THE BASILAR MEMBRANE
• Receptor cells close to the oval window are

stimulated
LOW-PITCHED SOUNDS DISTURB THE LONG,

FLOPPY FIBERS OF THE BASILAR MEMBRANE
HEARING
• Specific hair cells further along the cochlea are
affected
SPIRAL ORGAN OF CORTI
• Located within the cochlear duct

• Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane
• GEL-LIKE tectorial membrane is capable of
bending hair cells
• COCHLEAR NERVE attached to hair cells
transmits nerve impulses to auditory cortex on
temporal lobe

HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM DEFICITS
DEAFNESS IS ANY DEGREE OF HEARING LOSS
CONDUCTION DEAFNESS
• results when the transmission of sound

vibrations through the external and middle
ears is hindered
SENSORINEURAL DEAFNESS
• results from damage to the nervous system

structures involved in hearing
TASTE BUDS AND THE SENSE OF TASTE
MÉNIÈRE’S SYNDROME
• affects the inner ear and causes progressive TASTE BUDS HOUSE THE RECEPTOR ORGANS
deafness and perhaps vertigo (sensation of
spinning)
LOCATIONS OF TASTE BUDS
• Most are on the tongue

PART III: CHEMICAL SENSES: SMELL AND TASTE
• Soft palate
• Superior part of the pharynx
• Cheeks
• CHEMORECEPTORS
o Stimulated by chemicals in solution THE TONGUE IS COVERED WITH PROJECTIONS
o Taste has five types of receptors CALLED PAPILLAE THAT CONTAIN TASTE BUDS
o Smell can differentiate a wider range of
• Vallate (circumvallate) papillae
chemicals
• Fungiform papillae
• Both senses complement each other and
• Filiform papillae
respond to many of the same stimuli
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS AND THE SENSE OF SMELL
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
• are in roof of nasal cavity

o OLFACTORY RECEPTOR CELLS
(NEURONS) with long cilia known as
OLFACTORY HAIRS detect chemicals
o CHEMICALS must be dissolved in mucus
for detection by chemoreceptors called
olfactory receptors HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
• IMPULSES are transmitted via the olfactory • Although it is possible to have either taste or
filaments to the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I) smell deficits, most people seeking medical
• SMELLS are interpreted in the olfactory cortex help for loss of chemical senses have olfactory
disorders, or ANOSMIAS

• Most anosmias result from head injuries, the may be covered with an eye patch to force the
aftereffects of nasal cavity inflammation (due weaker muscles to become stronger.
to a cold, an allergy, or smoking), or aging. • If these measures are not successful, surgery is
• Some brain disorders can destroy the sense of always used to correct the condition because if
smell or mimic it. it is allowed to persist, the brain may stop
• For example, some EPILEPTICS EXPERIENCE recognizing signals from the deviating eye,
OLFACTORY AURAS (olfactory hallucinations) causing that eye to become functionally blind.
just before they go into seizures.
CONJUNCTIVITIS, SPECIFICALLY CALLED

GUSTATORY CELLS ARE THE TASTE RECEPTORS OPHTHALMIA NEONATORUM
• Possess gustatory hairs (long microvilli) • If the mother has a type of sexually transmitted
• Gustatory hairs protrude through a taste pore infection called GONORRHEA, the bacteria will
• Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in infect the baby’s eyes during delivery.
saliva • the baby’s eyelids become red, swollen, and
produce pus.
IMPULSES ARE CARRIED TO THE GUSTATORY

COMPLEX BY SEVERAL CRANIAL NERVES BECAUSE
CONGENITAL BLINDNESS OR CATARACTS.
TASTE BUDS ARE FOUND IN DIFFERENT AREAS
• Maternal infections that occur during early
• Facial nerve (cranial nerve VII)
pregnancy, particularly RUBELLA (GERMAN
• Glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX)
MEASLES)
• Vagus nerve (cranial nerve X)
• All states have enacted laws requiring that all
newborn babies’ eyes be routinely treated with
TASTE BUDS ARE REPLACED FREQUENTLY BY silver nitrate or antibiotics shortly after birth.
BASAL CELLS
PART IV: DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE

FIVE BASIC TASTE SENSATIONS SPECIAL SENSES
• SWEET RECEPTORS respond to sugars,

saccharine, some amino acids
• SOUR RECEPTORS respond to H+ ions or
acids • SPECIAL SENSE ORGANS are formed early in
• BITTER RECEPTORS respond to alkaloids embryonic development
• SALTY RECEPTORS respond to metal ions
• UMAMI RECEPTORS respond to the amino • MATERNAL INFECTIONS during the first 5 or
acid glutamate or the beefy taste of meat 6 weeks of pregnancy may cause visual
abnormalities as well as SENSORINEURAL
DEAFNESS in the developing child
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE • VISION requires the most learning
• CONGENITAL EYE PROBLEMS are relatively • THE INFANT HAS POOR VISUAL ACUITY (is
uncommon, but we can give some examples. farsighted) and lacks color vision and depth
Strabismus, which is commonly called perception at birth
“CROSSED EYES,” results from unequal pulls
• THE EYE continues to grow and mature until
by the external eye muscles that prevent the
age 8 or 9
baby from coordinating movement of the two
eyes. • The newborn infant can hear sounds, but initial
• First, exercises are used to strengthen the responses are reflexive
weaker eye muscles, and/ or the stronger eye

