• Reproductive system

Both males & females

reproductive germ cells; gametes.
produce specialised
– Male gametes; spermatozoa
– Female gametes; ova.
– Contain the genetic material/genes, on chromosomes, which pass inherited
characteristics on to the next generation.
• In other body cells there are 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs but in the
gametes there are only 23, one from each pair.
• Gametes are formed by meiosis

Functions of reproductive system

Female
1.formation of female gametes, ova
2.reception of male gametes, spermatozoa
3.provision of suitable environments for fertilisation of the ovum by spermatozoa and
development of the resultant fetus
4.Parturition
 FEMALE
5.Lactation.
Male
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
1.production of male gametes, spermatozoa
2.transmission of spermatozoa to the female.

S
• Divided into external & internal organs.
A) External genitalia (vulva)
• Consist of labia majora & labia minora, clitoris, vaginal orifice, vestibule, hymen &
the vestibular glands (Bartholin's glands).
a) Labia majora
• 2 large folds which form the boundary of the vulva.
• Composed of skin, fibrous tissue & fat and contain large numbers of sebaceous
glands.
• Anteriorly, the folds join in front of the symphysis pubis, & posteriorly they merge with
the skin of the perineum.
• At puberty hair grows on the mons pubis & on the lateral surfaces of the labia
majora.

b) Labia minora
• 2 smaller folds of skin between the labia majora, containing numerous sebaceous
glands.
• Cleft between the labia minora is the vestibule.
• Vagina, urethra & ducts of the greater vestibular glands open into the vestibule.
c) Clitoris
• Corresponds to the penis in the male & contains sensory nerve endings &
erectile tissue.
d) Hymen
• Thin layer of mucous membrane which partially occludes the opening of the vagina.
Normally incomplete to allow for passage of menstrual flow.
e) Vestibular glands (Bartholin’s glands)
• Situated one on each side near the vaginal opening.
• About the size of a small pea & have ducts, opening into the vestibule immediately
lateral to the attachment of the hymen. They secrete mucus that keeps the vulva
moist.
Blood supply, lymph drainage & nerve supply
• Arterial supply: by branches from the internal pudendal arteries that branch from the
internal iliac arteries and by external pudendal arteries that branch from the
femoral arteries.
• Venous drainage: Forms a large plexus which eventually drains into
the internal iliac veins.
• Lymph drainage: Through the superficial inguinal nodes.
• Nerve supply: by branches from pudendal nerves.
• Perineum
• Area extending from the base of the labia minora to the anal canal.
• Roughly triangular & consists of connective tissue, muscle and fat.
• Gives attachment to the muscles of the pelvic floor1218

INTERNAL GENITALIA
• Lie in the pelvic cavity
• Consist of vagina, uterus, 2 uterine tubes & 2 ovaries.
a) Vagina
• Fibromuscular tube lined with stratified squamous epithelium, connecting the
external & internal organs of reproduction.
• Runs obliquely upwards & backwards at an angle of about 45° between the
bladder in front & rectum & anus behind.
• Adult; anterior wall is about 7.5 cm (3 inches) long & the posterior wall about 9
cm long.
• Difference is due to the angle of insertion of the cervix through the anterior wall.
1219
Female reproductive organs in the pelvis 1220
 Female reproductive organs in the pelvis and associated struct1u22r1es

• Structure of the vagina

• 3 layers:
(1) an outer covering of areolar tissue,
(2) a middle layer of smooth muscle
(3) an inner lining of stratified squamous epithelium that forms ridges or rugae.
• Has no secretory glands but the surface is kept moist by cervical secretions.
• Between puberty & menopause, Lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria are normally
present which secrete lactic acid, maintaining the pH between 4.9 and 3.5.
• Acidity inhibits the growth of most microbes that may enter the vagina from the
perineum.
 1222

Blood supply, lymph drainage & nerve supply

• Arterial supply: by an arterial plexus formed round the vagina, derived from the
uterine & vaginal arteries which are branches of the internal iliac arteries.
• Venous drainage: by a venous plexus, situated in the muscular wall, drains into
the internal iliac veins.
• Lymph drainage. Through the deep & superficial iliac glands.
• Nerve supply: Parasympathetic fibres from the sacral outflow, sympathetic fibres
from the lumbar & somatic sensory fibres from the pudendal nerves.
• Functions of the vagina
(1) Acts as the receptacle for the penis during coitus
(2) provides an elastic passageway through which the baby passes during
childbirth.1223

