UNIT 1

WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is
deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor
the system, physical or environmental conditions.
Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors the
environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a
processing unit in the WSN System.
Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.

Components of WSN:

1. Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which is
used for data acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical signals.
2. Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the WLAN
access point. It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and
power source.
3. WLAN Access Point:
It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally
through the internet.
4. Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software called
as Evaluation Software for presenting the report to the users for further
processing of the data which can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and
mining of the data.
WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS ARCHITECTURE
Sensor Network Architecture is used in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). It can be used in
various places like schools, hospitals, buildings, roads, etc for various applications like
disaster management, security management, crisis management, etc.
There are 2 types of architecture used in WSN: Layered Network Architecture, and
Clustered Architecture. These are explained as following below.
1. Layered Network Architecture:
Layered Network Architecture makes use of a few hundred sensor nodes and a single
powerful base station. Network nodes are organized into concentric Layers.
It consists of 5 layers and three cross layers.
The 5 layers are:
1. Application Layer
Application layer is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
2. Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the End-to-End Delivery of the complete
message.
3. Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.,
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available.
4. Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
5. Physical Layer
It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
The cross layers consist of the following:
 Power Management Plane
 Mobility Management Plane
 Task Management Plane
The advantage of using Layered Network Architecture is that each node participates
only in short-distance, low power transmissions to nodes of the neighbouring nodes
because of which power consumption is less as compared to other Sensor Network
Architecture. It is scalable and has a higher fault tolerance.

2. Clustered Network Architecture:

In Clustered Network Architecture, Sensor Nodes autonomously clubs into groups
called clusters. It is based on the Leach Protocol which makes use of clusters. Leach
Protocol stands for Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy.

Properties of Leach Protocol:

 It is a 2-tier hierarchy clustering architecture.
 It is a distributed algorithm for organizing the sensor nodes into groups
called clusters.
 The cluster head nodes in each of the autonomously formed clusters
create the Time-division multiple access (TDMA) schedules.
 It makes use of the concept called Data Fusion which makes it energy
efficient.
 Here:

Clustered Network Architecture is a very useful sensor network because of the

property of Data Fusion. Inside each cluster, each node communicates with the
cluster head to gather the information. All the clusters which are formed share their
gathered information to the base station. The cluster formation and selection of
cluster head inside each cluster is an independent and autonomous distributed
process.

APPLICATIONS OF ADHOC AND SENSOR NETWORKS

 Military – An ad hoc networking will give access to the army to maintain a
network among all the soldiers, vehicles and headquarters.
 Personal area network (PAN) – It is a short range, local network where each
node are usually related with a given range.
 Crisis Condition – Because it is fairly easy to create it can be used in time of
crisis to send emergency signals.
 Medical Application – It can use to monitor patient.
  Environmental Application – It can be used to check weather condition, forest
fire, tsunami etc.
.

DESIGN CHALLENGES IN WIRELESS SENSOR

NETWORKS
The major factors that need to considered while designing sensor network are listed below.
Fault Tolerance: Possibility of node failure and change of topology of network is quite high
in case of WSN. Hence the designer of network should make the network robust and reliable
even in case of node failures and topology changes.
Life Time: WSN are supposed to work for a quite long time with low power consumption.
They are supposed to last at-least for 6 months to 1 year. We need to keep in mind that every
node in WSN may be powered using just a 3 V battery and this should be sufficient for the
entire life time of the node.
Scalability: The design of WSN should support addition of new nodes any time and also the
design should support large number of nodes because some applications in WSN may require
quite a huge number of sensor nodes.
Date Aggregation: The sensor nodes in WSN are located close to each other hence the
possibility of similar data being generated by the nodes next to each other is quite high. So,
the data needs to be aggregated and the duplicate data needs to be avoided because the
transmission and reception data is the costliest affair in WSN.
Cost: The cost of each sensor node is supposed to be 1$, as WSN can have large number of
sensor nodes the total cost of the network can become a quite expensive affair. So, the
designer of WSN needs to decide on the optimal number of nodes necessary for the
application.
Environment: The environment in which the WSN is deployed can be very demanding, so
the design of WSN should be such that WSN should be able to survive regardless of the
conditions in which WSN s deployed.
Heterogeneity Support: The protocols designed for WSN should support different kinds of
sensor nodes and also be able to support variety of applications.
Autonomous Operations: The WSN should be able to organize, reorganize and operate
autonomously because sometimes WSN deployed in places where human habitation is not
possible.
Limited Memory and Processing Capability: The sensor nodes have very limited memory,
power and processing capabilities, so all designs of WSN should not be demanding in terms
of processing requirements or memory requirements.