• By the toddler stage, the child is listening
critically and beginning to imitate sounds as
language development begins
AGE-RELATED EAR PROBLEMS
PRESBYCUSIS
• type of sensorineural deafness that may

result from otosclerosis
OTOSCLEROSIS
• ear ossicles fuse
• CONGENITAL EAR problems usually result

from missing pinnas and closed or missing
external acoustic meatuses
• TASTE AND SMELL are most acute at
birth and decrease in sensitivity after age
40 as the number of olfactory and
gustatory receptors decreases

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
HORMONE ACTION
TARGET CELLS OR TARGET ORAGANS

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM • given hormone affects only certain tissue cells
• Second controlling system of the body or organs
• Nervous system is the fast-control system • target cell to respond to a hormone, specific
• Uses chemical messengers (hormones) that protein receptors to which that hormone can
are released into the blood attach must be present on the cell’s plasma
membrane or in its interior.
HORMONES
• control several major processes HORMONES AROUSE CELLS OR ALTER CELLULAR
o Reproduction ACTIVITY
o Growth and development • Typically, one or more of the following occurs:
o Mobilization of body defenses o Change plasma membrane permeability or
o Maintenance of much of homeostasis membrane potential by opening or closing ion
o Regulation of metabolism channels
o Activate or inactivate enzymes
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND HORMONE o Stimulate or inhibit cell division
FUNCTION OVERVIEW o Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
• Hormones are produced by specialized cells o Turn on or turn off transcription of certain
• Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids genes
• Blood transfers hormones to target sites
• ENDOCRINOLOGY is the scientific study of TWO MECHANISMS BY WHICH HORMONES
hormones and endocrine organs TRIGGER CHANGES IN CELLS
• These hormones regulate the activity of other • Direct gene activation
cells • Second-Messenger System
THE CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES DIRECT GENE ACTIVATION

• are chemical substances secreted by endocrine • Steroid hormones (and, strangely, thyroid
cells into the extracellular fluids that regulate hormone) use the mechanism
the metabolic activity of other cells in the • Because they are lipid-soluble molecules, the
body. steroid hormones can diffuse through the
plasma membranes of their target cells.
CLASSIFIED CHEMICALLY
AMINO ACID
• based molecules (including proteins, peptides
and amines)
STEROIDS
PROSTAGLANDINS
• hormones that act locally
• made from highly active lipids released from 1. Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma
nearly all cell membranes. membrane of target cells
2. Once inside the cell, the hormone enters the
nucleus

3. Then, the hormone binds to a specific protein 3 MAJOR CATEGORIES STIMULI THAT ACTIVATE
within the nucleus ENDOCRINE GLANDS
4. Hormone-receptor complex binds to specific
sites on the cell’s DNA HORMONAL STIMULI
5. Certain genes are activated to transcribe • Most common category of stimulus
messenger RNA • Endocrine organs are activated by other
6. New proteins are synthesized hormone
SECOND-MESSENGER SYSTEM EXAMPLE:

• Think of a postal service employee (first • Hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the
messenger) delivering a letter to campus, and anterior pituitary to secrete its hormone
a college mailroom employee (second
messenger) carrying the letter from the college
mailbox (cell membrane) to your dorm mailbox
(DNA).
• The same hormone may have a variety of
possible second messengers (including CYCLIC
GUANOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE, OR CGMP,
AND CALCIUM IONS) and many possible
target cell responses, depending on the tissue
type stimulated.
HUMORAL STIMULI
• Changing blood levels of certain ions and
nutrients stimulate hormone release
• Humoral indicates various body fluids, such as
blood and bile.
1. Hormone (first messenger) binds to a
membrane receptor EXAMPLES:
2. Activated receptor sets off a series of reactions • Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are
that activates an enzyme produced in response to changing levels of
3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that produces a blood calcium levels Insulin is produced in
second messenger response to changing levels of blood glucose
4. molecule (such as cyclic AMP, known as cAMP) levels
5. Oversees additional intracellular changes to
promote a specific response in the target cell
STIMULI FOR CONTROL OF HORMONES RELEASE

• Hormone levels in the blood are maintained
mostly by negative feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood
trigger the release of more hormone
• Hormone release stops once an appropriate
level in the blood is reached

NEURAL STIMULI • Some glands have purely endocrine functions
• Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release o Anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals,
• Most are under the control of the sympathetic parathyroids
nervous system • Endocrine glands are ductless glands
• Hormones are released directly into blood or
EXAMPLES: lymph
• Sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal • Other glands are mixed glands, with both
medulla to release epinephrine and endocrine and exocrine functions (pancreas,
norepinephrine gonads)
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• Are ductless glands that produce hormones
that they release into the blood or lymph.
• (As the endocrine glands have a rich blood
supply.)
EXOCRINE GLANDS
• release their products at the body’s surface or
into body cavities through ducts (they have an
exit).
PITUITARY GLANDS AND HYPOTHALAMUS
HYPOTHALAMUS
THE MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
• produces releasing hormones and inhibiting
• Hypothalamus
hormones
• Pituitary gland
o These hormones are released into portal
• Pineal gland
circulation, which connects hypothalamus
• Thyroid gland
to anterior pituitary
• Parathyroid glands
• Hypothalamus also makes two hormones:
• Thymus
oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
• Adrenal glands
o Carried to posterior pituitary via
• Pancreas
neurosecretory cells for storage
• Gonads (testes and ovaries)
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
• Does not make the hormones it releases Stores
hormones made by the hypothalamus
• Two hormones released
o Oxytocin
o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