b) Uterus
• Hollow muscular pear-shaped organ, flattened antero-posteriorly.
• Lies in the pelvic cavity between the urinary bladder & the rectum.
• Leans forward (anteversion), & is bent forward (anteflexion) almost at right angles to
the vagina, so that its anterior wall rests partly against the bladder below, & forming
the vesicouterine pouch between the two organs.
• When the body is in the upright position the uterus lies in an almost horizontal
position.
• About 7.5 cm long, 5 cm wide & its walls are about
2.5 cm thick.
- Weighs from 30 to 40 grams.
• Its parts are the fundus, body & cervix
• The fundus: Dome-shaped part of the uterus above the openings of the uterine tubes.
• The body: main part.
(1) Narrowest inferiorly at the internal os where it is continuous with the cervix.
• The cervix ('neck' of the uterus): Protrudes through the anterior wall of the vagina,
opening into it at the external os.
Structure of the uterus
• Walls are composed of 3 layers of tissue: perimetrium, myometrium & endometrium
(1) Perimetrium
• Peritoneum, which is distributed differently on the various surfaces of the uterus.
• Anteriorly, it extends over the fundus & the body where it is folded on to the upper
surface of the urinary bladder forming the vesicouterine pouch.
• Posteriorly, the peritoneum extends over the fundus, the body and the cervix, then
it continues on to the rectum to form the rectouterine pouch (of Douglas).
• Laterally, only the fundus is covered because the peritoneum forms a double fold
with the uterine tubes in the upper free border.
 • This double fold is the broad ligament which, at its lateral ends, attaches the
uterus to the sides of the pelvis.
(2) Myometrium
• Thickest layer of tissue in the uterine wall.
• Mass of smooth muscle fibres interlaced with areolar tissue, blood vessels &
nerves.

(3) Endometrium
• Consists of columnar epithelium containing a large number of mucus-secreting
tubular glands.
• Divided functionally into 2 layers.
The functional layer: upper layer & it thickens & becomes rich in blood vessels in the first
half of the menstrual cycle. If the ovum is not fertilised & does not implant, it’s shed
during menstruation.
The basal layer: lies next to the myometrium, and is not lost during menstruation. Layer
from which the fresh functional layer is regenerated during each cycle.
• Upper two-thirds of the cervical canal is lined with this mucous membrane.

Section of the uterus 1228

 Blood supply, lymph drainage & nerve supply
• Arterial supply: by the uterine arteries; branches of the internal iliac arteries.
– Supply the uterus & uterine tubes & join with the ovarian arteries to supply the
ovaries.
– Branches pass downwards to anastomose with the vaginal arteries to supply the
vagina.
• Venous drainage: Veins follow the same route as the arteries & drain into the
internal iliac veins.
• Lymph drainage: by deep & superficial lymph vessels which drain lymph from uterus
& uterine tubes to the aortic lymph nodes & groups of nodes associated with the
iliac blood vessels.
• Nerve supply: Parasympathetic fibres from the sacral outflow & sympathetic fibres
from the lumbar outflow.

• Supports of the uterus

• By surrounding organs, muscles of the pelvic floor & ligaments that
suspend it from the walls of the pelvis.
• Supporting structures
Broad ligaments. Formed by a double fold of peritoneum, one on each side of the
uterus.
 • Hang down from the uterine tubes as though draped over them & at their lateral
ends they are attached to the sides of the pelvis.
• Uterine tubes are enclosed in the upper free border
• Near the lateral ends they penetrate the posterior wall of the broad ligament & open
into the peritoneal cavity.
• Ovaries are attached to the posterior wall, one on each side.
• Blood, lymph vessels & nerves pass to the uterus & uterine tubes between the
layers of the broad ligaments.

(b) Round ligaments: Bands of fibrous tissue between the 2 layers of broad ligament,
one on each side of the uterus.
• Pass to the sides of the pelvis then through the inguinal canal to end by fusing with
the labia majora.

(c) Uterosacral ligaments. Originate from the posterior walls of the cervix & vagina
& extend backwards, one on each side of the rectum, to the sacrum.
(d) Transverse cervical ligaments (cardinal ligaments).
• Extend one from each side of the cervix & vagina to the side walls of the pelvis.
Pubocervical fascia. Extends forward from the transverse cervical ligaments on each
e of the bladder & is attached to the posterior surface of the pubic bones.

Functions of the uterus

1.After puberty, the endometrium of the uterus goes through a regular monthly cycle of
changes, the menstrual cycle; to prepare the uterus to receive, nourish & protect a
fertilised ovum. If the ovum is not fertilised a new cycle begins with a short period
of bleeding (menstruation).
2.If the ovum is fertilised the zygote embeds itself in the uterine wall. The uterine
muscle grows to accommodate the embryo during its first 8 weeks, and a fetus for
the remainder of the pregnancy.
3.Uterine secretions nourish the ovum before it implants in the endometrium, & after
implantation the rapidly expanding ball of cells is nourished by the endometrial
cells themselves.
4.Provides attachment to the placenta, which provides the means by which the
growing baby receives oxygen & nutrients & gets rid of its wastes.
5.During labour, the uterus forcefully expels the baby by means of powerful
rhythmical contractions.
(c) Uterine tubes (Fallopian tubes)
• About 10 cm long & extend from the sides of the uterus between the body & the
fundus.
• Lie in the upper free border of the broad ligament
• Their trumpet-shaped lateral ends penetrate the posterior wall, opening into the
peritoneal cavity close to the ovaries.
• End of each tube has fingerlike projections; fimbriae. Longest is the ovarian fimbria
which is in close association with the ovary.
Structure of the uterine tubes
• Have an outer covering of peritoneum (broad ligament), a middle layer of smooth
muscle & are lined with ciliated epithelium.
Blood supply, lymph drainage & nerve supply
• Same as for the uterus.
Function of the uterine tubes
• Convey the ovum from the ovary to the uterus by peristalsis & cilliary
movement.
• Mucus secreted by the lining membrane provides ideal conditions for movement of
ova & spermatozoa.
• Fertilisation of the ovum usually takes place in the uterine tube.

