VISUAL COMPONENTS &

PATHWAYS
 Visual pathways includes structures which are
concerned with;

RECEPTION

TRANSMISSION &

PERCEPTION OF VISUAL IMPULSES

 However, certain structures concerned with visual

reflexes is also mentioned.
 Structures in visual pathways

• Retina Optic nerve Optic chiasma

Optic tract with lateral and medial
roots Lateral geniculate body Optic
radiation Visual cortex.
Structures for visual reflexes

• Pretectal nucleus

• Occulomotor nucleus and nerve with ciliary ganglion

• Frontal eye field

• Superior colliculus with tectobulbar and tectospinal

tracts.
• Pyramid shaped bony cavities Orbit
situated one on each side of
nose
• Contents of orbit:
• Eyeball Orbit
• Fascia – orbital and bulbar
fascia
• Extraocular muscles
• Nerves – optic, oculomotor,
trochlear, abducent, branches
of maxillary and ophthalmic
nerves
• Blood vessels – ophthalmic
artery, superior and inferior
ophthalmic veins
• Lacrimal gland
• Orbital pad of fat
• Orbit has:
• Apex, base, roof, floor, medial wall, lateral wall
• Apex:
• Is directed posteriorly
• Contains superior orbital fissure and optic canal
• Base:
• Is the orbital opening on the face
• Its present on the anterior part of orbit
• Has supraorbital margin and infraorbital margin
• Supraorbital margin contains supraorbital notch
or foramen

Infraorbital margin
 Lacrimal
• Roof: fossa

• Is formed by orbital
plate of the frontal
bone and posteriorly
by the lesser wing of
the sphenoid
Orbital plate
• It separates the orbit of frontal bone
from the anterior
cranial fossa
• Anterior part of roof
contains lacrimal fossa
for the lacrimal gland
Lesser wing
of sphenoid
• Floor:
• Is formed by the
– orbital surface of the
maxilla
– orbital surface of the
zygomatic bone
– orbital process of
palatine bone
• Floor contains
– Inferior orbital Palatine bone
fissure
– Infraorbital groove Inferior
Infraorbital
orbital
and canal containing fissure
groove
Infraorbital nerve
and vessels
• Lateral wall:
• is formed by the
anterior surface of
the greater wing of
the sphenoid bone
posteriorly
• And the orbital
surface of the
frontal process of Frontal process
the zygomatic of zygomatic
bone anteriorly bone

Zygomatic bone
• Medial wall:
• Is formed by
– Body of sphenoid
bone
– Orbital plate of
ethmoid bone
– Lacrimal bone
– Frontal process of
maxilla
• Medial wall has
lacrimal groove
which contains
lacrimal sac
• Fascia of orbit: orbital fascia and
bulbar fascia
• Orbital fascia (periorbita):
• Forms the periosteum of bony
orbit
• Extensions of periorbita from
supraorbital margin and
infraorbital margins to upper and
lower eyelids is called orbital
septum
• Bulbar fascia (Tenon’s
capsule):
• Forms a thin sheath around the
eyeball from the sclerocorneal
junction to the optic nerve
• Separated from sclera of eyeball Orbital pad
by episcleral space Episcleral of fat
• The sheath is pierced by tendons space
of extraocular muscles and blood
vessels and nerves of eyeball
 EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES
Voluntary muscles
Four recti: a) Superior rectus
b) Inferior rectus
c) Medial rectus
d) Lateral rectus

Two obliqui: a) Superior oblique

b) Inferior oblique

Levator palpebrae superioris

Attachment of extra-ocular
muscles
 Greater wing of sphenoid

The four recti arise from a common annular tendinous ring

This ring is attached to the orbital surface of the apex of the
orbit. It encloses optic canal and the middle part of the superior
orbital fissure.
The lateral rectus has an additional small tendinous head
which arises from the orbital surface of the greater wing of the
sphenoid bone lateral to the tendinous ring
 Body of sphenoid

The superior oblique arises from the body of the sphenoid

The inferior oblique
arises from the orbital
surface of the maxilla
The levator palpebrae superioris
arises from the orbital surface of the
lesser wing of the sphenoid bone
The recti are inserted into the sclera, a little
posterior to the limbus (sclerocorneal junction)
In front of equator of eyeball
 Fibrocartilaginous pully