OXYTOCIN • Are regulated by hormonal stimuli
• Stimulates contractions of the uterus during • Are regulated mostly by negative feedback
labor, sexual relations, and breastfeeding
• Causes milk ejection (let-down reflex) in a GROWTH HORMONES
breastfeeding woman • General metabolic hormone
• Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH) muscles and long bones
• Inhibits urine production (diuresis) by • Plays a role in determining final body size
promoting water reabsorption by the kidneys • Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
• Urine volume decreases, blood pressure • Causes fats to be broken down for a source of
increases energy
• In large amounts, causes constriction of
arterioles, leading to increased blood pressure HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 9.2
(the reason why ADH is known as vasopressin) PITUITARY DWAFISM
• Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion • Hyposecretion of GH during childhood
• Body proportions are fairly normal, but the
SIX ANTERIOR HORMONONES person as a whole is a living miniature (with a
• Two hormones affect non endocrine targets maximum adult height of 4 feet)
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin GIGANTISM
• Four are tropic hormones • Hypersecretion of GH during childhood
1. Follicle-stimulating hormone o The individual becomes extremely tall;
2. Luteinizing hormone height of 8 to 9 feet is common.
3. Thyrotropic hormone • If hypersecretion occurs after long-bone
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone growth has ended, acromegaly results.
• The facial bones, particularly the lower jaw and
the bony ridges underlying the eyebrows,
enlarge tremendously, as do the feet and
hands.
• Thickening of soft tissues leads to coarse or
malformed facial features. Most cases of
hypersecretion by endocrine organs (the
pituitary and the other endocrine organs)
result from tumors of the affected gland.
• The tumor cells act in much the same way as
the normal glandular cells do; that is, they
produce the hormones normally made by that
gland.
• Pharmacological doses of GH have been used
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 9.1 to reverse some of the effects of aging.
DIABETES INSIPIDUS
• Hyposecretion of ADH leads to a condition of
excessive urine
• People with this problem are continually thirsty
and drink huge amounts of water.
ALL ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

• Are proteins (or peptides)
• Act through second-messenger systems

PROLACTIN (PRL) HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 9.4
• Stimulates and maintains milk production GOITERS
following childbirth • Without iodine, functional thyroid hormones
• Function in males is unknown cannot be made.
• The source of iodine is our diet, and foods
GONADOTROPIC HORMONES richest in iodine are seafoods.
• Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads • Years ago, many people who lived in the
Midwest, in areas with iodine-deficient soil that
FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) were far from the seashore (and a supply of
• Stimulates follicle development in ovaries fresh seafood), developed GOITERS.
• Stimulates sperm development in testes • So, that region of the country came to be
LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH) known as the “GOITER BELT.” A goiter is an
• Triggers ovulation of an egg in females enlargement of the thyroid gland that results
• Stimulates testosterone production in males when the diet is DEFICIENT IN IODINE
CRETINISM
• Hyposecretion of thyroxine may indicate
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 9.3 problems other than iodine deficiency, such as
STERILITY lack of stimulation by TSH
• Hyposecretion of FSH or LH • If it occurs in early childhood
• lack of ability to successfully reproduce, in • results in dwarfism in which adult body
both males and females. proportions remain childlike, with a
• In general, hypersecretion does not appear to proportionally longer torso and shorter legs
cause any problems. compared to normal adults
• However, some drugs used to promote fertility MYXEDEMA
stimulate the release of the gonadotropic • Hypothyroidism occurring in adults
hormones, and multiple births (indicating • characterized by both physical and mental
multiple ovulations at the same time sluggishness (however, mental impairment
• rather than the usual single ovulation each does not occur).
month) are relatively common after their use. • Other signs are puffiness of the face, fatigue,
poor muscle tone, low body temperature (the
THYROTROPIC HOMONE (TH), also called person is always cold), obesity, and dry skin.
THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH) • Oral thyroxine is prescribed to treat this
• Influences growth and activity of the thyroid condition
gland GRAVE’S DISEASE
• is one form of hyperthyroidism
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH) • Hyperthyroidism generally results from a
• Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal tumor of the thyroid gland.
cortex • Extreme over production of thyroxine results in
a high basal metabolic rate, intolerance of
PINEAL GLAND heat, rapid heartbeat, weight loss, nervous and
• Hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of agitated behavior, and a general inability to
the brain relax.
• Secretes MELATONIN • Exophthalmos – symptoms of
o Believed to trigger the body’s sleep/wake hyperthyroidism the thyroid gland enlarges,
cycle and the eyes may bulge, or protrude anteriorly
o Believed to coordinate the hormones of
fertility in humans and to inhibit the
reproductive system until maturity occurs

THYROID GLANDS
• Found at the base of the throat, inferior to the • Hypercalcemic hormone (increases blood
Adam’s apple calcium levels)
• Consists of two lobes and a connecting • Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb
isthmus more calcium
• Follicles are hollow structures that store
colloidal material
• Produces two hormones
o Thyroid hormone
o Calcitonin
THYROID HORMONE THYMUS