Structure of the uterine tubes

• Have an outer covering of peritoneum (broad ligament), a middle layer of smooth
muscle & are lined with ciliated epithelium.
Blood supply, lymph drainage & nerve supply
• Same as for the uterus.
Function of the uterine tubes
• Convey the ovum from the ovary to the uterus by peristalsis & cilliary
movement.
• Mucus secreted by the lining membrane provides ideal conditions for movement of
ova & spermatozoa.
• Fertilisation of the ovum usually takes place in the uterine tube.
c) Ovaries
• Female gonads/glands
• Lie in a shallow fossa on the lateral walls of the pelvis.
• 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, 2 cm wide & 1 cm thick.
• Each is attached to the upper part of the uterus by the ovarian ligament & to the
back of the broad ligament by a broad band of tissue, the mesovarium.
– Blood vessels and nerves pass to the ovary through the mesovarium.
Structure of the ovaries
• 2 layers of tissue.
i) The medulla. Lies in the centre & consists of fibrous tissue, blood vessels & nerves.
ii) The cortex. Surrounds the medulla.
• Has a framework of connective tissue, or stroma, covered by germinal
epithelium.
• Contains ovarian follicles in various stages of maturity, each of which
contains an ovum.
• Before puberty the ovaries are inactive but the stroma already contains
immature (primordial) follicles, which the female has from birth.
• During the childbearing years, about every 28 days, one ovarian follicle (Graafian
follicle) matures, ruptures & releases its ovum into the peritoneal cavity (ovulation).
 Development of the ovarian follicle1238

Blood supply, lymph drainage & nerve supply

• Arterial supply: by the ovarian arteries, which branch from the abdominal aorta
just below the renal arteries.
• Venous drainage: a plexus of veins behind the uterus from which the ovarian veins
arise. Right ovarian vein opens into the inferior vena cava & the left into the left renal
vein.
• Lymph drainage: to the lateral aortic & pre-aortic lymph nodes. Lymph vessels follow
the same route as the arteries.
• Nerve supply: by parasympathetic nerves from the sacral outflow & sympathetic
nerves from the lumbar outflow.

• Functions of the ovaries

• Maturation of the follicle is stimulated by FSH from the anterior pituitary, and
oestrogen secreted by the follicle lining cells.
• Ovulation is triggered by a surge of LH from the anterior pituitary, which occurs
a few hours before ovulation.
• After ovulation, the follicle lining cells develop into the corpus luteum (yellow body),
under the influence of LH.
• Corpus luteum produces progesterone & some oestrogen.
• If the ovum is fertilised it embeds itself in the wall of the uterus where it grows &
develops & produces the hormone human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), which
stimulates the corpus luteum to continue secreting progesterone & oestrogen for
the first 3 months of the pregnancy after which time this function is continued by
the placenta.
• If the ovum is not fertilised the corpus luteum degenerates & a new cycle
begins with menstruation.
 Puberty in the female
• At the site of the degenerate corpus luteum an inactive mass of fibrous
tissue forms; corpus albicans.
• Sometimes more than one follicle matures at a time, releasing 2 or more ova in
the same cycle. – When this happens & the ova are fertilised; result is a
multiple pregnancy.

• Puberty: age at which internal reproductive organs reach maturity. Called the
menarche; marks the beginning of the childbearing period.
• Age of puberty varies between 10 & 14 years & a number of physical and
psychological changes take place at this time:
terus, uterine tubes & ovaries reach maturity
√ menstrual cycle & ovulation begin (menarche)
reasts develop & enlarge
ubic & axillary hair begins to grow
√ there is an increase in the rate of growth in height & widening of the pelvis
√ there is an increase in the amount of fat deposited in the subcutaneous tissue,
especially at the hips & breasts.
 The menstrual cycle
• Def: a series of events, occurring regularly in females every 26 to 30 days throughout
the childbearing period of about 36 years.
• Consists of a series of changes that take place concurrently in the ovaries & uterine
walls, stimulated by changes in the blood concentrations of hormones.
• Hormones secreted in the cycle are regulated by negative feedback
mechanisms.
• Hypothalamus secretes LHRH which stimulates the anterior pituitary to
secrete:
– FSH, which promotes the maturation of ovarian follicles & the secretion of
oestrogen, leading to ovulation
– LH, which triggers ovulation, stimulates the development of the corpus luteum & the
secretion of progesterone.

a) Menstrual phase
• When the ovum is not fertilised, the corpus luteum starts to degenerate.
Progesterone & oestrogen levels fall, & the functional layer of the endometrium,
which is dependent on high levels of these ovarian hormones, is shed in
menstruation.
• Menstrual flow consists of the secretions from endometrial glands, endometrial
cells, blood from the broken down capillaries & unfertilised ovum.
• Falling levels of oestrogen & progesterone lead to resumed anterior pituitary activity,
rising FSH levels & the initiation of the next cycle.

b) Proliferative phase
• Ovarian follicle, stimulated by FSH, grows towards maturity & produces oestrogen.
• Oestrogen stimulates the proliferation of the functional layer of the endometrium in
preparation for the reception of a fertilised ovum.
• Endometrium becomes thicker by rapid cell multiplication accompanied by an
increase in the numbers of mucus-secreting glands & blood capillaries.
• Ends when ovulation occurs & oestrogen production declines.

c) Secretory phase
• Immediately after ovulation, the lining cells of the ovarian follicle are stimulated by
LH to develop the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone & some oestrogen.
• Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium becomes oedematous
& the secretory glands produce increased amounts of watery mucus, which
assists the passage of the spermatozoa through the uterus to the uterine tubes
where the ovum is usually fertilised.
• Similar increase in the secretion of watery mucus by the glands of the uterine tubes &
by cervical glands which lubricate the vagina also occurs.

