s

1
Courses Title: Data Communication and
Networking
B.Sc (Entire Computer Science)- III, Semester–V
Course Objectives:

1. To understand the structure of Data Communications System and its components.

2. Be familiarize with different network terminologies.

Course Outcomes: Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to-
1. Familiarize with contemporary issues in network technologies.
2. Know the layered model approach explained in OSI and CP/IP network models
3. Identify different types of network devices and their functions within a network.
4. Know the Basic routing mechanisms, IP addressing scheme and Internetworking concepts.
5. Familiarize with IP and TCP Internet protocols.
6. Understand major concepts involved in design of WAN, LAN and wireless networks.
7. Know the basics of network configuration and maintenance.
8. Know the fundamentals of network security issues.

Unit 1: Introduction to Computer Networks [6]

Network Definition, Network Topologies, Network Classifications, Network
Protocol, Layered Network Architecture, Overview of ISO-OSI Reference Model, Overview of TCP/IP
Protocol Suite.

Unit 2: Data Communication Fundamentals and Techniques [10]

Signals-Analog and Digital Signal, Data-Rate Limits, Digital to Digital Line Encoding Schemes, Pulse Code
Modulation, Parallel and Serial Transmission, Digital to Analog Modulation, Multiplexing Techniques- FDM,
TDM, Transmission Media, Switching: Circuit Switching, Message witching, Packet Switching.

Unit 3: Data Link Layer Functions and Protocols [8]

Design issues, Error Detection and Error Correction Techniques, Data-Link Control- Framing and Flow
Control, Error Recovery Protocols-Stop and Wait ARQ, Go-Back-N ARQ, Point to Point Protocol on Internet.

Unit 4: Multiple Access Protocol and Network Layer [8]

Design issues, CSMA/CD Protocols, Ethernet LANS; Connecting LAN and Back -
Bone Networks-Repeaters, Hubs, Switches, Bridges, Router and Gateways, Networks
Layer Functions and Protocols, Routing, Routing Algorithms, Network Layer Protocol of Internet-IP Protocol,
Internet Control Protocols.

Unit 5: Transport, Session, Presentation and Application Layer Protocol [12]

Transport Services- Error and Flow Control, Connection Establishment and Connection Release,
Flow Control & Buffering, TCP/IP protocol suite, Concept of- TCP, UDP, IP,
FTP, DNS, Telnet, SMTP, POP, HTTP, WWW, ARP, RARP
ReferenceBooks:
• B.A.Forouzan: Data Communications and Networking, Fourth edition, THM Publishing Company Ltd
2007.
• S.Tanenbaum: Computer Networks, Fourth edition, PHI Pvt. Ltd 2002.
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Unit 1: Introduction to Computer Networks

Introduction:
A computer network is a system that connects numerous independent computers in order to share
information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different devices allows users to
communicate more easily.
A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A network
connection can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to connect
computers and tools in any network. A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers,
networking hardware, personal computers, and other specialized or general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a
computer network. Hostnames and network addresses are used to identify them.

➢ Network Definition:
Computer networking refers to interconnected computer devices that can exchange data and share resources
with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications protocols, to transmit
information by using physical or wireless technologies.

➢ Network Topologies:
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other. Two
or more devices connect to a link, two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the
geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another. There are four basic topologies are mesh, star, bus, and ring.

Mesh topology: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
The term dedicated means that the link carries data only between the two devices it connects. To find the
number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each node must
be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be connected to n - 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n - 1
nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links. However, if each
physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2.
In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links.
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Advantages:
1) The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load.
2) Mesh topology is robust.
3) Guaranty of privacy or security.
4) Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy

Disadvantages:
1) Mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.
2) Every device must be connected to every other device, installation and reconnection are difficult.
3) Wiring can be greater than the available space.
4) Hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology
does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send
data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.

Advantages:
1) A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O
port to connect it to any number of others
2) This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
3) Less cabling.
4) If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active,
5) Easy fault identification and isolation.
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Disadvantage:
1) Star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the
whole system is dead.
2) More cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).

Bus Topology: A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector into the main cable to create a
contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into
heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on
the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages:
1) Bus topology include ease of installation.
2) Bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Disadvantages:
1) Difficult to add new devices.
2) Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
3) A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.

Ring Topology: Ring Topology may be a network configuration where device connections create a circular
data path. In this each device is connected to with its exactly two neighboring devices, like points on a circle
which forms like a ring structure. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology.
The topology is named ring topology because one computer is connected to another, with the final one being
connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction.
Each ring incorporates a repeater.
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Advantages
1) Data transmission is relatively straightforward because packets only move in one direction.
2) There is no requirement for a central controller to manage communication between nodes.
3) Easy installation & Reconfiguration
4) Simplified Faulty connections

Disadvantages
1) In a Unidirectional Ring, a data packet must traverse through all nodes.
2) All computers must be turned on in order for them to connect with one another.

Hybrid topology: The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data. When two or more
different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected
with each other will not result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages:
1) Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the
network.
2) Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the
functionality of the existing network.
3) Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
4) Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the
network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages:
1) Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is
very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
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2) Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from
usual Hubs used in other topologies.
3) Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling,
network devices, etc.