• Major metabolic hormone • Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the
• Controls rate of oxidation of glucose to supply sternum
body heat and chemical energy • Largest in infants and children
• Needed for tissue growth and development • Decreases in size throughout adulthood
• Composed of two active iodine-containing • Produces a hormone called thymosin
hormones o Matures some types of white blood cells
THYROXINE (T4) o Important in developing the immune
• secreted by thyroid follicles system
TRIIODOTHYRONINE (T3)
• conversion of T4 at target tissues ADRENAL GLANDS
• Sit on top of the kidneys
CALCITONIN • Two regions
• Decreases blood calcium levels by causing
calcium deposition on bone ADRENAL CORTEX
• Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone • outer glandular region has three layers that
• Produced by parafollicular cells found between • produce corticosteroids
the follicles • Mineralocorticoids are secreted by outermost
layer
PARATHYROID GLANDS • Glucocorticoids are secreted by middle layer
• Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid • Sex hormones are secreted by innermost layer
• Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH) HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX
• Most important regulator of calcium ion MINERALOCORTICOIDS (MAINLY ALDOSTERONE)
(Ca2+) homeostasis of the blood • Produced in outer adrenal cortex
• Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium from • Regulate mineral (salt) content in blood,
bone particularly sodium and potassium ions
• Regulate water and electrolyte balance
• Target organ is the kidney

• Release of aldosterone is stimulated by: ADRENAL MEDULLA
o Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or • inner neural tissue region
too many potassium ions in the blood)
o Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
o Renin and angiotensin II in response to a
drop in blood pressure
• Aldosterone production is inhibited by atrial
natriuretic peptide (ANP), a hormone
produced by the heart when blood pressure is
too high
GLUCOCORTICOIDS (INCLUDING CORTISONE AND

CORTISOL)
• Produced by middle layer of adrenal cortex
• Promote normal cell metabolism HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 9.6
• Help resist long-term stressors by increasing ADDISON’S DISEASE
blood glucose levels (hyperglycemic hormone)
• Anti-inflammatory properties • A generalized hyposecretion of all the adrenal
• Released in response to increased blood levels cortex hormones
• characterized by a peculiar bronze tone of the
of ACTH
skin, which can resemble a suntan
• deficient levels of glucocorticoids, such as
SEX HORMONES
hypoglycemia, a lessened ability to cope with
• Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal
stress (burnout), and suppression of the
cortex
immune system (and thereby increased
• Small amounts are made throughout life susceptibility to infection). A complete lack of
• Most of the hormones produced are glucocorticoids is incompatible with life.
androgens (male sex hormones), but some • Hyperaldosteronism - Hyperactivity of the
estrogens (female sex hormones) are also outermost cortical area
formed • Excessive water and sodium ions are
retained, leading to high blood pressure and
edema.
• Potassium ions are lost to such an extent that
the activity of the heart and nervous system
may be disrupted.

CRUSHING’S SYNDROME PANCREATIC ISLETS
• When the tumor is in the middle cortical area

or the patient has been receiving
PANCREAS
pharmacological doses (amounts higher than
those released in the body) of glucocorticoids • Located in the abdomen, close to stomach
to counteract inflammatory disease • Mixed gland, with both endocrine and exocrine
• Excessive glucocorticoids result in a swollen functions
“moon face” and the appearance of a “buffalo • The pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
hump” of fat on the upper back produce hormones: INSULIN AND GLUCAGON
• masculinization - Hypersecretion of the sex
hormones INSULIN
• For females - A beard develops, and a • Produced by beta cells
masculine pattern of body hair distribution
occurs, among other effects. GLUCAGON
• Produced by alpha cells
HORMONES OF ADRENAL MEDULLA
• Produces two similar hormones • These hormones are antagonists that maintain
(catecholamines) blood sugar homeostasis
o EPINEPHRINE (ADRENALINE)
o NOREPINEPHRINE (NORADRENALINE)
• These hormones prepare the body to deal with
short-term stress (“fight or flight”) by:
o Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood
glucose levels
o Dilating small passageways of lungs
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 9.7
• Damage to or destruction of the adrenal

medulla has no major effects as long as the
sympathetic nervous system neurons continue
to function normally.
• However, hypersecretion of catecholamines
leads to symptoms such as rapid heartbeat,
high blood pressure, and a tendency to HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
perspire and be very irritable.
• Without insulin, the blood level of glucose
• Surgical removal of the catecholamine-
(which normally ranges from 80 to 120 mg/100
secreting cells corrects this condition.

ml of blood) rise to a dramatically high level planned insulin injections is administered
(for example, 600 mg/100 ml of blood). throughout the day.
• In such instances, glucose begins to spill into
the urine because the kidney tubule cells GONADS
cannot reabsorb it fast enough. • Produce sex cells
• Produce sex hormones
DIABETES MELLITUS
• As glucose flushes from the body, water HORMONES OF THE OVARIES
follows, leading to dehydration. • Female gonads located in the pelvic cavity
• Because cells do not have access to glucose, • Produce eggs
fats and even proteins are broken down and • Produce two groups of steroid hormones
used to meet the energy requirements of the o Estrogens
body o Progesterone
• As a result, body weight begins to decline. Loss ESTROGEN
of body proteins leads to a decreased ability to • Stimulate the development of secondary
• fight infections, so diabetics must maintain female characteristics
good hygiene and care for even small cuts and • Mature the female reproductive organs
bruises. WITH PROGESTERONE, ESTROGEN ALSO
• very acidic (acidosis as ketones (intermediate • Promote breast development
products of fat breakdown) appear in the • Regulate menstrual cycle
blood PROGESTERONE
o Ketosis - type of acidosis • Acts with estrogen to bring about the
The three cardinal signs of diabetes mellitus are menstrual cycle
POLYURIA • Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the
• excessive urination to flush out the glucose uterus
and ketones • Helps prepare breasts for lactation
POLYDIPSIA
• excessive thirst resulting from water loss; HORMONES OF THE TESTES
POLYPHAGIA • Male gonads suspended outside the pelvic
• hunger due to inability to use sugars and the cavity
loss of fat and proteins from the body • Produce sperm
• Produce androgens, such as testosterone
TESTOSTERONE
• People with mild cases of diabetes mellitus • Testosterone is the most important androgen
(most cases of type 2, or adult-onset, diabetes) • Responsible for adult male secondary sex
produce insulin, but for some reason their characteristics
insulin receptors are unable to respond to it, a • Promotes growth and maturation of male
situation called insulin resistance. reproductive system
• Required for sperm cell production
TYPE 2 DIABETICS
• are treated with special diets or oral
hypoglycemic medications that prod the
sluggish islets into action and increase the
sensitivity of the target tissues to insulin and of
beta cells to the stimulating effects of glucose.
• To regulate the blood glucose level in the
more severe type 1 (juvenile) diabetic, insulin
is infused continuously by an insulin pump
worn externally or by a regimen of carefully