The ovum may survive in a fertilisable form for a very short time after ovulation;
about 8 hours.
• Spermatozoa, deposited in the vagina during coitus, may be capable of fertilising
the ovum for only about 24 hours although they may survive for several days.
– This means that the period in each cycle during which fertilisation can occur is
relatively short.
• Time of ovulation can be determined by observing certain changes in the
woman's body around this period.
• Changes in cervical mucus, from thick & dry in consistency to thin, elastic & watery,
are detected &, in addition, body temperature rises by a small but measurable
amount immediately following ovulation.

• If the ovum is not fertilised menstruation occurs & a new cycle begins.
• If the ovum is fertilised there is no breakdown of the endometrium & no
menstrual flow.
 MENOPAUSE (CLIMACTERIC)
• Fertilised ovum (zygote) travels through the uterine tube to the uterus where it
becomes embedded in the wall and produces hCG.
• hCG keeps the corpus luteum intact, enabling it to continue secreting progesterone
& oestrogen for the first 3 to 4 months of the pregnancy, inhibiting the maturation
of further ovarian follicles.
– During that time the placenta develops & produces oestrogen, progesterone &
gonadotrophins.

• Occurs between the ages of 45 & 55 years, marking the end of the childbearing
period.
• May occur suddenly or over a period of years, sometimes as long as 10
years
• Caused by changes in sex hormone levels.
• Ovaries gradually become less responsive to FSH and LH, & ovulation and the
menstrual cycle become irregular, eventually ceasing.
• Several other phenomena may occur at the same time including:
– short-term unpredictable vasodilatation with flushing, sweating & palpitations,
causing discomfort & disturbance of the normal sleep pattern
 BREASTS (MAMMARY GLANDS)
– shrinkage of the breasts
xillary & pubic hair become sparse
Accessory glands of the female reproductive
trophy of the sex organs
– episodes of uncharacteristic behaviour sometimes occur, e.g. irritability, mood
system.
changes
radual thinning of the skin
oss of bone mass that predisposes to osteoporosis
– slow increase in blood cholesterol levels that predisposes postmenopausal
women to cardiovascular disorders.
• Similar changes occur after bilateral irradiation or surgical removal of the
ovaries.

•
• Also in the male but in only a rudimentary form.
• In the female the breasts are small & immature until puberty. Thereafter they
grow and develop to their mature size under the influence of oestrogen and
progesterone. During pregnancy these hormones stimulate further growth.
• After the baby is born the hormone prolactin from the anterior pituitary stimulates the
production of milk, and oxytocin from the posterior pituitary stimulates the release
of milk in response to the stimulation of the nipple by the sucking baby, by a positive
feedback mechanism.
Structure of the breast
• Consists of glandular tissue, fibrous tissue and fatty tissue.
• Each breast consists of about 20 lobes of glandular tissue, each lobe being made up
of a number of lobules that radiate around the nipple.
• The lobules consist of a cluster of alveoli which open into small ducts and these
unite to form large excretory ducts, called lactiferous ducts.
• The lactiferous ducts converge towards the centre of the breast where they form
dilatations or reservoirs for milk.
• Leading from each dilatation, or lactiferous sinus, is a narrow duct which opens on to
the surface at the nipple.

• Fibrous tissue supports the glandular tissue and ducts, and fat covers the surface of
the gland and is found between the lobes.
• The nipple.
• A small conical eminence at the centre of the breast surrounded by a pigmented area,
the areola.
• On the surface of the areola are numerous sebaceous glands (Montgomery's
tubercles) which lubricate the nipple during lactation.

Blood supply, lymph drainage and nerve supply

• Arterial blood supply: by blood from the thoracic branches of the axillary arteries
and from the internal mammary and intercostal arteries.
• Venous drainage: by an anastomotic circle round the base of the nipple from
which branches carry the venous blood to the circumference and end in the
axillary and mammary veins.
• Lymph drainage: Mainly into the axillary lymph vessels and nodes. Lymph may
drain through the internal mammary nodes if the superficial route is obstructed.
• Nerve supply: by branches from the 4th, 5th and 6th thoracic nerves which
contain sympathetic fibres.
• There are numerous somatic sensory nerve endings in the breast especially
around the nipple. When these touch receptors are stimulated by sucking,
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
impulses pass to the hypothalamus and the flow of the hormone oxytocin is
increased, promoting the release of milk.
Function of the breast
• Production of milk (lactation).