➢ Network Classifications:

Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to two primary categories: local-area networks
and wide-area networks and Metropolitan area networks. The category into which a network is determined by
its size. A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 miles; a WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a size in
between are normally referred to as metropolitan area networks and span tens of miles.

Classification of interconnected processors by scale.

PAN= range of individual person(10m)

devices use
thomas zimmerman developed in MIT
type= wired and wireless

A
aaaaaaaaaa

1] Personal Area Network (PAN) is the computer network that connects computers/devices within the range
of an individual person. As PAN provides a network range within a person’s range typically within a range of
10 meters(33 feet) it is called a Personal Area Network. A Personal Area Network typically involves a
computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and other and other entertainment devices
like speakers, video game consoles, etc.
Thomas Zimmerman and other researchers at M.I.T.’s Media Lab first developed the concept of PAN. It is
very useful in the home, offices, and small network areas due to its high performance in terms of flexibility
and efficiency.

Types of Personal Area Network (PAN): There are 2 types depending upon its connection.
Wireless PAN, and 2. Wired PAN.

2] Local Area Network:

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single building or campus
of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in
company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. LANs are
distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics: (1) their size, (2) their transmission
technology, and (3) their topology.

Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By definition, the connections
range in km
privately-owned networks within a single building or campus
types on basis of SIZE, TRANSMISSION,TOPOLOGY
must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet
cables). LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometers) and are privately
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owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to design and
maintain. A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a
short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.

range 1000 km
long distance transmission

3] Wide Area Network:

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio and video information
over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world. The primary
purpose of WAN is computer networking. The networks are linked to communicate with one another. WAN is
also inter connection devices that are capable of communication. The deference between LAN and MAN is
normally limited inside at office, building or campus. WAN is large geographic areas. WAN interconnect
switches, router or modem.

WAN is not associated with a particular location. It helps in communication and sharing the required information
among the connections. WAN is the largest network as compared to MAN and LAN. A WAN may cover a
country, continent, etc. Examples of WAN include broadband services, 3G or 4G connections, etc. Some of the
advantages of WAN are that it covers a larger geographical area, the software, resources, and other information
is shared, has a high bandwidth.
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Example of WAN
The Internet
4G Mobile Broadband Systems
A network of bank cash dispensers.

4] Metropolitan Area Networks:

A Metropolitan Area Network, also called the MAN, is defined as the computer network that joins the
metropolitan areas. MAN works either through wires/ cables or modem. Telephone company network is a
common example of MAN as they provide high-speed DSL(Digital Subscriber line) to the consumers. The
main characteristic of MAN is that it is the interconnection between several links/ networks in a metropolitan
area. Point-to-point connections are used in MAN. The regional sources are often shared in MAN. It is
interesting to note that MAN is either owned by a group or by a network provider. Therefore, the metropolitan
area network is not that expensive. The setup is quite easy, and the internet speed is relatively high. Thus, the
implementation cost is saved in MAN.

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers
the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to
the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good example of a MAN is the part of the
telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer. Another example is the
cable TV network that originally was designed for cable TV, but today can also be used for high-speed data
connection to the Internet.

➢ Network Protocol:
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is anything
capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams to each other
and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
“A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications”. A protocol defines what is communicated,
how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.

The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

“A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications”. A protocol defines what is communicated,
how it is communicated, and when it is communicated
 Syntax=format/structure of data
semanticcs=meaning of each section 9
timing=when data should send and how fast it should be sent
Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern to be
interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation?
Timing: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.

Types of protocols: The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories-
1. Communication
2. Management
3. Security

1. Communication: Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They are
so crucial that it is not possible to have computer networks without them. These protocols formally set out the
rules and formats through which data is transferred. These protocols handle syntax, semantics, error
detection, synchronization, and authentication.
Examples: HTTP, TCP, UDP, IP
2. Management: These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in monitoring,
maintaining, and managing the computer network. These protocols also help in communicating these
requirements across the network to ensure stable communication. Network management protocols can also be
used for troubleshooting connections between a host and a client.
Examples: ICMP, SNMP, FTP, POP3
3. Security: These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These protocols also determine how
the network secures data from any unauthorized attempts to extract or review data. These protocols make sure
that no unauthorized devices, users, services can access the network data. Primarily, these protocols depend
on encryption to secure data.
Examples: SSL, HTTPS, TSL

➢ Layered Network Architecture:

The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces. Each lower layer adds its
services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage communications and run the applications.
It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems. It ensures the
independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher layer without defining how the
services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.

The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.

Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.

Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer entity. These rules
mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages used.

Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.

Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

1. Aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces
2. Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage communications and run the
applications
3. provides modularity and clear interfaces and provides interaction between subsystems.
4. independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher layer without defining how the services are
implemented
Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer entity. These rules
mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages used. 10
Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.
In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer n on another
machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.

ummanagable task
divided
||
small managable task

data pass Upper

To
||
lower layer

ensure both integration and

independence of each layer

protocol +layer = layer architecture

In case of layered architecture, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on
another machine. Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it, until
the lowest layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication takes
place.
In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and manageable tasks.
The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered architecture provides a
clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared among different layers. It also ensures that the
implementation of one layer can be easily replaced by another implementation. A set of layers and protocols is
known as network architecture.