• Relaxin relaxes pelvic ligaments and pubic
symphysis for childbirth
OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING TISSUES AND

ORGANS
• Other organs that are generally nonendocrine
in function also secrete hormones DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ENDOCRINE
o Stomach SYSTEM
o Small intestine • In the absence of disease, efficiency of the
o Kidneys endocrine system remains high until old age
o Heart • Decreasing function of female ovaries at
menopause leads to such symptoms as
PLACENTA osteoporosis, increased chance of heart
• Produces hormones that maintain pregnancy disease, and possible mood changes
• Some hormones play a part in the delivery of • Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually
the baby decreases with aging, which leads to a
• Produces human chorionic gonadotropin generalized increase in incidence of:
(hCG) in addition to estrogen, progesterone, o Diabetes mellitus
and other hormones o Immune system depression
• Human placental lactogen (hPL) prepares o Lower metabolic rate
the breasts for lactation o Cancer rates in some areas

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND VOLUME
BLOOD
BLOOD CHARACTERISTICS
BLOOD
• Sticky, opaque fluid
• the “river of life.”
• transports everything that must be carried • Heavier and thicker than water
from one place to another within the body— o Color range
nutrients, hormones, wastes (headed for
elimination from the body), and body heat— o Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
through blood vessels. • Oxygen-poor blood is dull red or purple
• Metallic, salty taste
COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD • Blood pH is slightly alkaline, between 7.35
• It is the only fluid tissue in the body. and 7.45
• Although blood appears to be a thick, • Blood temperature is slightly higher than body
homogeneous liquid, the microscope reveals temperature, at 38ºC or 100.4ºF
that it has both solid and liquid components.
BLOOD VOLUME
COMPONENTS • About 5–6 liters, or about 6 quarts, of blood
When blood is separated: are found in a healthy adult
• Blood makes up 8 percent of body weight
• Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45 percent
of blood, a percentage known as the
hematocrit (blood fraction)
PLASMA
• Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets • 90 percent water
(less than 1 percent of blood) • Straw-colored fluid
• Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between the o Includes many dissolved substances
erythrocytes and plasma o Nutrients
o Salts (electrolytes)
• Plasma rises to the top (55 percent of blood)
o Respiratory gases
• Physical Characteristics and Volume o Hormones
o Plasma proteins
o Waste products
PLASMA PROTEINS
• Most abundant solutes in plasma
• Most are made by the liver
Include:
ALBUMIN
• an important blood buffer and contributes
to osmotic pressure
CLOTTING PROTEINS
• help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel
is injured
ANTIBODIES
• help protect the body from pathogens
• Blood composition varies as cells exchange

substances with the blood

o Liver makes more proteins when levels SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
drop
• Deserves a little more attention because
o Respiratory and urinary systems restore
people with this genetic disorder are
blood pH to normal when blood becomes
frequently seen in hospital emergency rooms
too acidic or alkaline • The body does not form normal hemoglobin
• Plasma helps distribute body heat (as in the RBC shown in pa(a) of the figure)
• Instead, abnormal hemoglobin is formed that
becomes spiky and sharp (see part (b) of the
figure) when either oxygen is unloaded or the
FORMED ELEMENTS
oxygen content in the blood decreases below
normal.
• This change in hemoglobin causes the RBCs to
become sickled (crescent-shaped), to rupture
easily, and to dam up small blood vessels.
These events interfere with oxygen delivery
(leaving victims gasping for air) and cause
extreme pain. occurs chiefly in dark skinned
people who live in the malaria belt of Africa
and among their descendants.
• The malaria-causing parasite is prevented from
multiplying within the red blood cells, and
individuals with the sickle cell gene have a
better chance of surviving where malaria is
ERYTHROCYTES
prevalent.
• Red blood cells (RBCs) • Only individuals carrying two copies of the
• Main function is to carry oxygen defective gene have sickle cell anemia.
• RBCs differ from other blood cells • Those carrying just one sickling gene have
o Anucleate (no nucleus) sickle cell
o Contain few organelles; lack • trait (SCT); they generally do not display the
mitochondria symptoms but can pass on the sickling gene to
o Essentially bags of hemoglobin (Hb) their offspring.
o Shaped like biconcave discs
• Normal count is 5 million RBCs per cubic
millimeter (mm3) of blood
• Hemoglobin is an iron-bearing protein
o Binds oxygen
o Each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4
oxygen molecules
o Each erythrocyte has 250 million
hemoglobin molecules
o Normal blood contains 12–18 g of POLYCYTHEMIA
hemoglobin per 100 milliliters (ml) of
blood • An excessive or abnormal increase in the
number of erythrocytes.
ANEMIA • may result from bone marrow cancer
• A decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of (polycythemia vera).
the blood, whatever the reason, • It may also be a normal physiologic
(homeostatic) response to living at high
may be the result of altitudes, where the air is thinner and less
o a lower-than-normal number of RBCs or oxygen is available (secondary polycythemia).
o abnormal or deficient hemoglobin
content in the RBCs.