• Consists of the following organs:

– 2 testes
– 2 epididymides
– 2 deferent ducts (vas deferens)
– 2 spermatic cords
– 2 seminal vesicles
– 2 ejaculatory ducts
– 1 prostate gland
– 1 penis
 Male reproductive organs and associated structures1259

a) Scrotum
• A pouch of deeply pigmented skin, fibrous and connective tissue and
smooth muscle.
• Divided into 2 compartments each of which contains one testis, one epididymis
and the testicular end of a spermatic cord.
• Lies below the symphysis pubis, in front of the upper parts of the thighs and
behind the penis.
b) Testes
• The reproductive glands of the male and are the equivalent of the ovaries
in the female.
• Are about 4.5 cm long, 2.5 cm wide and 3 cm thick
• Suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic cords.
• Are surrounded by three layers of tissue.
i) The tunica vaginalis: A double membrane, forming
the outer covering of the testes, and is a downgrowth of the abdominal and pelvic
peritoneum.
• During early fetal life the testes develop in the lumbar region of the abdominal
cavity just below the kidneys.
• They then descend into the scrotum taking with them coverings of peritoneum,
blood and lymph vessels, nerves and the deferent duct.
The peritoneum eventually surrounds the testesin the scrotum, and becomes
detached from the abdominal peritoneum.
• Descent of the testes into the scrotum should be complete by the 8th month of
fetal life.
ii) The tunica albuginea: a fibrous covering beneath the tunica vaginalis that
surrounds the testes. Ingrowths form septa dividing the glandular structure of
the testes into lobules.
iii) The tunica vasculosa: Consists of a network of capillaries supported by delicate
connective tissue.
• Structure of the testes
• In each testis are 200 to 300 lobules and within each lobule are 1 to 4 convoluted
loops composed of germinal epithelial cells, called seminiferous tubules.
• Between the tubules there are groups of interstitial cells (of Leydig) that secrete the
hormone testosterone after puberty.
• At the upper pole of the testis the tubules combine to form a single tubule. This
tubule, about 6 m in its full length, is repeatedly folded and tightly packed into a
mass called the epididymis. It leaves the scrotum as the deferent duct (vas
deferens) in the spermatic cord.
• Blood and lymph vessels pass to the testes in the spermatic cords.
 Testis and its coverings1264

Functions of the testes

• Spermatozoa (sperm) are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, and
mature as they pass through the long and convoluted epididymis, where they
are stored.
• Sperm production is controlled by hormone FSH from the anterior pituitary.
Spermatozoa
• A mature sperm has a head, a body, and a long whip-like tail that is used for
motility.
• The head is almost completely filled by the nucleus containing its DNA. It also
contains the enzymes required to penetrate the outer layers of them to reach, and
fuse with, its nucleus.
• The body of the sperm is packed with mitochondria, which fuel the propelling action
of the tail that powers the sperm on its journey into the female reproductive tract.
• Successful spermatogenesis takes place at a temperature about 3°C
below normal body temperature.
• The testes are cooled by their position outside the abdominal cavity, and the thin
outer covering of the scrotum has very little insulating fat.

A spermatozoon1267

c) The spermatic cords

• Suspend the testes in the scrotum.
• Each cord contains a testicular artery, testicular veins, lymphatics, a deferent duct
and testicular nerves, which come together to form the cord from their various
origins in the abdomen.
• The cord, which is covered in a sheath of smooth muscle and connective and
fibrous tissues, extends through the inguinal canal and is attached to the testis on
the posterior wall.
• The testicular artery. branches from the abdominal aorta, just below the renal
arteries.
• The testicular vein: passes into the abdominal cavity. The left vein opens into
the left renal vein and the right into the inferior vena cava.
• Lymph drainage. Through lymph nodes around the aorta.
• The deferent duct. About 45 cm long. It passes upwards from the testis through the
inguinal canal and ascends medially towards the posterior wall of the bladder
where it is joined by the duct from the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct.
th th
• The nerve supply: by branches from the 10 and 11 thoracic nerves.

d) Seminal vesicles
• 2 small fibromuscular pouches lined with columnar epithelium, lying on the posterior
aspect of the bladder.
• At its lower end each seminal vesicle opens into a short duct which joins with the
corresponding deferent duct to form an ejaculatory duct.
Functions of the seminal vesicles
• They contract and expel, seminal fluid, during ejaculation.
• Seminal fluid, which forms 60% of the bulk of the fluid ejaculated at male orgasm,
contains nutrients to support the sperm during their journey through the female
reproductive tract.

d) Ejaculatory ducts
• 2 tubes about 2 cm long, each formed by the union of the duct from a seminal
vesicle and a deferent duct.
• They pass through the prostate gland and join the prostatic urethra, carrying
seminal fluid and spermatozoa to the urethra.
• Are composed of the same layers of tissue as the seminal vesicles.
e) Prostate gland
• Lies in the pelvic cavity in front of the rectum and behind the symphysis pubis,
surrounding the first part of the urethra.
• Consists of an outer fibrous covering, a layer of smooth muscle and glandular
substance composed of columnar epithelial cells.
Functions of the prostate gland
• Secretes a thin, milky fluid that makes up about 30% of semen, and gives it its
milky appearance.
• It is slightly alkaline, which provides a protective local environment for sperm
arriving in the acidic vagina.
• It also contains a clotting enzyme, which thickens the semen in the vagina, increasing
the likelihood of semen being retained in the vicinity of the cervix.