➢ Overview of ISO-OSI Reference Model:

The OSI model is shown in Fig. This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers. (Day
and Zimmermann, 1983). It was revised in 1995 (Day, 1995).The model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems.

Figure -The OSI reference model.

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1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical
connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible
for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal
received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back
together.

The functions of the physical layer are as follows:

Bit synchronization, Bit rate control, Physical topologies and Transmission mode:

✓ Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

✓ Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware
Layers.
1. lowest layer of the OSI reference model
2. actual physical connection between the devices.
3. contains information in the form of bits.
4. transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
5. receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer,
6. functions:Bit synchronization, Bit rate control, Physical topologies and Transmission mode:
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2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this
layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the1.responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message
Data Link Layer is divided into two 2.submake
layers:
sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another
3. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to
1. Logical Link Control (LLC) the Host using its MAC address.
2. Media Access Control (MAC) 4. two types: 1. LLC and MAC
5. Framing, Physical addressing, Error control, Flow Control, Access control
6. Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
7. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device
drivers of host machines.
8. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
The functions of the Data Link layer are:
Framing, Physical addressing, Error control, Flow Control, Access control

✓ Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

✓ Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
✓ Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer.
The functions of the Network layer are:
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines
an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
1. works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks
2. takes care of packet routing
3. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
4. sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
5. determine which route is suitable from source to destinations known as routing
6. Identify each device uniquely on network using IP
✓ Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet.
✓ Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer.
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the
complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
1. provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer.
2. data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments
3. End to End Delivery of the complete message
4. provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
5. At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also
implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
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At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation,
and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, authentication, and
also ensures security.
1. establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, authentication, and also ensures security
2. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination:
3. All the below 3 layers (including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP
The functions of themodel
session
as layer are: Layer
“Application
4. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known
1. Session establishment, maintenance,
as Upper Layers or Softwareand termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish,
Layers.
use and terminate a connection.

✓ All the below 3 layers (including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP model
as “Application Layer”.
✓ Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known
as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted
here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.

The functions of the presentation layer are:

• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted
data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred
1. also
over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the called the
application Translation
services layer.the network and
to access
for displaying the received information to the user. 2. data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that arethe network needed by users. One widely-used
commonly
application protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is theFor
3. Translation: example,
basis for the ASCII
WorldtoWide
EBCDIC.
Web.
4. Encryption/ Decryption: encrypted
data is known as the ciphertext and e decrypted data is
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc. known as plain text.
✓ Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer. 5.key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
6. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
1. top of the OSI Reference Model transmitted on the network.
2. implemented by the network applications
3. produce the data, which has to be transferredover the network
4. serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
5. contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users.
6. HTTP
7. ex. Skype messenger,crome
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➢ Overview of TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

(TCP) Stands for Transmission Control Protocol / IP – stands for Internet Protocol. The OSI
reference model to the reference model used in the grandparent of all wide area computer networks, the
ARPANET, and its successor, the worldwide Internet. The TCP/IP reference model defines what functions
should be performed by which layer and by using which protocols. Each layer in this model uses some defined
protocols. The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior/before to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the
TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as having four layers:

1. Link Layer, 2. Internet Layer, 3. Transport Layer, and 4. Application Layer.

However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the Link Layer is equivalent to the
combination of the physical and data link layers. The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the
application layer is approximately doing the job of the session, presentation, and application layers with the
transport layer in TCP/IP taking care of part of the duties of the session layer.

Following the below figure of TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

1> select layer and protocol
2>TCP/IP developed before OSI
3>cause layer don't match with OSI

lowest layer of tcp/ip

physical+ data link layer
encapsulate IP datagram =>frames transfred
mapping IP into physical address
protocol= ether,tokeen ring ,other

1. Link Layer: A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model. A network layer is the combination
of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference model. It defines how the data should be
sent physically through the network. This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between
two devices on the same network. The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses. The protocols used by
this layer are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

2. Internet Layer: This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer
are:
IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the
destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4
addresses are limited in number when compared to the number of users.
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ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible
for providing hosts with information about network problems.

ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP
address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.

3. Transport layer: Provides communication session management between host computer and Defines the
level of services. It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. The two
main protocols present in this layer are:
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – TCP is connection-oriented protocol. TCP is comparatively
slower than UDP. It is known to provide reliable and error-free communication between end systems. It
performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of
the data through flow control mechanism.

2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – UDP is connectionless protocol. UDP is a much faster, simpler, and
efficient protocol. The delivery of data to the destination cannot be guaranteed in UDP. UDP has only the basic
error checking mechanism using checksums. No acknowledgment segment.

4. Application Layer: An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model. It is responsible for
handling high-level protocols, issues of representation. This layer allows the user to interact with the
application. When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over the
World Wide Web.

SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for managing the
devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.

SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is
known as a Simple mail transfer protocol.

DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a host to the
internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the
name to the address is known as Domain Name System.

TELNET: It is Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local computer and remote
computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.

FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting the files
from one computer to another computer.