The tendon of the superior oblique

passes through a fibrocartilaginous
pulley attached to the trochlear
fossa of the frontal bone.
It is inserted into the sclera behind
the equator of the eyeball
Superior oblique
Inferior oblique is inserted close to the superior oblique
a little below and posterior to the latter, behind the
equator
The flat tendon of the levator palpebre
superioris splits into a superior and an inferior
lamella.
The superior lamella is inserted into the
anterior surface of the superior tarsus, and into
the skin of the upper eyelid.
The inferior lamella is inserted into the upper
margin of the superior tarsus
Movements of eyeball
Around a transverse axis
1. Upward rotation or elevation
2. Downwards rotation or depression

Around a vertical axis

1. Medial rotation or adduction
2. Lateral rotation or abduction

Around an anteroposterior axis

1. Intortion
2. Extortion
 Actions of muscles
• Superior oblique:
Depression, Abduction,
Intortion of eyeball
• Inferior oblique: Elevation,
Abduction, Extortion of
eyeball
• Inferior rectus: Depression,
Adduction, Extortion of
eyeball IO SR
• Superior rectus: Elevation,
Adduction, Intortion of eyeball
• Medial rectus: Only LR MR
adduction of eyeball
• Lateral rectus: Only
abduction of eyeball SO IR
 Combined actions of muscles

Upward rotation or elevation: By the

superior rectus and inferior oblique

Downward rotation or depression: By the

inferior rectus and the superior oblique

Medial rotation or adduction: By the

medial rectus, the superior rectus and the
inferior rectus

IO SR
Lateral rotation or abduction: By the lateral
rectus, the superior oblique and the inferior
oblique
LR MR
Intortion: By the superior oblique and the
superior rectus
SO IR
Extortion: By the inferior oblique and the inferior
rectus
 INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES
• The superior tarsal muscle
is the deeper portion of the
levator palpebrae superioris.
It is inserted to the upper
margin of the superior tarsus
It elevates the upper eyelid
• The inferior tarsal muscle
extends from the fascial
sheath of the inferior rectus
and inferior oblique to the
lower margin of the inferior
tarsus
• The orbitalis bridges the
inferior orbital fissure
VESSELS OF THE ORBIT
 OPHTHALMIC ARTERY
• Origin:
• Branch of the internal
carotid artery
• Course:
• Artery enters the orbit
through the optic canal
• It then runs with the
nasociliary nerve
• It crosses the optic nerve
and runs along the medial
wall of orbit
• Termination:
• Terminates near the medial
angle of the eye by dividing
into the supratrochlear and
dorsal nasal branches
 BRANCHES OF OPHTHALMIC ARTERY
Supratrochlear

Central artery of retina

Lacrimal
Posterior ciliary
Anterior ethmoidal
Posterior ethmoidal
Supra-orbital
Lacrimal
Supra-trochlear artery
Dorsal nasal Posterior ciliary

Medial palpebral
Ophthalmic artery
Muscular
 OPHTHALMIC VEINS

• Superior
ophthalmic vein
• Inferior
ophthalmic vein
• Leave orbit by
passing through
superior orbital
fissure
• Terminate at the
cavernous sinus
Nerves of the orbit
 OPTIC NERVE
• Concerned with
vision
• 2nd cranial nerve
• Begins in the retina
and ends at optic
chiasma
• Leaves orbit
through optic canal
Optic
nerve
• OCULOMOTOR
NERVE
• Motor nerve- supplies
extra-ocular muscles
• Divides into 2
branches- enter the
orbit through the
middle part of the
superior orbital fissure
• In the orbit, upper
division supplies the
superior rectus and the
levator palpebrae
superioris Oculomotor nerve
• The lower, division
supplies medial rectus,
the inferior rectus and
the inferior oblique
 Trochlear nerve

Trochlear nerve passes

through the superior
orbital fissure
Supplies superior oblique
 Abducent nerve

Abducent nerve
Passes through the
superior orbital fissure
Supplies lateral rectus
 Ophthalmic nerve
Before entering the orbit gives 3 branches –
Frontal, nasociliary and lacrimal nerves
3 branches enter the orbit through the
Nasociliary
superior orbital fissure

Frontal nerve

Lacrimal nerve
 Eyeball
• Situated in the anterior part of the orbit
• Separated from the orbital pad of fat by the Tenon’s
capsule (bulbar fascia)
• Two poles: anterior and posterior
• Equator: between 2 poles, divides the eyeball in to
anterior and posterior parts
• Coats (layers) of eyeball:
• Fibrous coat
• Vascular coat
• Nervous coat
 Eyeball
Sclera
Ciliary body
Choroid Iris
Retina Cornea

Macula lutea

Lens

Suspensory
ligament of lens

Optic nerve
Optic disc
• Fibrous coat:
• Outer most covering, 2 parts
• Cornea and sclera
• Vascular coat (uveal tract):
• Middle coat, 3 parts
• Choroid, ciliary body and iris
• Nervous coat:
• Innermost laryer – retina
• Refractive media:
• Lens, aqueous humor and vitreous body
• Lens divides the interior of the eyeball in to 2 parts
(segments) – anterior and posterior
• Posterior segment:
• Situated behind the lens
• Filled with vitreous body
• Anterior segment:
• Situated between the cornea and the lens
• Filled with aqueous humor
• Divided in to 2 parts (chambers) by the iris
• Anterior and posterior chambers
• Anterior chamber:
• Situated between the cornea and iris
• Posterior chamber:
• Situated between the iris and lens
• Two chambers communicate with each other through
the pupil
• Cornea:
• Forms the anterior 1/6th of the fibrous coat
• Colourless, transparent, non-vascular layer
• Continuous with sclera at sclerocorneal junction
• Outer surface is covered by corneal epithelium
• Inner surface forms anterior limit of anterior chamber
• Has 5 layers
Structure of cornea
Epithelium

Bowman’s membrane

Stroma or
substantia propria

Keratocytes

Descemet’s membrane

Endothelium
 Structure of cornea
• Corneal epithelium – stratified squamous non-keratinised
• Anterior limiting membrane or Bowman’s membrane –
thin layer containing collagen fibres
• Corneal stroma of substantia propria – thickest layer
containing many layers of parallel collagen fibre bundles
and fibroblasts or keratocytes
• Posterior limiting membrane or Descemet’s membrane –
a thin layer made up of elastic fibres
• Endothelium – single layer of squamous cells
• Sclera:
• Forms the posterior 5/6th of the fibrous coat
• Firm, hard covering – maintains the shape of the eyeball
• Two surfaces – outer and inner
• Outer surface:
• White in colour
• Anterior part is covered by the bulbar conjunctiva
• Near the posterior pole gives attachment to optic nerve
• Inner surface:
• Brown in colour
• Presents grooves which contain ciliary nerves and
vessels
• Separated from the outer surface of choroid by the
perichoroidal space – which contains loose connective
tissue called suprachoridal lamina
• Structures piercing the sclera:
• Optic nerve fibres – lamina cribrosa
• Short ciliary and long ciliary nerves – around the
attachment of optic nerve
• Long and short posterior ciliary vessels – around the
attachment of optic nerve
• Venae vorticosae – 5 veins at the equator
• Anterior ciliary vessels – at the sclerocorneal junction
• Sinus venosus sclerae:

• Space situated in the anterior part of sclera near the

sclerocorneal junction

• Communicates with the anterior chamber through

spaces of fontana and drains aqueous humor

• Continuous with anterior ciliary veins

Choroid:
• Posterior part of the vascular coat
• Anteriorly continuous with ciliary body
• Two surfaces: outer and inner
Outer surface:
• Connected to the sclera by suprachoroidal lamina
Inner surface:
• Attached the pigment cell layer of retina
• Ciliary body:
• Anterior continuation of choroid
• Continuous anteriorly with iris
• Inner surface is lined by ciliary part of retina
• Has 2 parts
• Pars plicata (anterior rough part)
• Pars plana (posterior smooth part)
• Pars plicata:
• Contains 70-80 ciliary processes
• Ciliary grooves separate ciliary processes
• Ciliary processes contain capillary plexus which secrete
aqueous humor
• Ciliary grooves provide attachment to the suspensory
ligament (Zonule) of lens
• Ciliaris muscle:
• Situated in the ciliary body and supplied by the post-
ganglionic parasympathetic fibres
• When contracts relaxes the suspensory ligament of lens
– increase the convexity of lens
• Iris:
• Adjustable diaphragm which surrounds the pupil
• Divides the anterior segment in to anterior and posterior
chambers
• Two surfaces – anterior and posterior
• Two margins – free and attached
• Anterior surface:
• Forms the posterior boundary of anterior chamber lined
by mesothelium
• Posterior surface:
• Forms the anterior boundary of posterior chamber
• Lined by iridial part of retina
Iris contains:
• 2 muscles – dilator pupillae, sphincter pupillae
• 2 arterial circles – major and minor arterial circles
Dilator pupillae:
• Supplied by post-ganglionic sympathetic nerves
• Dilates pupil
Sphincter (constrictor) pupillae:
• Supplied by post-ganglionic parasympathetic nerves
• Constriction of pupil
• Major arterial circle:
• Situated near the attached margin
• Formed by anterior ciliary and long posterior ciliary
arteries
• Branches arising from this circle reach the free margin
and form minor arterial circle
• Minor arterial circle:
• Situated near the free margin
• Formed by the braches arising from the major arterial
circle
Retina:
• Innermost, delicate layer
• Contains receptors, 1st and 2nd order neurons of
visual pathway
Parts of retina:
• Optic part
• Ciliary part
• Iridial part
• Optic part:
• Larger posterior part, situate deep to choroid
• Continuous anteriorly with ciliary part at the ora serrata
• Contains 10 layers
• Inner layer is in contact with the vitreous body
• Outer layer is firmly attached to choroid
• Optic part presents:
• Optic disc:
• Circular depressed area situated medial to posterior pole of
eyeball
• It lies opposite to the attachment of optic nerve
• It is called blind spot since it has no rods and cones
• Macula lutea:
• Depressed area at the posterior pole
• Fovea centralis:
• Depression in the centre of macula lutea
• Contains only cones
• Area of maximum acuity of vision
• Ciliary part:
• Lines the inner surface of ciliary body
• Contains 2 layers of pigment cells
• Iridial part:
• Lines the posterior surface of iris
• Contains 2 layers of pigment cells
 Structure of optic part of retina
• It has photoreceptors - rods and cones and neurons of visual pathway
• The 10 layers of optic part of retina:
• Pigment cell layer
• Layer of rods and cones
• Outer limiting layer
• Outer nuclear layer
• Outer plexiform (molecular) layer
• Inner nuclear layer
• Inner plexiform (molecular) layer
• Ganglionic cell layer
• Nerve fibre layer
• Inner limiting layer
• Pigment cell layer:
• Outer most layer, contains one layer of cuboid shaped
pigment cells
• These cells contain melanin pigment granules
• This layer is firmly attached the choroid layer
• This layer absorbs the light and prevents reflection of
light
• Layer of rods and cones:
• Contains peripheral processes of rod and cone cells
• Outer limiting layer:
• Contains outer processes of muller cells
• Outer nuclear layer:
• Contains cell bodies and nuclei of rod and cone cells
• Outer plexiform layer:
• Central processes of rod and cone cells synapse with the
dendrites of bipolar neurons
• Inner nuclear layer:
• Contain cell bodies and nuclei of bipolar neurons.
• Bipolar neurons are the first order sensory neurons of
visual pathway.
• Also contains other supporting cells of visual pathway
which include amacrine cells, horizontal cell and muller
cells
• Inner plexiform layer:
• Contains synapses between axons of bipolar neurons and
dendrites of ganglion cells
• Ganglionic cell layer:
• Contains cell bodies of ganglion cells
• These are second order neurons of visual pathway.
• Nerve fibre layer:
• Also called optic nerve fibre layer
• Contains axons of ganglion cells.
• These axons leave eyeball at the optic disc and run in the
optic nerve
• Inner limiting layer:
• Contains inner processes of muller cells
• Aqueous humor:
• Fills the anterior and posterior chambers
• Produced in the posterior chamber by the capillaries
of ciliary processes
• Enters the anterior chamber through the pupil
• Drains in to sinus venosus sclerae
• Provides nourishment to avascular structures like
cornea, lens
Vitreous body:
• Colourless, transparent gel fills the posterior segment
• Hyaloid membrane – peripheral condensation of
vitreous body
• Hyaloid canal – extends from optic disc to lens
• Contains hyaloid artery during fetal period
• Lens:
• Situated between the anterior and posterior
segments
• Has 2 surfaces – anterior and posterior
• Anterior surface – more convex
• Posterior surface – less convex
• Suspended by the suspensory ligament of lens
 Blood supply of eyeball
• Arterial supply: supplied by the branches of ophthalmic
artery
• Long and short posterior ciliary arteries – arise from
ophthalmic artery
• Anterior ciliary arteries – arise from muscular arteries of
orbit
• Central artery of retina – arises from the ophthalmic
artery
• Venous drainage:
• Veins drain to superior and inferior ophthalmic veins
Nerve supply of eyeball
• Long ciliary nerves – sensory nerves arise from the
nasociliary nerve (branch of ophthalmic nerve)
• Short ciliary nerves – arise from the ciliary ganglion
• Sensory fibres
• Parasympathetic fibres
• Sympathetic firbes
 Visual pathway
• Begins in the retina
• Ends in the visual area (17,18,19) of occipital lobe
• Includes receptors and 3 groups of neurons
• Receptors:
• Rods and cones – situated in the retina
• Central process – receives light impulses
• Peripheral process – synapses with peripheral processes
of bipolar neurons
• First order neurons:
• Bipolar cells: situated in the retina
• Peripheral process – synapses with the central processes
of rods and cones
• Central process – synapses with the dendrites of ganglion
cells
• Second order neurons:
• Ganglion cells: situated in the retina
• Axons of ganglion cells leave the retina
• Form the optic nerve
• Optic nerves leave the orbit by passing through the optic
canal
• Optic nerves enter the cranial cavity
• Two optic nerves form – optic chiasma
• Optic chiasma continuous posteriorly as 2 optic tracts
• At the optic chiasma:
• Fibres from the medial (nasal) part of retina decussate
and enter the optic tract of opposite side
• Optic tracts:
• Posterior continuations of optic chiasma
• Contain fibres from,
• Lateral part (temporal) of retina of same side
• Medial part (nasal) part of retina of opposite side
• Terminate in the lateral geniculate body
• Third order neurons:
• Situated in the lateral geniculate body
• Neurons arranged to form 6 layers
• Layer 1,4,6 receive fibres from opposite side
• Layer 2,3,5 receive fibres from same side
• Lateral part – fibres from the upper part of retina
• Medial part – fibres from the lower part of retina
• Anterior part – fibres from peripheral part
• Posterior part – fibres from central part of retina
• Axons of third order neurons leave the lateral geniculate
body – optic radiation (Geniculo calcarine tract)
• Run through the retrolentiform part of internal capsule and
terminate at the visual area.
• Fibers looping in the temporal lobe form the Meyer’s loop.
• Optic radiation ends in striate area (No. 17), where color, size ,
shape, motion, illumination and transparency are appreciated
separately.

• Objects are identified by integration of these perceptions with the

past experience in the parastriate and peristriate area (No.18, 19).
• Visual area (area 17,18,19):
• Situated in the lingual gyrus and cuneus gyrus
• Upper part of visual area receives fibres from upper part
of retina
• Lower part of visual area receives fibres from lower part
of retina
• Posterior part of visual area receives fibres from central
part of retina
• Anterior part of visual area receives fibres from
peripheral part of retina
 Pathway of light reflex
 Throwing light in the eye causes constriction of the pupil.

 This is mediated through,

RetinaOptic nerveOptic chiasmaOptic tractLGBPretectal

nucleusEdinger Westphal nucleus of 3rd nerve3rd nerveCiliary
ganglionShort ciliary nerves Contrictor pupillae.

 Bilateral constriction of pupil (Consensual reflex) is due to bilateral

connections of the pretectal nucleus with the Edinger Westphal nucleus.
 Pathway of Accommodation reflex

 Constriction of pupil on near vision is mediated through,

RetinaOptic nerveOptic chiasmaOptic tractLGBOptic

radiation Visual cortexSuperior longitudinal association
tractFrontal eye field area3rd nucleus3rd nerveCiliary
ganglionCiliaris and Sphincter pupillae.