A section of the prostate and associated structures 1273

f)Urethra
• Provides a common pathway for the flow of urine and semen.
• About 19 to 20 cm long
• Consists of 3 parts:
– The prostatic urethra originates at the urethral orifice of the bladder and passes
through the prostate gland.
– The membranous urethra is the shortest and narrowest part and extends from the
prostate gland to the bulb of the penis, after passing through the perineal membrane.
– The spongiose or penile urethra lies within the corpus spongiosum of the penis and
terminates at the external urethral orifice in the glans penis.
• There are two urethral sphincters. The internal sphincter consists of smooth
muscle fibres at the neck of the bladder above the prostate gland.
• The external sphincter consists of skeletal muscle fibres surrounding the
membranous part.
g) Penis
• Has a root and a body.
• The root lies in the perineum and the body surrounds the urethra.
• Formed by three cylindrical masses of erectile tissue and involuntary muscle.
• The erectile tissue is supported by fibrous tissue and covered with skin and has a
rich blood supply.
• The two lateral columns are called the corpora cavernosa and the column
between them, containing the urethra, is the corpus spongiosum.
• At its tip it is expanded into a triangular structure known as the glans penis.
• Just above the glans the skin is folded upon itself and forms a movable double
layer, the foreskin or prepuce.
• Arterial blood: supplied by deep, dorsal and bulbar arteries of the penis which are
branches from the internal pudendal arteries.
• Venous drainage: A series of veins drain blood to the internal pudendal and
internal iliac veins.
• Nerve supply: by autonomic and somatic nerves.
– Parasympathetic stimulation leads to filling of the spongy erectile tissue with blood,
caused by arteriolar dilatation and venoconstriction, which increases blood flow
into the penis and obstructs outflow.
– The penis therefore becomes engorged and erect, an essential prerequisite
for coitus to occur.
 Ejaculation
Occurs at the point of male orgasm.
•
• Spermatozoa are expelled from the epididymis and pass through the deferent
duct, the ejaculatory duct and the urethra.
• The semen is propelled by powerful rhythmical contraction of the smooth
muscle in the walls of the deferent duct; the muscular contractions are
sympathetically mediated.
• Muscle in the walls of the seminal vesicles and prostate gland also contracts, adding
their contents to the fluid passing through the genital ducts.
• The force generated by these combined processes leads to emission of the
semen through the external urethral sphincter.

• Sperm comprise only 10% of the final ejaculate, the remainder being made up of
seminal and prostatic fluids, which are added to the sperm during male orgasm, as
well as mucus produced in the urethra.
• Between 2 and 5 ml of semen are produced in a normal ejaculate, and contain
between 40 and 100 million spermatozoa per ml.
• If not ejaculated, sperm gradually lose their fertility after several months and are

Route taken by spermatozoa during

 Puberty in the male
reabsorbed by the epididymis.

•
Occurs between the ages of 10 and 14.
• Luteinising hormone from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland stimulates the
interstitial cells of the testes to increase the production of testosterone.
• Testosterone influences the development of the body to sexual maturity.
• In the male, fertility and sexual ability tend to decline gradually with ageing.
• The secretion of testosterone gradually declines, usually beginning at about 50
years of age.
• The changes which occur at puberty are:
√ growth of muscle and bone and a marked increase in height and weight
√ enlargement of the larynx and deepening of the voice — it 'breaks‘
√ growth of hair on the face, axillae, chest, abdomen and pubis
√ enlargement of the penis, scrotum and prostate gland
√ maturation of the seminiferous tubules and production of spermatozoa
√ the skin thickens and becomes more oily.
 FORMATION OF GAMETES
MEOSIS
Meiosis is the process in eukaryotic, sexually-reproducing animals that reduces the
number of chromosomes in a cell before reproduction. Many organisms package these
cells into gametes, such as egg and sperm. The gametes can then meet, during
reproduction, and fuse to create a new zygote.

Phases of Meiosis

Before meiosis, the DNA is replicated, as in mitosis. Meiosis then consists of two cell
divisions, known as meiosis I and meiosis II. In the first division, which consists of
different phases, the duplicated DNA is separated into daughter cells. In the next division,
which immediately follows the first, the two alleles of each gene are separated into
individual cells.
The following are the phases of meiosis;

- Prophase I

- Metaphase I

- Anaphase I

- Telophase I

Prophase I
Prophase I, the first step in meiosis I, is similar to prophase in mitosis in that the
chromosomes condense and move towards the middle of the cell. The nuclear envelope
degrades, which allows the microtubules originating from the centrioles on either side of
the cell to attach to the kinetochores in the centromeres of each chromosome. Unlike in
mitosis, the chromosomes pair with their homologous partner. 
Metaphase I
In metaphase I of meiosis I, the homologous pairs of chromosomes line up on the
metaphase plate, near the center of the cell. This step is referred to as a reductional
division. The homologous chromosomes that contain the two different alleles for each
gene are lined up to be separated.