• Occasionally, athletes participate in illegal
“blood doping,” which is the infusion of a
• In leukemia literally “white blood,” the bone
person’s own RBCs back into their
marrow becomes cancerous, and huge
bloodstream to artificially raise oxygen-
numbers of WBCs are turned out rapidly.
carrying capacity.
• Although this might not appear to present a
• The major problem that results from excessive
problem, the “newborn” WBCs are immature
numbers of RBCs is increased blood viscosity,
and incapable of carrying out their normal
which causes blood to flow sluggishly in the
protective functions. Consequently, the body
body and impairs circulation.
becomes easy prey for disease-causing
bacteria and viruses.
• Additionally, because other blood cell lines are
crowded out, severe anemia and bleeding
problems result
WBCS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO MAJOR GROUPS
GRANULOCYTES
• are granule containing WBCs. They have lobed

nuclei, which typically consist of several
rounded nuclear areas connected by thin
LEUKOCYTES
strands of nuclear material. The granules in
• White blood cells (WBCs) their cytoplasm stain specifically with Wright’s
• Crucial in body’s defense against disease stain.
• Complete cells, with nucleus and organelles
The granulocytes include
• Able to move into and out of blood vessels
(diapedesis) • neutrophils
• Respond to chemicals released by damaged • eosinophils
tissues (known as positive chemotaxis) • basophils
• Move by amoeboid motion
NEUTROPHILS
• 4,800 to 10,800 WBCs per mm3 of blood
• Most numerous WBC
LEUKOCYTOSIS
• Multilobed nucleus
• A total WBC count above 11,000 cells/mm3 • Cytoplasm stains pink and contains fine
• generally, indicates that a bacterial or viral granules
infection is stewing in the body. • Function as phagocytes at active sites of
infection
LEUKOPENIA
• Numbers increase during infection
• Is an abnormally low WBC count (penia = • 3,000–7,000 neutrophils per mm3 of blood
deficiency). (40–70 percent of WBCs)
• It is commonly caused by certain drugs, such
EOSINOPHILS
as corticosteroids and anti-cancer agents.
• Nucleus stains blue-red
• Brick-red cytoplasmic granules
• Function is to kill parasitic worms and play a
LEUKOCYTOSIS role in allergy attacks
• 100–400 eosinophils per mm3 of blood (1–4
• is a normal and desirable response to
percent of WBCs)
infectious threats to the body. By contrast, the
excessive production of abnormal WBCs that BASOPHILS
occurs in infectious mononucleosis and
• Rarest of the WBCs
leukemia is distinctly pathological.

• Large histamine-containing granules that stain
dark blue
• Contain heparin (anticoagulant)
• 20–50 basophils per mm3 of blood (0–1
percent of WBCs)
AGRANULOCYTES
• Lack visible cytoplasmic granules

• Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
• Include lymphocytes and monocytes
LYMPHOCYTES
• Large, dark purple nucleus

• Slightly larger than RBCs
• Reside in lymphatic tissues
• Play a role in immune response
• 1,500–3,000 lymphocytes per mm3 of blood
(20–45 percent of WBCs)
HEMATOPOIESIS (BLOOD CELL FORMATION)
• Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell

MONOCYTES
formation
• Largest of the white blood cells • Occurs in red bone marrow (myeloid tissue)
• Distinctive U- or kidney- shaped nucleus • All blood cells are derived from a common
• Function as macrophages when they migrate stem cell (hemocytoblast)
into tissues • Hemocytoblasts form two types of
• Important in fighting chronic infection descendants
• 100-700 monocytes per mm3 of blood (4- o Lymphoid stem cell, which produces
8percent of WBCs) lymphocytes
o Myeloid stem cell, which can produce all
other formed elements
PLATELETS
• Cell fragments
• Platelets
• Fragments of megakaryocytes (multinucleate
cells)
• Needed for the clotting process
• Normal platelet count is 300,000 platelets
per mm3 of blood
FORMATION OF RED BLOOD CELLS
• Since RBCs are anucleate, they are unable to

divide, grow, or synthesize proteins
• RBCs wear out in 100 to 120 days

• When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by • Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to
phagocytes in the spleen or liver spasm
• Lost cells are replaced by division of • Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow
decreasing blood loss
• Rate of RBC production is controlled by a
hormone called erythropoietin
• Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a
response to reduced oxygen levels in the
blood
• Homeostasis is maintained by negative
feedback from blood oxygen levels
STEP 2: PLATELET PLUG FORMATION
• Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in

a blood vessel
• Platelets become “sticky” and cling to
fibers
• Anchored platelets release chemicals to
attract more platelets
• Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug
(white thrombus)
FORMATION OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS AND

PLATELETS
• WBC and platelet production is controlled

by hormones
o Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and
interleukins prompt bone marrow to
generate leukocytes
o Thrombopoietin stimulates production STEP 3: COAGULATION
of platelets from megakaryocytes • Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF)
• PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF,

HEMOSTASIS blood protein clotting factors, and calcium
ions to trigger a clotting cascade
• Hemostasis is the process of stopping the
bleeding that results from a break in a • Prothrombin activator converts
blood vessel prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)
• Hemostasis involves three phases • Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into
o Vascular spasms hairlike molecules of insoluble fibrin
o Platelet plug formation
o Coagulation (blood clotting) • Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a
clot)
• Within the hour, serum is squeezed from

STEP 1: VASCULAR SPASMS the clot as it retracts
• Immediate response to blood vessel injury o Serum is plasma minus clotting
proteins

• Even normal movements can cause
bleeding from small blood vessels that
require platelets for clotting
• Evidenced by petechiae (small purplish
blotches on the skin)
HEMOPHILIA
• Hereditary bleeding disorder

• Normal clotting factors are missing
• Minor tissue damage can cause life-
threatening prolonged bleeding
• Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
• The clot remains as endothelium
regenerates
BLOOD GROUPS AND TRANSFUSIONS
• The clot is broken down after tissue repair
• Large losses of blood have serious
consequences
o Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes
weakness
o Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,
which can be fatal
• Blood transfusions are given for
substantial blood loss, to treat severe
anemia, or for thrombocytopenia
HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS

DISORDERS OF HEMOSTASIS
• Blood contains genetically determined
proteins known as antigens
UNDESIRABLE CLOTTING • Antigens are substances that the body
recognizes as foreign and that the
• Thrombus
immune system may attack
• A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
o Most antigens are foreign proteins
• Can be deadly in areas such as the lungs
o We tolerate our own “self” antigens
EMBOLUS • Antibodies are the “recognizers” that
bind foreign antibens
• A thrombus that breaks away and floats
• Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that
freely in the bloodstream
will cause blood with certain proteins to
• Can later clog vessels in critical areas such
clump (agglutination) and lyse
as the brain
• There are over 30 common red blood
BLEEDING DISORDERS cell antigens
• The most vigorous transfusion reactions
THROMBOCYTOPENIA
are caused by ABO and Rh blood group
• Insufficient number of circulating platelets antigens
• Arises from any condition that suppresses
the bone marrow

ABO BLOOD GROUP o The immune system becomes
sensitized and begins producing
• Blood types are based on the presence or
antibodies; hemolysis does not occur,
absence of two antigens
because as it takes time to produce
o Type A
antibodies
o Type B
o Second, and subsequent, transfusions
• Presence of both antigens A and B is
involve antibodies attacking donor’s
called type AB
Rh+ RBCs, and hemolysis occurs
• Presence of antigen A is called type A
(rupture of RBCs)
• Presence of antigen B is called type B
• Lack of both antigens A and B is called
• Rh-related problem during pregnancy
type O
o Danger occurs only when the mother
• Type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O is Rh–, the father is Rh+, and the child
blood inherits the Rh+ factor
o RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of
o Type AB is the “universal recipient”
anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood
• Type B can receive B and O blood
• Type A can receive A and O blood

• The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying
• Type O can receive O blood an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the
unborn child
o Type O is the “universal donor”
o The first pregnancy usually proceeds
without problems; the immune system
is sensitized after the first pregnancy
o In a second pregnancy, the mother’s
immune system produces antibodies to
attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic
disease of the newborn)
BLOOD TYPING
• Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and

anti-B serum
• Agglutination or the lack of agglutination
leads to identification of blood type
• Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done
in the same manner
• Cross matching—testing for
agglutination of donor RBCs by the
recipient’s serum, and vice versa
Rh BLOOD GROUP
• Named for the eight Rh antigens

(agglutinogen D)
• Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh-positive),
meaning they carry the Rh antigen
• If an Rh–(Rh-negative) person receives
Rh+ blood:

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 10.4
• Various congenital diseases result from

genetic factors (such as hemophilia and
sickle cell anemia) and from interactions
with maternal blood factors (such as
hemolytic disease of the newborn).
• Dietary factors can lead to abnormalities
in blood cell formation and hemoglobin
production.
• Iron-deficiency anemia is especially
common in women because of their
monthly blood loss during menses.
• The young and the old are particularly at
risk for leukemia.
• With increasing age, chronic types of
leukemias, anemias, and diseases
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF BLOOD involving undesirable clot formation are
more prevalent. However, these are
• Sites of blood cell formation
usually secondary to disorders of the
o The fetal liver and spleen are early
heart, blood vessels, or immune system.
sites of blood cell formation
• The elderly are particularly at risk for
o Bone marrow takes over
pernicious anemia, caused by a lack of
hematopoiesis by the seventh month
vitamin B12, because the stomach
• Congenital blood defects include various mucosa (which produces the intrinsic
types of hemolytic anemias and factor required to absorb vitamin B12)
hemophilia atrophies with age.
• Incompatibility between maternal and

fetal blood can result in fetal cyanosis,
resulting from destruction of fetal blood
cells
• Fetal hemoglobin differs from

hemoglobin produced after birth
• Physiologic jaundice occurs in infants

when the liver cannot rid the body of
hemoglobin breakdown products fast
enough
• Leukemias are most common in the very

young and very old
o Older adults are also at risk for

anemia and clotting disorders

QUESTIONS What is a thrombus?
• A clot in an unbroken blood vessel. Can be
deadly in areas such as the lungs
Which body organ plays the main role in producing

What is erythropoietin?
plasma proteins?
• The hormone that control the rate of
• The liver is the major source of plasma
production of RBCs
proteins.
Universal donor in plasma

What are the three major categories of formed
• AB
elements?
• Erythrocytes
Give 5 components of plasma
• leukocytes
• Water
• platelets
• Salt
• plasma proteins
What determines whether blood is bright red
• other substances
(scarlet) or dull red?
• The color of blood varies with the amount of
What is physiologic jaundice?
oxygen it is carrying. From most oxygen to
• Occurs in infants when the liver cannot rid the
least, the blood goes from scarlet to dull red or
body of hemoglobin breakdown products fast
purple
enough
What is the role of hemoglobin in the red blood

What is hemophilia?
cell?
• Hereditary bleeding disorder
• Hemoglobin transports oxygen and a small
• Normal clotting factors are missing
amount of carbon dioxide in the blood.
• Minor tissue damage can cause life-
threatening prolonged bleeding
Which white blood cells are most important in
body immunity?
What is the universal recipient in blood?
• Lymphocytes are the main actors in body
• AB
immunity.
What are the antibodies and antigens for blood

If you had a severe infection, would you expect
type A?
your WBC count to be closest to 5,000, 10,000, or
• Antigen A
15,000 per mm3?
• Antibodies B
• Infection in the body causes an increase in
WBC count, thus 15,000/mm3
What is thrombocytopenia?
• Insufficient number of circulating platelets
Little Lisa is pale and fatigued. What disorder of
• Arises from any condition that suppresses the
erythrocytes might she be suffering from?
bone marrow
• Anemia
• Even normal movements can cause bleeding
from small blood vessels that require platelets
Are granule containing WBCs. They have lobed
for clotting
nuclei, which typically consist of several rounded
• Evidenced by petechiae (small purplish
nuclear areas connected by thin strands of nuclear
blotches on the skin)
material
• Granulocytes
List the WBC from most abundant to least
• Neutrophil
• Lymphocytes
• Monocytes

• Eosinophils It has the following characteristics anucleate (no
• Basophils nucleus. Contain few organelles; lack mitochondria.
Essentially bags of hemoglobin (Hb). Shaped like
What is pernicious anemia? biconcave discs
• The elderly are particularly at risk • Erythrocytes
• Caused by a lack of vitamin B12, because the
stomach mucosa (which produce the intrinsic What is the pH level of blood?
factor required to absorb vitamin B12) • 7.35 and 7.45
atrophies with age.
The bone marrow becomes cancerous, and huge
These are substances that the body recognizes as numbers of WBCs are turned out rapidly
foreign and that the immune system may attack • Leukemia
• Antigens
Occurs chiefly in dark skinned people who live in
What are the 3 major categories of blood? the malaria belt of Africa and among their
• Erythrocytes descendants
• leukocytes • Sickle cell anemia
• platelets
What is the function of blood?

• Transports everything that must be carried
from one place to another within the body –
nutrients, hormones, wastes (headed for
elimination from the body), and body heat
through blood vessels
What are monocytes?

• Important in fighting chronic infection
What is secondary polycythemia?

• It may also be a normal physiologic
(homeostatic) response to living at high
altitudes, where air is thinner and less oxygen
is available
What is blood temperature?

• 38 degrees Celsius
An excessive or abnormal increase in the number of

erythrocytes
• Polycythemia
Lack of iron in diet or slow/prolonged bleeding

which depletes iron reserves needed to make
hemoglobin
• Iron deficiency anemia
It is a testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by

the recipient’s serum, and vice versa
• Cross matching

Bio 200N

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bio 200N

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bio 200N

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BIO 200N l ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

BIO 200N l ENDTERM

An example will illustrate how these functions

NERVOUS SYSTEM 3 OVERLAPPING FUNCTIONS

1. It uses its millions of sensory receptors to

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM’S FUNCTIONS THE TWO SUBDIVISIONS

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Central nervous system (CNS) consists of the

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

• Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the

A. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM = VOLUNTARY

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

• neuroglia that wrap their flat extensions

• form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in • SYNAPSE

NEURONS = NERVE CELLS HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION BIPOLAR NEURONS

• many extensions from the cell body UNIPOLAR NEURONS

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

ACTION POTENTIAL INITIATION AND GENERATION

• A GRADED POTENTIAL (LOCALIZED

• Many different types of stimuli excite neurons

• A stimulus changes the permeability of the

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

• MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY CHANGES

• The entry of calcium into the axon terminal

TRANSMISSION OF THE SIGNAL AT SYNAPSES

• When the action potential reaches the axon

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

• The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across

• Although there are many types of

TWO TYPES OF REFLEXES

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

a. FREE NERVE ENDINGS (PAIN AND TEMPERATURE

• The PAIN RECEPTORS (actually bare nerve

FIVE ELEMENTS OF A REFLEX ARC

b. MEISSNER’S CORPUSCLE (TOUCH RECEPTOR) • carries message to the integration center

INTEGRATION CENTER (CNS)

• processes information and directs motor

• carries message to an effector

• is the muscle or gland to be stimulated

d. Golgi tendon organ (proprioceptor)

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

• Simplest type • Cortex is superficial gray matter

THREE-NEURON REFLEX ARCS

• Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory

• Located in parietal lobe posterior to central

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

PRIMARY MOTOR AREA

• “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within the HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

The CSF in and around the brain and cord forms a

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER HEMIPLEGIA

• Head injuries are a leading cause of accidental

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE STRUCTURE OF A NERVE

KATHLEEN JAN M. LOS BAÑEZ I BSN1- C I BIO 200N