ROUTING PROTOCOLS FOR ADHOC WIRELESS

NETWORKS
 1. Based on the routing information update mechanism
Ad hoc wireless network routing protocols can be classified into 3 major categories based
on the routing information update mechanism. They are:

Proactive or table-driven routing protocols:

These are also known as table-driven routing protocols. Each mobile node maintains a
separate routing table which contains the information of the routes to all the possible
destination mobile nodes.
Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic, these routing tables are
updated periodically as and when the network topology changes. It has a limitation that it
doesn’t work well for the large networks as the entries in the routing table becomes too
large since they need to maintain the route information to all possible nodes.
 Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV): It is a pro-
active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector routing
protocol of the wired networks as the name suggests. It is based on the Bellman-ford
routing algorithm. Distance vector routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc
networks due to count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a solution Destination
Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) came into picture.
Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the routing table
maintained by each node. A node will include the new update in the table only if the
entry consists of the new updated route to the destination with higher sequence
number.

Reactive or on-demand routing protocols:

These are also known as on-demand routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route is
discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by
flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of two major
phases namely, route discovery and route maintenance.
 Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV): It is a reactive/on-
demand routing protocol. It is an extension of dynamic source routing protocol
(DSR) and it helps to remove the disadvantage of dynamic source routing protocol.
In DSR, after route discovery, when the source mobile node sends the data packet to
the destination mobile node, it also contains the complete path in its header. Hence,
as the network size increases, the length of the complete path also increases and the
data packet’s header size also increases which makes the whole network slow.
Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to it. The
main difference lies in the way of storing the path, AODV stores the path in the
routing table whereas DSR stores it in the data packet’s header itself. It also
operates in two phases in the similar fashion: Route discovery and Route
maintenance.

Hybrid routing protocols:

 Combine the best features of the above two categories.
 Nodes within a certain distance from the node concerned, or within a
particular geographical region, are said to be within the routing zone of the
given node.
 For routing within this zone, a table-driven approach used.
 For nodes that are located beyond this zone, an on-demand approach is used.
 2. Based on the use of temporal information for routing
The protocols that fall under this category can be further classified into two types:
Routing protocols using past temporal information:
 Use information about the past status of the links or the status of links at the
time of routing to
 make routing decisions.

Routing protocols that use future temporal information:

 Use information about the about the expected future status of the wireless
links to make
 approximate routing decisions.
 Apart from the lifetime of wireless links, the future status information also
includes information
 regarding the lifetime of the node, prediction of location, and prediction of
link availability.

3. Based on the routing topology

Ad hoc wireless networks, due to their relatively smaller number of nodes, can make use of
either a flat topology or a hierarchical topology for routing.
Flat topology routing protocols:
 Make use of a flat addressing scheme similar to the one used in IEEE 802.3 LANs.
 It assumes the presence of a globally unique addressing mechanism for nodes in an
ad hoc wireless network.

Hierarchical topology routing protocols:

 Make use of a logical hierarchy in the network and an associated addressing
scheme.
 The hierarchy could be based on geographical information or it could be based on
hop distance.

4. Based on the utilization of specific resources

Power-aware routing:
 Aims at minimizing the consumption of a very important resource in the ad hoc
wireless networks.
 The routing decisions are based on minimizing the power consumption either
logically or globally in the network.

Geographical information assisted routing:

 Improves the performance of routing and reduces the control overhead by
effectively utilizing the geographical information available.
 UNIT 2

ISSUES IN DESIGNING A MAC PROTOCOL FOR AWSN

 Bandwidth Efficiency –
The shortage of data transfer capacity assets in these networks requires its
proficient use. To evaluate this, we could state that
bandwidth capacity is the proportion of the bandwidth used for data transmission
to the complete accessible bandwidth capacity.

 Quality of Service Support –

Quality of service support is difficult due to the mobility of the nodes. Once a
node moves out of reach, the reservation in it is lost. In these networks, QoS is
extremely important because if it is being used in military environments, the
service support needed time to time.

 Synchronization –
Some instruments must be found so as to give synchronization among the nodes.
Synchronization is significant for directing the bandwidth reservation.

 Hidden Terminal Problem –

When there are two nodes, both are outside of each other’s range and try to
communicate with same node within their range at the same time, then there
must be packet collision.
 Exposed Terminal Problem –
Uncovered nodes might be denied channel access pointlessly, which implies
under usage of the bandwidth resources.

DESIGN GOALS OF A MAC PROTOCOL FOR AWSN

 The operation of a protocol should be distributed.

 The protocol should provide QoS support for real-time traffic.
 The access delay, which refers to the average delay experienced by any packet to get
transmitted, must be kept low.
 The available bandwidth must be utilized efficiently.
 The protocol should ensure fair allocation of bandwidth to nodes.
 Control overhead must be kept as low as possible.
 The protocol should minimize the effects of hidden and exposed terminal problems
 The protocol must be scalable to large networks.
 It should have power control mechanisms in order to efficiently manage energy
consumption of the nodes.
 The protocol should have mechanisms for adaptive data rate control
 It should try to use directional antennas which can provide advantages such as
reduced interference, increased spectrum reuse, and reduced power consumption.
 The protocol should provide time synchronization among nodes.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAC PROTOCOLS:
These are as following below.
1. Contention-based protocols without reservation/scheduling –
 Bandwidth are not reserved.
 No guarantees.
 Sender-initiated protocols:
The transmission of packets is initiated by the sender node.
 Single-channel sender initiated. For example, MACAW, FAMA.
 Multiple-channel sender-initiated protocols. For example, BTMA,
DBTMA, ICSMA.
 Receiver-initiated protocols:
The connection is initiated by the receiver node. For example, RI-BTMA,
MACA-BI, MARCH.

2. Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms –

 Bandwidth is reserved for transmission.
 Guarantees can be given.
 Synchronous protocols:
All nodes are kept synchronized. For example, D-PRMA, CATA, HRMA,
SRMA/PA, FPRP.
 Asynchronous protocols:
Relative time information is used to achieve effecting reservations. For example,
MACA/PR, RTMAC.

3. Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms –

 Distributed scheduling is done between nodes.
 Guarantees can be given.
4. Other protocols –
 Combine multiple features of other protocols.
 It can also use a completely new approach.

LOW DUTY CYCLE PROTOCOLS

The basic idea of low duty cycle protocols is to reduce the time a node is idle or spends
overhearing an unnecessary activity by putting the node in the sleep state. The most ideal
condition of low duty cycle protocols is when a node is asleep most of the time and wakes up
only when to transmit or receive packets. In the literature, the concept of a low duty cycle is
represented as a periodic wake-up scheme. A node wakes up periodically to transmit or
receive packets from other nodes. Usually after a node wakes up, it listens to the channel for
any activity before transmitting or receiving packets. If no packet is to be transmitted or
received, the node returns to the sleep state. A whole cycle consisting of a sleep period and a
listening period is called a sleep/wake-up period.

PAMAS PROTOCOL

The PAMAS protocol is a combination of the original MACA protocol. Thus, we assume that
the RTS-CTS message exchange takes place over a signalling channel that is separate from
the channel used for packet transmissions. This separate signalling channel enables nodes to
determine when and for how long they can power themselves off.
A node may be in any one of six states - Idle, AwaitCTS, BEB (Binary Exponential Backoff),
Await Packet, Receive Packet, and Transmit Packet. When a node is not transmitting or
receiving a packet, or does not have any packets to transmit, or does have packets to transmit
but cannot transmit (because a neighbor is receiving a transmission) it is in the Idle state.
When it gets a packet to transmit, it transmits a RTS and enters the AwaitCTS state. If the
awaited CTS does not arrive, the node goes into binary exponential backoff (the BEB state in
the figure). If a CTS does arrive, it begins transmitting the packet and enters the Transmit
Packet state. The intended receiver, upon transmitting the CTS, enters the Await Packet state.
If the packet does not begin arriving within one roundtrip time (plus processing time), it
returns to the Idle state. If the packet does begin arriving, it transmits a busy tone over the
signalling channel and enters the Receive Packet state.

LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) Protocol

LEACH is a hierarchical protocol in which most nodes transmit to cluster heads, and the
cluster heads aggregate and compress the data and forward it to the base station(sink). Each
node uses a stochastic algorithm at each round to determine whether it will become a cluster
head in this round. LEACH assumes that each node has a radio powerful enough to directly
reach the base station or the nearest cluster head, but that using this radio at full power all the
time would waste energy.
Nodes that have been cluster heads cannot become cluster heads again for P rounds, where P
is the desired percentage of cluster heads. Thereafter, each node has a 1/P probability of
becoming a cluster head in each round. At the end of each round, each node that is not a
cluster head selects the closest cluster head and joins that cluster. The cluster head then
creates a schedule for each node in its cluster to transmit its data.

IEEE 802.15.4 Technology

IEEE 802.15.4 is a low-cost, low-data-rate wireless access technology for devices
that are operated or work on batteries. This describes how low-rate wireless personal
area networks (LR-WPANs) function.

Advantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4 has the following advantages:

 cheap cost
 long battery life,
 Quick installation
 simple
 extensible protocol stack

Disadvantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4’s drawbacks include:

  IEEE 802.15.4 causes interference and multipath fading.
 doesn’t employ a frequency-hopping approach.
 unbounded latency
 interference susceptibility

Applications of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4 Applications:

 Wireless sensor networks in the industry
 Building and home automation
 Remote controllers and interacting toys
 Automotive networks

CHALLENGES AND ISSUES IN TRANSPORT LAYER

 WSNs should be designed with an eye to energy conservation, congestion control and
reliability in data dissemination, security, and management.
 The congestion control may involve only the transport layer, but energy conservation
may be related to the physical, data link, network, and perhaps all other high layers.
 Designing a new transport layer protocol for WSN should consider the following
issues.
 Induced Traffic
 Induced Throughput Fairness
 Separation of congestion control, reliability, and flow control
 Power and bandwidth constraints
 Misinterpretation of congestion
 Completely decoupled transport layer
 Dynamic topology
 UNIT 3

ISSUES IN DESIGNING A ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR

ADHOC NETWORKS
1) Node Deployment: Sensor nodes are tightly deployed in the area of interest depending
upon the application which affects the presentation of routing protocol. Nodes can be
deployed either physically or randomly. When nodes are manually placed data is routed
through predetermined paths. In self-managing systems, sensor nodes are scattered randomly
creating a topology in an ad hoc mode.
2) Network topology: It must be maintained even with high node density.
3) Data aggregation: It is a combination of data from dissimilar sources. Similar packets
from multiple nodes can be aggregated to reduce transmission.
4) Transmission media: Usually, communication takes place through wireless media, which
is affected by fading.
5) Node Capability: Depending on the application, a sensor node can have a different role or
capabilities like as relaying, sensing and aggregation if all these functions are performed by
the same node the energy of that node would be drained more rapidly.
6) Scalability: The deployment of sensor nodes is dependent on the nature of the application.
Sensor node consumption varies with respect to the demand of the application; therefore, the
number of sensor nodes can be hundreds, thousand or still more. To handle network
scalability, routing algorithm should have the capability to cope with scalable network.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS

1. Pro-active routing protocols: These are also known as table-driven routing protocols.
Each mobile node maintains a separate routing table which contains the information of the
routes to all the possible destination mobile nodes.
Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic, these routing tables are
updated periodically as and when the network topology changes. It has a limitation that it
doesn’t work well for the large networks as the entries in the routing table becomes too
large since they need to maintain the route information to all possible nodes.
1. Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV): It is a
pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector
routing protocol of the wired networks as the name suggests. It is based on the
Bellman-ford routing algorithm. Distance vector routing protocol was not suited
for mobile ad-hoc networks due to count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a
solution Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV)
came into picture.
Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the routing
table maintained by each node. A node will include the new update in the table
only if the entry consists of the new updated route to the destination with higher
sequence number.
2. Global State Routing (GSR): It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It
actually extends the link state routing of the wired networks. It is based on the
Dijkstra’s routing algorithm. Link state routing protocol was not suited for
 mobile ad-hoc networks because in it, each node floods the link state routing
information directly into the whole network i.e. Global flooding which may lead
to the congestion of control packets in the network.
Hence, as a solution Global State Routing Routing Protocol (GSR) came into the
picture. Global state routing doesn’t flood the link state routing packets globally
into the network. In GSR, each of the mobile node maintains one list and three
tables namely, adjacency list, topology table, next hop table and distance table.
2. Reactive routing protocols: These are also known as on-demand routing protocol. In
this type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of
route discovery occurs by flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile
network. It consists of two major phases namely, route discovery and route maintenance.
1. Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR): It is a reactive/on-demand routing
protocol. In this type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is
required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by flooding the route
request packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of two phases:
 Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path for
the transmission of data packets between the source and the
destination mobile nodes.
 Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work of
the route as the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic in
nature and hence, there are many cases of link breakage resulting in
the network failure between the mobile nodes.
2. Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV): It is a reactive/on-
demand routing protocol. It is an extension of dynamic source routing protocol
(DSR) and it helps to remove the disadvantage of dynamic source routing
protocol. In DSR, after route discovery, when the source mobile node sends the
data packet to the destination mobile node, it also contains the complete path in
its header. Hence, as the network size increases, the length of the complete path
also increases and the data packet’s header size also increases which makes the
whole network slow.
Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to it. The
main difference lies in the way of storing the path, AODV stores the path in the
routing table whereas DSR stores it in the data packet’s header itself. It also
operates in two phases in the similar fashion: Route discovery and Route
maintenance.
3. Hybrid Routing protocol: It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and
pro-active routing protocols. These protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to
the zone and position of the source and destination mobile nodes. One of the most popular
hybrid routing protocols is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).
The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position of source and
destination mobile node is observed. If the source and destination mobile nodes are present
in the same zone, then proactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets
between them. And if the source and destination mobile nodes are present in different
zones, then reactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets between them.

TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS

 The transport layer is represented by two protocols: TCP and UDP.
  The IP protocol in the network layer delivers a datagram from a source host to the
destination host.
 Nowadays, the operating system supports multiuser and multiprocessing environments,
an executing program is called a process. When a host sends a message to other host
means that source process is sending a process to a destination process. The transport
layer protocols define some connections to individual ports known as protocol ports.
 An IP protocol is a host-to-host protocol used to deliver a packet from source host to
the destination host while transport layer protocols are port-to-port protocols that work
on the top of the IP protocols to deliver the packet from the originating port to the IP
services, and from IP services to the destination port.
 Each port is defined by a positive integer address, and it is of 16 bits.

UDP

 UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.

 UDP is a simple protocol and it provides non-sequenced transport functionality.
 UDP is a connectionless protocol.
 This type of protocol is used when reliability and security are less important than speed
and size.
 UDP is an end-to-end transport level protocol that adds transport-level addresses,
checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.
 The packet produced by the UDP protocol is known as a user datagram.

TCP

 TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

 It provides full transport layer services to applications.
 It is a connection-oriented protocol means the connection established between both the
ends of the transmission. For creating the connection, TCP generates a virtual circuit
between sender and receiver for the duration of a transmission.

DESIGN GOALS OF TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOL FOR

ADHOC WIRELESS NETWORKS

 The protocol should maximize the throughput per connection.

 It should provide throughput fairness across contending flows.

  The protocol should incur minimum connection setup and connection
maintenance overheads. It should minimize the resource requirements for setting
up and maintaining the connection in order to make the protocol scalable in large
networks.

 The transport layer protocol should have mechanisms for congestion control and
flow control in the network.

 It should be able to provide both reliable and unreliable connections as per the
requirements of the application layer.

 The protocol should be able to adapt to the dynamics of the network such as the
rapid change in topology and changes in the nature of wireless links from uni-
directional to bidirectional or vice versa.

 One of the important resources, the available bandwidth, must be used

efficiently.

 The protocol should be aware of resource constraints such as battery power and
buffer sizes and make efficient use of them.

 The transport layer protocol should make use of information from the lower
layers in the protocol stack for improving the network throughput.

 It should have a well-defined cross-layer interaction framework for effective,

scalable, and protocol-independent interaction with lower layers.

 The protocol should maintain end-to-end semantics.

TCP OVER AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS

The transmission control protocol (TCP) is the most predominant transport layer protocol in
the Internet today. It transports more than 90% percent of the traffic on the Internet. Its
reliability, end-to-end congestion control mechanism, byte-stream transport mechanism, and,
above all, its elegant and simple design have not only contributed to the success of the
Internet, but also have made TCP an influencing protocol in the design of many of the other
protocols and applications. Its adaptability to the congestion in the network has been an
important feature leading to graceful degradation of the services offered by the network at
times of extreme congestion. TCP in its traditional form was designed and optimized only for
wired networks.
 UNIT 4

CHALLENGES FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

 Sensor networks do not fit into any regular topology, because while deploying the
sensor nodes they are scattered
 Very limited resources
 Limited memory,
 Limited computation
 Limited power
 It comes under fewer infrastructures and also maintenance is very difficult.
 Unreliable communication
 Unreliable data transfer
 Conflicts and latency
 Sensor node relies only on battery and it cannot be recharged or replaced. Hardware
design for sensor node should also be considered.
 Achieving synchronization between nodes is also another issue.
 Node failure, topology changes and adding of nodes and deletion of nodes is another
challenging issue.

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES FOR WSN

 Cost reduction

 For wireless communication, simple microcontroller, system

on chip, sensing, batteries Miniaturization

 Some applications demand small size

 Smart dust as the most extreme vision

 Energy scavenging

 Recharge batteries from ambient energy

(light, vibration,)

 Sensor management protocol

 Provides software operations needed to

perform administrative tasks e.g., moving
sensor nodes, turning them on an off.
  Sensor query and data dissemination protocol

 Provides user applications with interfaces

to issue queries and respond to queries.

 Sensor query and tasking language

(SQTL)

 Directed diffusion

 Sensor MAC (S-MAC)

WSN APPLICATIONS
 Agriculture

 Humidity/temperature monitoring

 Civil engineering

 Structural response

 Disaster management

 Environmental sciences

 Habitat monitoring

 Conservation biology

 Home and Office Applications

 Home and office automation

 Smart environment

 Health Applications

 Telemonitoring of human physiological

data

 Drug administration in hospitals

SINGLE NODE ARCHITECTURE

A sensor node, also known as a mote (chiefly in North America), is a node in a sensor
network that is capable of performing some processing, gathering sensory information and
communicating with other connected nodes in the network. A mote is a node but a node is not
always a mote.

The main components of a sensor node are a microcontroller, transceiver, external memory,
power source and one or more sensors.

Controller

The controller performs tasks, processes data and controls the functionality of other
components in the sensor node. While the most common controller is a microcontroller, other
alternatives that can be used as a controller are: a general-purpose desktop microprocessor,
digital signal processors, FPGAs and ASICs. A microcontroller is often used in many
embedded systems such as sensor nodes because of its low cost, flexibility to connect to other
devices, ease of programming, and low power consumption.

Transceiver

The functionality of both transmitter and receiver are combined into a single device known as
a transceiver. Transceivers often lack unique identifiers. The operational states are transmit,
receive, idle, and sleep. Current generation transceivers have built-in state machines that
perform some operations automatically. Most transceivers operating in idle mode have a
power consumption almost equal to the power consumed in receive mode. Thus, it is better to
completely shut down the transceiver rather than leave it in the idle mode when it is not
transmitting or receiving. A significant amount of power is consumed when switching from
sleep mode to transmit mode in order to transmit a packet.

External memory

From an energy perspective, the most relevant kinds of memory are the on-chip memory of a
microcontroller and Flash memory—off-chip RAM is rarely, if ever, used. Flash memories
are used due to their cost and storage capacity. Memory requirements are very much
application dependent. Two categories of memory based on the purpose of storage are: user
memory used for storing application related or personal data, and program memory used for
programming the device. Program memory also contains identification data of the device if
present.

Power source

A wireless sensor node is a popular solution when it is difficult or impossible to run a mains
supply to the sensor node. However, since the wireless sensor node is often placed in a hard-
to-reach location, changing the battery regularly can be costly and inconvenient. An
important aspect in the development of a wireless sensor node is ensuring that there is always
adequate energy available to power the system.

Sensors

Sensors are used by wireless sensor nodes to capture data from their environment. They are
hardware devices that produce a measurable response to a change in a physical condition like
temperature or pressure. Sensors measure physical data of the parameter to be monitored and
have specific characteristics such as accuracy, sensitivity etc. The continual analog signal
produced by the sensors is digitized by an analog-to-digital converter and sent to controllers
for further processing.

Sensors are classified into three categories: omnidirectional sensors; narrow-beam sensors;
and active sensors. Passive sensors sense the data without actually manipulating the
environment by active probing. Active sensors actively probe the environment, for example,
a sonar or radar sensor, and they require continuous energy from a power source. Narrow-
beam sensors have a well-defined notion of direction of measurement, similar to a camera.
Omnidirectional sensors have no notion of direction involved in their measurements.

SENSOR NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Sensor Network Architecture is used in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). It can be used in
various places like schools, hospitals, buildings, roads, etc for various applications like
disaster management, security management, crisis management, etc.
There are 2 types of architecture used in WSN: Layered Network Architecture, and
Clustered Architecture. These are explained as following below.
1. Layered Network Architecture:
Layered Network Architecture makes use of a few hundred sensor nodes and a single
powerful base station. Network nodes are organized into concentric Layers.
It consists of 5 layers and three cross layers.
The 5 layers are:
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Data Link Layer
5. Physical Layer
The cross layers consist of the following:
Power Management Plane
Mobility Management Plane
Task Management Plane

The advantage of using Layered Network Architecture is that each node participates only in
short-distance, low power transmissions to nodes of the neighbouring nodes because of
which power consumption is less as compared to other Sensor Network Architecture. It is
scalable and has a higher fault tolerance.
2. Clustered Network Architecture:
In Clustered Network Architecture, Sensor Nodes autonomously clubs into groups called
clusters. It is based on the Leach Protocol which makes use of clusters. Leach Protocol
stands for Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy.
Properties of Leach Protocol:
It is a 2-tier hierarchy clustering architecture.
It is a distributed algorithm for organizing the sensor nodes into groups called clusters.
The cluster head nodes in each of the autonomously formed clusters create the Time-
division multiple access (TDMA) schedules.
It makes use of the concept called Data Fusion which makes it energy efficient.

Here:

Clustered Network Architecture is a very useful sensor network because of the property of
Data Fusion. Inside each cluster, each node communicates with the cluster head to gather
the information. All the clusters which are formed share their gathered information to the
base station. The cluster formation and selection of cluster head inside each cluster is an
independent and autonomous distributed process.

.
 UNIT 5

NETWORKSECURITY REQUIREMENTS
A security protocol for ad hoc wireless networks should satisfy the following requirements
1. Confidentiality:
a. The data sent by the sender must be comprehensible only to the intended receiver.
b. Though an intruder might get hold of the data being sent, he / she must not be able to
derive any useful information out of the data.
c. One of the popular techniques used for ensuring confidentiality is data encryption.
2. Integrity:
a. The data sent by the source node should reach the destination node without being altered.
b. It should not be possible for any malicious node in the network to tamper with the data
during transmission
3. Availability:
a. The network should remain operational all the time.
b. It must be robust enough to tolerate link failures and also be capable of surviving various
attacks mounted on it.
c. It should be able to provide guaranteed services whether an authorized user requires them
4. Non-Repudiation:
a. It is a mechanism to guarantee that the sender of a message cannot later deny having sent
the message and that the recipient cannot deny having received the message.
b. Digital signatures are used for this purpose.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN SECURITY PROVISIONING

1. Shared broadcast radio channel:
a. The radio channel used for communication in ad hoc wireless networks is broadcast in
nature & is shared by all nodes within its direct transmission range.
b. Data transmitted by a node is received by all nodes within its direct transmission range.
So, a malicious node could easily obtain data being transmitted in the network.
c. This problem can be minimized to a certain extent by using directional antennas.
2. Limited resource availability:
a. Resources such as bandwidth, battery power, & computational power are scarce in ad hoc
wireless networks.
b. Hence it is difficult to implement complex cryptography-based security mechanisms in
networks.
3. Insecure operational environment:
a. The operating environments where adhoc wireless is used may not always be secure.
b. One important application of such networks is in battlefields.
4. Physical Vulnerability:
a. Nodes in these networks are usually compact & hand-held in nature.
b. They could get damaged easily & are also vulnerable to theft.
5. Lack of central authority:
a. In wired networks & infrastructure-based wireless networks, it would be possible to
monitor the traffic on the network through certain important central points & implement
security mechanisms at such points.
b. Since ad hoc –wireless networks do not have central points; these mechanisms cannot be
applied in ad hoc wireless networks.
6. Lack of associations:
a. Since these networks are dynamic in nature, a node can join or leave the network at any
point of time.
b. If no proper authentication mechanism is used for associating nodes in a network, an
intruder would be able to join into the network quite easily& carry out his/her attacks.

ATTACKS IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Tampering: it is the result of physical access to the node by an attacker; the purpose will be
to recover cryptographic material like the keys used for ciphering.
Black hole: a node falsifies routing information to force the passage of the data by itself,
later on; its only mission is then, nothing to transfer, creating a sink or black hole in the
network. Selective forwarding: as mentioned above, a node plays the role of router, in a
selective forwarding attack, malicious nodes may refuse to forward certain messages and
simply drop them.
Sybil attack: "malevolent device, taking multiple identities in an illegitimate way", attacker
can use the identities of the others nodes in order to take part in distributed algorithms such as
the election.
HELLO flood attack: many routing protocols use "HELLO" packet to discover
neighbouring nodes and thus to establish a topology of the network. The simplest attack for
an attacker consists in sending a flood of such messages to flood the network and to prevent
other messages from being exchanged.
Jamming: a well-known attack on wireless communication, it consists in disturbing the radio
channel by sending useless information on the frequency band used. This jamming can be
temporary, intermittent or permanent.
Blackmail attack: a malicious node makes announce that another legitimate node is
malicious to eliminate this last from the network. If the malicious node manages to tackle a
significant number of nodes, it will be able to disturb the operation of the network.
Exhaustion: is to consume all the resources energy of the victim node, by obliging it to do
calculations or to receive or transmit unnecessarily data.
Wormhole attack: attackers here are strategically placed at different ends of a network.
They can receive messages and replays them in different parts by means of a tunnel. Identity
replication attack: attacker can clone nodes, and place it in different part of the network in
order to collect majority of information traffic. Unlike the Sybil attack, the identity
replication attack is based upon giving the same identity to different physical nods. This
attack can be mounted because in a WSN there is no way to know that a wireless sensor node
is compromised.

What is Jamming?
Jamming attacks are introduced by emitting radio frequency signals, such attacks are not
easily preventable by regular security measures. In nutshell, jamming works by denying
service to authorized users. In jamming, legal Packets are jammed by the large frequencies of
illegal traffic. The issue of jamming mostly relates to older wireless LANs as they are not
fully upgraded to adapt various new ways of interference.
TYPES OF JAMMERS
A. Constant Jammer
This jammer continuously emits interference signals and it transmits random
bits. It’s a typical strategy of jamming. Being always-On in the transfer it
won’t wait for the channel to become idle. However, it has certain
disadvantages, one is that continuous presence makes it easy to detect & other
is, it consumes significant amount of resources

B. Deceptive Jammer
In this, jammer constantly injects series packets to the channel without any
gap between subsequent transmissions [2]. It also broadcasts fabricated
messages and replies old ones.

C. Random Jammer
In this, jammer switches between the period of jamming and sleep. After
jamming for some time, it stops jamming and enters into sleep mode. The
jammer after sleeping for some amount of time wakes up and resumes
 jamming. Both Timers are either random or fixed. This strategy is efficient
compared to previous ones.
D. Reactive Jammer
In this, jammer will remain quiet when the channel is idle. When it senses
activity on the channel, it starts transmitting signal. For the purpose of sensing
the jammer whether it’s ON and should not consume energy.

SOLUTIONS FOR PREVENTING JAMMING

A. Steganography
In Cryptography, it’s a practice of concealing messages or information within another
non-secret file, message, image, or video. it makes the sender and receiver invisible.
Thus, steganography provides not only security but also anonymity.

B. Cryptographic Puzzle Hiding Scheme

In packet hiding scheme based on cryptographic puzzles. Puzzles force the recipient
of a puzzle to execute a pre-defined set of computations before he is able to extract a
secret of interest. The time required for cracking the solution of a puzzle depends on
its hardness and the computational ability of the solver. It has higher computation and
communication overhead.

C. All-Or-Nothing Transformation
The packets are pre-processed by an AONT before transmission but remain
unencrypted. The jammer cannot perform packet classification until all pseudo-
messages corresponding to the original packet have been received and the inverse
transformation has been applied.

SPINS Reliability Requirement

SPIN is a data centric protocol. In data centric routing, sink sends queries to certain regions
and waits for the data from the sensors located in the selected regions. In SPIN, sensor nodes
communicate about the data they already have and they still need to obtain. SPIN (Sensor
Protocol for Information via Negotiation): SPIN is an adaptive protocol which spreads all its
information to the neighbour nodes in the network. This protocol enables the user for
querying and getting information immediately. This protocol works in three steps as:
 ADV: The sensor nodes broadcast an ADV packet about the data to all its neighbours i.e.,
Meta data.

 REQ: If any neighbour is interested in the data, it sends a REQ packet to the originator of
ADV packet for the DATA.
 DATA: Data is sent to its neighbour without considering the type of data or what kind of
data is required. By repeating the same the interested sensor nodes in the entire sensor
network gets a copy of the data.
Some proposed versions of SPIN routing protocols are described as follows:
SPIN-1: SPIN-1 overcomes the problem of blind forward and data inaccessible. Its working is similar
as that of SPIN but it has some better features than SPIN as mentioned below:  The initial energy of
each node is equal. Nodes A and B can communicate with each other, if link is symmetrical;

 Communication between two nodes is far away from the interference of other nodes, and power is
without any constraints and nodes remain stable.

 Assuming all nodes want to achieve the data, and are located on the path to reach sink nodes.

 Wireless signals in all directions consume the same energy. SPIN-1 compares the energy of the
node when it REQ for data to threshold energy if energy is enough to perform whole process it sends
1 otherwise it will not respond to the ADV packet. But in SPIN, node sends 0 with REQ on ADV.
M-SPIN: Modified SPIN is energy efficient routing protocol where [8] node finds all information of
its neighbours and find out the distance to the sink. Data is transfer to those nodes which are in the
direction of sink rather than all neighbour nodes. Distance between nodes to the sink is calculated on
the basis of hop distance. It performs in following 3-steps:

 Distance Discovery

 Negotiation

 Data Transmission