Anaphase I
Much like anaphase of mitosis, the chromosomes are now pulled towards the centrioles
at each side of the cell. However, the centrosomes holding the sister chromatids together
do not dissolve in anaphase I of meiosis, meaning that only homologous chromosomes
are separated, not sister chromatids.

Telophase I
In telophase I, the chromosomes are pulled completely apart and new nuclear envelopes
form. The plasm membrane is separated by cytokinesis and two new cells are effectively
formed.

Results of Meiosis I
Two new cells, each haploid in their DNA, but with 2 copies, are the result of meiosis I.
Again, although there are 2 alleles for each gene, they are on sister chromatid copies of
each other. These are therefore considered haploid cells. These cells take a short rest
before entering the second division of meiosis, meiosis II.

Phases of Meiosis II

Prophase II
Prophase II resembles prophase I. The nuclear envelopes disappear and centrioles are
formed. Microtubules extend across the cell to connect to the kinetochores of individual
chromatids, connected by centromeres. The chromosomes begin to get pulled toward
the metaphase plate.

Metaphase II
Now resembling mitosis, the chromosomes line up with their centromeres on the
metaphase plate. One sister chromatid is on each side of the metaphase plate. At this
stage, the centromeres are still attached by the protein cohesin.
Anaphase II
The sister chromatids separate. They are now called sister chromosomes and are pulled
toward the centrioles. This separation marks the final division of the DNA. Unlike the first
division, this division is known as an equational division, because each cell ends up with
the same quantity of chromosomes as when the division started, but with no copies.

Telophase II
As in the previous telophase I, the cell is now divided into two and the chromosomes are
on opposite ends of the cell. Cytokinesis or plasma division occurs, and new nuclear
envelopes are formed around the chromosomes.

Results of Meiosis II

At the end of meiosis II, there are 4 cells, each haploid, and each with only 1 copy of the
genome. These cells can now be developed into gametes, eggs in females and sperm in
males.
Spermatogenesis: The Production of Sperm Cells
Spermatogenesis is the intricate process through which sperm cells, or male gametes,
are generated in the testes. It occurs within the seminiferous tubules and involves three
key phases: spermatocytogenesis, meiosis, and spermiogenesis. Each phase plays a vital
role in ensuring the production of mature, functional sperm. The process is influenced by
both internal hormonal regulation and external factors such as oxidative stress and
environmental exposures.
Stages of Spermatogenesis
● Spermatocytogenesis
This first stage begins with spermatogonia, which are diploid germ cells.
Spermatogonia undergo several rounds of mitotic division to produce primary
spermatocytes. These primary spermatocytes are still diploid, containing a full set
of chromosomes, but they are now prepared to enter the next phase of meiosis.
● Meiosis
During meiosis I, primary spermatocytes undergo division, resulting in two
secondary spermatocytes, each with a haploid chromosome number (half the
chromosomes of the original cell). These secondary spermatocytes then enter
meiosis II, which results in four spermatids. Each spermatid is haploid, containing
one set of chromosomes, and ready for further transformation.
● Spermiogenesis
In this final stage, the haploid spermatids undergo a series of transformations to
become mature spermatozoa. The process includes significant morphological
changes, such as the

● development of a flagellum, which provides motility, and the shedding of

excess cytoplasm. This allows the sperm to become streamlined, ideal for travel
toward the egg during fertilization. Notably, spermiogenesis does not involve cell
division; instead, it is a process of differentiation and maturation.
Oogenesis: The Production of Female Gametes
Oogenesis is the intricate biological process through which female gametes, or oocytes,
are produced in the ovaries. This process begins early in embryonic development and
involves several stages, including the formation of primordial germ cells, the
development of oocytes, and their maturation. Oogenesis is regulated by a complex
interplay of hormonal signals and chromatin modifications, which ensure the proper
formation of viable eggs for fertilization
Stages of Oogenesis
● Formation of Primordial Germ Cells
Oogenesis begins in the developing embryo with the migration of primordial germ
cells to the gonads. These cells divide mitotically to form clusters known as
cysts. The cyst stage is crucial as it establishes the pool of germ cells that will
eventually develop into oocytes, laying the foundation for future fertility.
● Cyst Breakdown and Oocyte Formation
As development progresses, the cysts formed during the early stages break down,
leading to the formation of individual oocytes. Each oocyte becomes surrounded
by somatic cells, which will eventually develop into granulosa cells of the follicles.
This transition from cysts to single oocytes is essential for proper follicular
development, which supports oocyte maturation and ensures future fertility.
● Meiosis
The process of meiosis begins during fetal development. Primary oocytes enter
meiosis but are arrested at prophase I, where they remain until puberty. At this
stage, each primary oocyte is encased in a layer of granulosa cells, forming a
primordial follicle.
At puberty, hormonal signals trigger the resumption of meiosis in selected
follicles. The primary oocyte completes meiosis I, dividing unequally to form a
secondary oocyte and a polar body. The polar body typically degenerates and is
discarded, while the secondary oocyte is prepared for further development.

● Oocyte Maturation
The secondary oocyte proceeds to meiosis II but is arrested at metaphase II. This
arrest persists until fertilization occurs. If fertilization is successful, the secondary
oocyte completes meiosis II, resulting in the formation of a mature ovum and a
second polar body, which also degenerates. At this stage, the ovum is ready to
participate in fertilization, provided the conditions are right.
FERTILIZATION
Fertilization is defined as the fusion between the male and female gametes, that is,
sperm and egg, thereby reestablishing the normal number of chromosomes in humans
(46 chromosomes).
For human fertilization to be possible, it is necessary that a man ejaculates inside the
vagina of a woman.

From that moment on, spermatozoa will start their journey inside the female
reproductive tract until they reach the Fallopian tubes, where the egg cell is located.
Out of the millions of sperm released during ejaculation, just about two hundred are able
to hit the egg cell in the Fallopian tube. In the end, just a single spermatozoon is able to
interact with the egg, resulting in an embryo.
 Na
tural fertilization process
Stages of natural fertilization
As simple as the process whereby egg and sperm become one seems, actually it requires
the activation of multiple mechanisms and changes in gamete cells for it to be possible.
The following are the four main stages of fertilization in human beings:

(1) Penetration of the corona radiata

The first stage of fertilization is the penetration of spermatozoa into the corona radiata of
the egg, a coat made of cells that surrounds the egg.
Sperm cells are able to go through this first barrier thanks to the release of the
hyaluronidase enzyme, and the motion of their flagellum (the tail).
 (2) Penetration of the zona pellucida
More than a single sperm cell is required to degrade the ZP. Nonetheless, in the end just
one of them will be the "winner", that is, the one who fertilizes the egg.
In order to be able to cross this second barrier, the head of the sperm establishes contact
with receptor ZP3 of the ZP. This triggers the acrosome reaction, which involves the
release of a series of hydrolytic enzymes (contents of the acrosome). These enzymes
dissolve the ZP to allow the passage of the sperm cell.
The acrosome reaction causes a series of modifications of the sperm cell that allow its
natural capacitation. Sperm capacitation, at the same time, allows it to get into the cell
egg, causing the membranes of both reproductive cells to fuse together.
Fusion of membranes
When the egg cell makes it to the plasma membrane of the oocyte, it triggers three
different processes in the female gamete:
●Formation of the fertilization cone
●Instant depolarization of the egg membrane
●Release of cortical granules from the egg

The formation of the fertilization cone enables fusion between the membranes of both
the egg and the sperm, allowing passage of the sperm's head into the egg.
Simultaneously, thanks to depolarization and the release of cortical granules,
the entrance of multiple sperm is prevented.

Fusion of nuclei & zygote formation

Now that the passage of sperm has taken place, the oocyte activates itself to finish
meiosis, the process whereby the number of chromosomes is reduced. With it, the
second polar body is released, and chromosomes distribute themselves forming a
structure called female pronucleus.
Pronuclei are the nuclei of gametes, which have the particularity of having half the
chromosomes in comparison to the remainder of cells in the body, that is, 23
chromosomes.
On the other hand, the sperm continues the fertilization process until its head, which
contains the nucleus, reaches the female pronucleus. The sperm will lose its tail at some
point, and the nucleus will swell to create the male pronucleus.
When both pronuclei are next to each other, fusion occurs.
The fusion of pronuclei means that the membranes of both end up disappearing so that
the chromosomes can fuse together. This allows the cell to reestablish its normal number
of chromosomes, that is, 46 chromosomes.
The fertilization process of humans culminates with the formation of the zygote: the first
cell of the organism, created after egg and sperm fuse into one.
In addition to all this, fertilization determines the gender of the baby-to-be based on sex
chromosomes:
Male zygote
 sex chromosomes are XY, so the unborn child is a boy.
Female zygote
sex chromosomes are XX, so the unborn child is a girl.

DISEASES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
- This condition is usually a consequence of sexually transmitted infections. It usually
begins as vulvovaginitis and may spread upwards to the cervix, uterus, uterine tubes
and ovaries. Upward spread can also occur when infection is present in the vagina
before a surgical procedure, childbirth or miscarriage, especially if some of the
products of conception are retained.

Endometriosis
- This is the growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus, usually in the ovaries,
uterine tubes and other pelvic structures. The ectopic tissue, like the uterine
endometrium, responds to fluctuations in sex hormone levels during the menstrual
cycle, causing menstrual-type bleeding into the lower abdomen and, in the ovaries,
the formation of coloured cysts, ‘chocolate cysts’. There is intermittent pain due to
swelling, and recurrent haemorrhage causes fibrous tissue formation. Ovarian
endometriosis may lead to pelvic inflammation, infertility and extensive pelvic
adhesions, involving the ovaries, uterus, uterine ligaments and the bowel.

Breast cancer
Breast cancer is a kind of cancer that begins as a growth of cells in the breast tissue.
Cervical Cancer
Cervical cancer is a growth of cells that starts in the cervix. The cervix is the lower part of
the uterus that connects to the vagina.

Various strains of the human papillomavirus, also called HPV, play a role in causing most
cervical cancers. HPV is a common infection that's passed through sexual contact. When
exposed to HPV, the body's immune system typically prevents the virus from doing harm.
In a small percentage of people, however, the virus survives for years. This contributes to
the process that causes some cervical cells to become cancer cells.

DISEASES OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM