Chapter One

ELECTRIC CHARGES
AND FIELDS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
All of us have the experience of seeing a spark or hearing a crackle when
we take off our synthetic clothes or sweater, particularly in dry weather.
This is almost inevitable with ladies garments like a polyester saree. Have
you ever tried to find any explanation for this phenomenon? Another
common example of electric discharge is the lightning that we see in the
sky during thunderstorms. We also experience a sensation of an electric
shock either while opening the door of a car or holding the iron bar of a
bus after sliding from our seat. The reason for these experiences is
discharge of electric charges through our body, which were accumulated
due to rubbing of insulating surfaces. You might have also heard that
this is due to generation of static electricity. This is precisely the topic we
are going to discuss in this and the next chapter. Static means anything
that does not move or change with time. Electrostatics deals with the
study of forces, fields and potentials arising from static charges.

1.2 ELECTRIC CHARGE

Historically the credit of discovery of the fact that amber rubbed with
wool or silk cloth attracts light objects goes to Thales of Miletus, Greece,
around 600 BC. The name electricity is coined from the Greek word
elektron meaning amber. Many such pairs of materials were known which

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on rubbing could attract light objects
like straw, pith balls and bits of papers.
You can perform the following activity
at home to experience such an effect.
Cut out long thin strips of white paper
and lightly iron them. Take them near a
TV screen or computer monitor. You will
see that the strips get attracted to the
screen. In fact they remain stuck to the
screen for a while.
It was observed that if two glass rods
rubbed with wool or silk cloth are
brought close to each other, they repel
each other [Fig. 1.1(a)]. The two strands
FIGURE 1.1 Rods and pith balls: like charges repel and of wool or two pieces of silk cloth, with
unlike charges attract each other.
which the rods were rubbed, also repel
each other. However, the glass rod and
wool attracted each other. Similarly, two plastic rods rubbed with cat’s
fur repelled each other [Fig. 1.1(b)] but attracted the fur. On the other
hand, the plastic rod attracts the glass rod [Fig. 1.1(c)] and repel the silk
or wool with which the glass rod is rubbed. The glass rod repels the fur.
If a plastic rod rubbed with fur is made to touch two small pith balls
(now-a-days we can use polystyrene balls) suspended by silk or nylon
thread, then the balls repel each other [Fig. 1.1(d)] and are also repelled
by the rod. A similar effect is found if the pith balls are touched with a
glass rod rubbed with silk [Fig. 1.1(e)]. A dramatic observation is that a
pith ball touched with glass rod attracts another pith ball touched with
plastic rod [Fig. 1.1(f )].
These seemingly simple facts were established from years of efforts
and careful experiments and their analyses. It was concluded, after many
careful studies by different scientists, that there were only two kinds of
an entity which is called the electric charge. We say that the bodies like
glass or plastic rods, silk, fur and pith balls are electrified. They acquire
an electric charge on rubbing. The experiments on pith balls suggested
that there are two kinds of electrification and we find that (i) like charges
repel and (ii) unlike charges attract each other. The experiments also
demonstrated that the charges are transferred from the rods to the pith
balls on contact. It is said that the pith balls are electrified or are charged
by contact. The property which differentiates the two kinds of charges is
called the polarity of charge.
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires one kind of
-0
charge and the silk acquires the second kind of charge. This is true for
~

any pair of objects that are rubbed to be electrified. Now if the electrified
glass rod is brought in contact with silk, with which it was rubbed, they
no longer attract each other. They also do not attract or repel other light
objects as they did on being electrified.
Thus, the charges acquired after rubbing are lost when the charged
bodies are brought in contact. What can you conclude from these
2 observations? It just tells us that unlike charges acquired by the objects
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 Electric Charges
and Fields
neutralise or nullify each other’s effect. Therefore, the charges were named
as positive and negative by the American scientist Benjamin Franklin.
We know that when we add a positive number to a negative number of
the same magnitude, the sum is zero. This might have been the
philosophy in naming the charges as positive and negative. By convention,
the charge on glass rod or cat’s fur is called positive and that on plastic
rod or silk is termed negative. If an object possesses an electric charge, it
is said to be electrified or charged. When it has no charge it is said to be
electrically neutral.

UNIFICATION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

In olden days, electricity and magnetism were treated as separate subjects. Electricity
dealt with charges on glass rods, cat’s fur, batteries, lightning, etc., while magnetism
described interactions of magnets, iron filings, compass needles, etc. In 1820 Danish
scientist Oersted found that a compass needle is deflected by passing an electric current
through a wire placed near the needle. Ampere and Faraday supported this observation
by saying that electric charges in motion produce magnetic fields and moving magnets
generate electricity. The unification was achieved when the Scottish physicist Maxwell
and the Dutch physicist Lorentz put forward a theory where they showed the
interdependence of these two subjects. This field is called electromagnetism. Most of the
phenomena occurring around us can be described under electromagnetism. Virtually
every force that we can think of like friction, chemical force between atoms holding the
matter together, and even the forces describing processes occurring in cells of living
organisms, have its origin in electromagnetic force. Electromagnetic force is one of the
fundamental forces of nature.
Maxwell put forth four equations that play the same role in classical electromagnetism
as Newton’s equations of motion and gravitation law play in mechanics. He also argued
that light is electromagnetic in nature and its speed can be found by making purely
electric and magnetic measurements. He claimed that the science of optics is intimately
related to that of electricity and magnetism.
The science of electricity and magnetism is the foundation for the modern technological
civilisation. Electric power, telecommunication, radio and television, and a wide variety
of the practical appliances used in daily life are based on the principles of this science.
Although charged particles in motion exert both electric and magnetic forces, in the
frame of reference where all the charges are at rest, the forces are purely electrical. You
know that gravitational force is a long-range force. Its effect is felt even when the distance
between the interacting particles is very large because the force decreases inversely as
the square of the distance between the interacting bodies. We will learn in this chapter
that electric force is also as pervasive and is in fact stronger than the gravitational force
by several orders of magnitude (refer to Chapter 1 of Class XI Physics Textbook).

A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body is the gold-leaf

electroscope [Fig. 1.2(a)]. It consists of a vertical metal rod housed in a
box, with two thin gold leaves attached to its bottom end. When a charged
object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod, charge flows on to
the leaves and they diverge. The degree of divergance is an indicator of
the amount of charge. 3

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 Physics
Students can make a simple electroscope as
follows [Fig. 1.2(b)]: Take a thin aluminium curtain
rod with ball ends fitted for hanging the curtain. Cut
out a piece of length about 20 cm with the ball at
one end and flatten the cut end. Take a large bottle
that can hold this rod and a cork which will fit in the
opening of the bottle. Make a hole in the cork
sufficient to hold the curtain rod snugly. Slide the
rod through the hole in the cork with the cut end on
the lower side and ball end projecting above the cork.
Fold a small, thin aluminium foil (about 6 cm in
length) in the middle and attach it to the flattened
end of the rod by cellulose tape. This forms the leaves
of your electroscope. Fit the cork in the bottle with
about 5 cm of the ball end projecting above the cork.
A paper scale may be put inside the bottle in advance
to measure the separation of leaves. The separation
is a rough measure of the amount of charge on the
electroscope.
To understand how the electroscope works, use
the white paper strips we used for seeing the
attraction of charged bodies. Fold the strips into half
so that you make a mark of fold. Open the strip and
FIGURE 1.2 Electroscopes: (a) The gold leaf
electroscope, (b) Schematics of a simple iron it lightly with the mountain fold up, as shown
electroscope. in Fig. 1.3. Hold the strip by pinching it at the fold.
You would notice that the two halves move apart.
This shows that the strip has acquired charge on ironing. When you fold
it into half, both the halves have the same charge. Hence they repel each
other. The same effect is seen in the leaf electroscope. On charging the
curtain rod by touching the ball end with an electrified body, charge is
transferred to the curtain rod and the attached aluminium foil. Both the
halves of the foil get similar charge and therefore repel each other. The
divergence in the leaves depends on the amount of charge on them. Let
us first try to understand why material bodies acquire charge.
You know that all matter is made up of atoms and/or molecules.
Although normally the materials are electrically neutral, they do contain
charges; but their charges are exactly balanced. Forces that hold the
molecules together, forces that hold atoms together in a solid, the adhesive
force of glue, forces associated with surface tension, all are basically
electrical in nature, arising from the forces between charged particles.
Thus the electric force is all pervasive and it encompasses almost each
and every field associated with our life. It is therefore essential that we
learn more about such a force.
To electrify a neutral body, we need to add or remove one kind of
FIGURE 1.3 Paper strip charge. When we say that a body is charged, we always refer to this
experiment. excess charge or deficit of charge. In solids, some of the electrons, being
less tightly bound in the atom, are the charges which are transferred
from one body to the other. A body can thus be charged positively by
4 losing some of its electrons. Similarly, a body can be charged negatively

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 Electric Charges
and Fields
by gaining electrons. When we rub a glass rod with silk, some of the
electrons from the rod are transferred to the silk cloth. Thus the rod gets
positively charged and the silk gets negatively charged. No new charge is
created in the process of rubbing. Also the number of electrons, that are
transferred, is a very small fraction of the total number of electrons in the
material body. Also only the less tightly bound electrons in a material
body can be transferred from it to another by rubbing. Therefore, when
a body is rubbed with another, the bodies get charged and that is why
we have to stick to certain pairs of materials to notice charging on rubbing
the bodies.

1.3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

A metal rod held in hand and rubbed with wool will not show any sign of
being charged. However, if a metal rod with a wooden or plastic handle is
rubbed without touching its metal part, it shows signs of charging.
Suppose we connect one end of a copper wire to a neutral pith ball and
the other end to a negatively charged plastic rod. We will find that the
pith ball acquires a negative charge. If a similar experiment is repeated
with a nylon thread or a rubber band, no transfer of charge will take
place from the plastic rod to the pith ball. Why does the transfer of charge
not take place from the rod to the ball?
Some substances readily allow passage of electricity through them,
others do not. Those which allow electricity to pass through them easily
are called conductors. They have electric charges (electrons) that are
comparatively free to move inside the material. Metals, human and animal
bodies and earth are conductors. Most of the non-metals like glass,
porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood offer high resistance to the passage of
electricity through them. They are called insulators. Most substances
fall into one of the two classes stated above*.
When some charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets

=
distributed over the entire surface of the conductor. In contrast, if some
charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same place. You will learn

c. why this happens in the next chapter.

This property of the materials tells you why a nylon or plastic comb
gets electrified on combing dry hair or on rubbing, but a metal article
like spoon does not. The charges on metal leak through our body to the
ground as both are conductors of electricity.
When we bring a charged body in contact with the earth, all the
excess charge on the body disappears by causing a momentary current
to pass to the ground through the connecting conductor (such as our
body). This process of sharing the charges with the earth is called
grounding or earthing. Earthing provides a safety measure for electrical
circuits and appliances. A thick metal plate is buried deep into the earth
and thick wires are drawn from this plate; these are used in buildings
for the purpose of earthing near the mains supply. The electric wiring in
our houses has three wires: live, neutral and earth. The first two carry

* There is a third category called semiconductors, which offer resistance to the

movement of charges which is intermediate between the conductors and
insulators.
5

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 Physics
electric current from the power station and the third is earthed by
nv m mm
connecting it to the buried metal plate. Metallic bodies of the electric
appliances such as electric iron, refrigerator, TV are connected to the
earth wire. When any fault occurs or live wire touches the metallic body,
the charge flows to the earth without damaging the appliance and without
causing any injury to the humans; this would have otherwise been
unavoidable since the human body is a conductor of electricity.

1.4 CHARGING BY INDUCTION

When we touch a pith ball with an electrified plastic rod, some of the
negative charges on the rod are transferred to the pith ball and it also
gets charged. Thus the pith ball is charged by contact. It is then repelled
by the plastic rod but is attracted by a glass rod which is oppositely
charged. However, why a electrified rod attracts light objects, is a question
we have still left unanswered. Let us try to understand what could be
happening by performing the following experiment.
(i) Bring two metal spheres, A and B, supported on insulating stands,
in contact as shown in Fig. 1.4(a).
(ii) Bring a positively charged rod near one of the spheres, say A, taking
care that it does not touch the sphere. The free electrons in the spheres
are attracted towards the rod. This leaves an excess of positive charge
on the rear surface of sphere B. Both kinds of charges are bound in
the metal spheres and cannot escape. They, therefore, reside on the
surfaces, as shown in Fig. 1.4(b). The left surface of sphere A, has an
excess of negative charge and the right surface of sphere B, has an
excess of positive charge. However, not all of the electrons in the spheres
have accumulated on the left surface of A. As the negative charge
starts building up at the left surface of A, other electrons are repelled
by these. In a short time, equilibrium is reached under the action of
force of attraction of the rod and the force of repulsion due to the
accumulated charges. Fig. 1.4(b) shows the equilibrium situation.
The process is called induction of charge and happens almost
instantly. The accumulated charges remain on the surface, as shown,
till the glass rod is held near the sphere. If the rod is removed, the
charges are not acted by any outside force and they redistribute to
their original neutral state.
(iii) Separate the spheres by a small distance while the glass rod is still
held near sphere A, as shown in Fig. 1.4(c). The two spheres are found
to be oppositely charged and attract each other.
(iv) Remove the rod. The charges on spheres rearrange themselves as
shown in Fig. 1.4(d). Now, separate the spheres quite apart. The
charges on them get uniformly distributed over them, as shown in
Fig. 1.4(e).
In this process, the metal spheres will each be equal and oppositely
charged. This is charging by induction. The positively charged glass rod
does not lose any of its charge, contrary to the process of charging by
FIGURE 1.4 Charging
by induction.
contact.
When electrified rods are brought near light objects, a similar effect
takes place. The rods induce opposite charges on the near surfaces of
6 the objects and similar charges move to the farther side of the object.

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 Electric Charges
and Fields
[This happens even when the light object is not a conductor. The
mechanism for how this happens is explained later in Sections 1.10 and
2.10.] The centres of the two types of charges are slightly separated. We
know that opposite charges attract while similar charges repel. However,
the magnitude of force depends on the distance between the charges
and in this case the force of attraction overweighs the force of repulsion.
In Induction
As a result the particles like bits of paper or pith balls, being light, are
pulled towards the rods.

Example 1.1 How can you charge a metal sphere positively without
touching it?
Solution Figure 1.5(a) shows an uncharged metallic sphere on an
insulating metal stand. Bring a negatively charged rod close to the
metallic sphere, as shown in Fig. 1.5(b). As the rod is brought close
to the sphere, the free electrons in the sphere move away due to
repulsion and start piling up at the farther end. The near end becomes
positively charged due to deficit of electrons. This process of charge
distribution stops when the net force on the free electrons inside the
metal is zero. Connect the sphere to the ground by a conducting
wire. The electrons will flow to the ground while the positive charges
at the near end will remain held there due to the attractive force of
the negative charges on the rod, as shown in Fig. 1.5(c). Disconnect
the sphere from the ground. The positive charge continues to be
held at the near end [Fig. 1.5(d)]. Remove the electrified rod. The
positive charge will spread uniformly over the sphere as shown in
Fig. 1.5(e).

FIGURE 1.5

In this experiment, the metal sphere gets charged by the process

of induction and the rod does not lose any of its charge.
EXAMPLE 1.1

Similar steps are involved in charging a metal sphere negatively

by induction, by bringing a positively charged rod near it. In this
case the electrons will flow from the ground to the sphere when the
sphere is connected to the ground with a wire. Can you explain why?
7

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 Physics
1.5 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
We have seen that there are two types of charges, namely positive and
negative and their effects tend to cancel each other. Here, we shall now
describe some other properties of the electric charge.
If the sizes of charged bodies are very small as compared to the
distances between them, we treat them as point charges. All the
charge content of the body is assumed to be concentrated at one point
in space.

1.5.1 Additivity of charges

We have not as yet given a quantitative definition of a charge; we shall
follow it up in the next section. We shall tentatively assume that this can
be done and proceed. If a system contains two point charges q1 and q2,
the total charge of the system is obtained simply by adding algebraically
q1 and q2 , i.e., charges add up like real numbers or they are scalars like
the mass of a body. If a system contains n charges q1, q2, q3, …, qn, then
the total charge of the system is q1 + q2 + q3 + … + qn . Charge has
magnitude but no direction, similar to mass. However, there is one
difference between mass and charge. Mass of a body is always positive
whereas a charge can be either positive or negative. Proper signs have to
be used while adding the charges in a system. For example, the
total charge of a system containing five charges +1, +2, –3, +4 and –5,
in some arbitrary unit, is (+1) + (+2) + (–3) + (+4) + (–5) = –1 in the
same unit.

1.5.2 Charge is conserved

We have already hinted to the fact that when bodies are charged by
rubbing, there is transfer of electrons from one body to the other; no new
charges are either created or destroyed. A picture of particles of electric
charge enables us to understand the idea of conservation of charge. When
we rub two bodies, what one body gains in charge the other body loses.
Within an isolated system consisting of many charged bodies, due to
interactions among the bodies, charges may get redistributed but it is
found that the total charge of the isolated system is always conserved.
Conservation of charge has been established experimentally.

G
It is not possible to create or destroy net charge carried by any isolated
system although the charge carrying particles may be created or destroyed
in a process. Sometimes nature creates charged particles: a neutron turns
into a proton and an electron. The proton and electron thus created have
equal and opposite charges and the total charge is zero before and after
the creation.

1.5.3 Quantisation of charge

Experimentally it is established that all free charges are integral multiples
of a basic unit of charge denoted by e. Thus charge q on a body is always
given by
8 q = ne

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 Electric Charges
and Fields
where n is any integer, positive or negative. This basic unit of charge is the
charge that an electron or proton carries. By convention, the charge on an
electron is taken to be negative; therefore charge on an electron is written
as –e and that on a proton as +e.
The fact that electric charge is always an integral multiple of e is termed
as quantisation of charge. There are a large number of situations in physics
where certain physical quantities are quantised. The quantisation of charge
was first suggested by the experimental laws of electrolysis discovered by
English experimentalist Faraday. It was experimentally demonstrated by
Millikan in 1912.
In the International System (SI) of Units, a unit of charge is called a
coulomb and is denoted by the symbol C. A coulomb is defined in terms
the unit of the electric current which you are going to learn in a subsequent
chapter. In terms of this definition, one coulomb is the charge flowing
through a wire in 1 s if the current is 1 A (ampere), (see Chapter 2 of Class
XI, Physics Textbook , Part I). In this system, the value of the basic unit of
charge is
e = 1.602192 × 10–19 C
Thus, there are about 6 × 1018 electrons in a charge of –1C. In
electrostatics, charges of this large magnitude are seldom encountered
and hence we use smaller units 1 µC (micro coulomb) = 10–6 C or 1 mC
(milli coulomb) = 10–3 C.
If the protons and electrons are the only basic charges in the universe,
all the observable charges have to be integral multiples of e. Thus, if a
body contains n1 electrons and n 2 protons, the total amount of charge on
the body is n 2 × e + n1 × (–e) = (n 2 – n1) e. Since n1 and n2 are integers, their
difference is also an integer. Thus the charge on any body is always an
integral multiple of e and can be increased or decreased also in steps of e.
The step size e is, however, very small because at the macroscopic
level, we deal with charges of a few µC. At this scale the fact that charge of
a body can increase or decrease in units of e is not visible. In this respect,
the grainy nature of the charge is lost and it appears to be continuous.
This situation can be compared with the geometrical concepts of points
and lines. A dotted line viewed from a distance appears continuous to
us but is not continuous in reality. As many points very close to
each other normally give an impression of a continuous line, many
small charges taken together appear as a continuous charge
distribution.
At the macroscopic level, one deals with charges that are enormous
compared to the magnitude of charge e. Since e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, a charge
of magnitude, say 1 µC, contains something like 1013 times the electronic
charge. At this scale, the fact that charge can increase or decrease only in
units of e is not very different from saying that charge can take continuous
values. Thus, at the macroscopic level, the quantisation of charge has no
practical consequence and can be ignored. However, at the microscopic
level, where the charges involved are of the order of a few tens or hundreds
of e, i.e., they can be counted, they appear in discrete lumps and 9

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 Physics
quantisation of charge cannot be ignored. It is the magnitude of scale
involved that is very important.

Example 1.2 If 109 electrons move out of a body to another body

every second, how much time is required to get a total charge of 1 C
on the other body?
Solution In one second 109 electrons move out of the body. Therefore
the charge given out in one second is 1.6 × 10–19 × 109 C = 1.6 × 10–10 C.
The time required to accumulate a charge of 1 C can then be estimated
to be 1 C ÷ (1.6 × 10–10 C/s) = 6.25 × 109 s = 6.25 × 109 ÷ (365 × 24 ×
3600) years = 198 years. Thus to collect a charge of one coulomb,
from a body from which 109 electrons move out every second, we will
need approximately 200 years. One coulomb is, therefore, a very large
EXAMPLE 1.2

unit for many practical purposes.

It is, however, also important to know what is roughly the number of
electrons contained in a piece of one cubic centimetre of a material.
A cubic piece of copper of side 1 cm contains about 2.5 × 10 24
electrons.

Example 1.3 How much positive and negative charge is there in a

cup of water?
Solution Let us assume that the mass of one cup of water is
250 g. The molecular mass of water is 18g. Thus, one mole
(= 6.02 × 1023 molecules) of water is 18 g. Therefore the number of
EXAMPLE 1.3

molecules in one cup of water is (250/18) × 6.02 × 1023.

Each molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom, i.e., 10 electrons and 10 protons. Hence the total positive and
total negative charge has the same magnitude. It is equal to
(250/18) × 6.02 × 1023 × 10 × 1.6 × 10–19 C = 1.34 × 107 C.

1.6 COULOMB’S LAW talks about IF't

→
Coulomb’s law is a quantitative statement about the force between two
point charges. When the linear size of charged bodies are much smaller
than the distance separating them, the size may be ignored and the
charged bodies are treated as point charges. Coulomb measured the
force between two point charges and found that it varied inversely as
the square of the distance between the charges and was directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges and
acted along the line joining the two charges. Thus, if two point charges
q1, q2 are separated by a distance r in vacuum, the magnitude of the
force (F) between them is given by
q1 q 2
F =k (1.1)
r2
How did Coulomb arrive at this law from his experiments? Coulomb
used a torsion balance* for measuring the force between two charged metallic

* A torsion balance is a sensitive device to measure force. It was also used later
by Cavendish to measure the very feeble gravitational force between two objects,
10 to verify Newton’s Law of Gravitation.

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 Electric Charges
and Fields
spheres. When the separation between two spheres is much
larger than the radius of each sphere, the charged spheres
may be regarded as point charges. However, the charges
on the spheres were unknown, to begin with. How then
could he discover a relation like Eq. (1.1)? Coulomb
thought of the following simple way: Suppose the charge
on a metallic sphere is q. If the sphere is put in contact
with an identical uncharged sphere, the charge will spread
over the two spheres. By symmetry, the charge on each
sphere will be q/2*. Repeating this process, we can get
charges q/2, q/4, etc. Coulomb varied the distance for a
fixed pair of charges and measured the force for different
separations. He then varied the charges in pairs, keeping

CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE COULOMB (1736 –1806)

the distance fixed for each pair. Comparing forces for Charles Augustin de
different pairs of charges at different distances, Coulomb Coulomb (1736 – 1806)
arrived at the relation, Eq. (1.1). Coulomb, a French
Coulomb’s law, a simple mathematical statement, physicist, began his career
was initially experimentally arrived at in the manner as a military engineer in
described above. While the original experiments the West Indies. In 1776, he
established it at a macroscopic scale, it has also been returned to Paris and
–10 retired to a small estate to
established down to subatomic level (r ~ 10 m).
do his scientific research.
Coulomb discovered his law without knowing the
He invented a torsion
explicit magnitude of the charge. In fact, it is the other balance to measure the
way round: Coulomb’s law can now be employed to quantity of a force and used
furnish a definition for a unit of charge. In the relation, it for determination of
Eq. (1.1), k is so far arbitrary. We can choose any positive forces of electric attraction
value of k. The choice of k determines the size of the unit or repulsion between small
of charge. In SI units, the value of k is about 9 × 109 charged spheres. He thus
Nm 2 arrived in 1785 at the
2 . The unit of charge that results from this choice is inverse square law relation,
C now known as Coulomb’s
called a coulomb which we defined earlier in Section
law. The law had been
1.4. Putting this value of k in Eq. (1.1), we see that for
anticipated by Priestley and
q1 = q2 = 1 C, r = 1 m also by Cavendish earlier,
F = 9 × 109 N though Cavendish never
That is, 1 C is the charge that when placed at a published his results.
distance of 1 m from another charge of the same Coulomb also found the
magnitude in vacuum experiences an electrical force of inverse square law of force
9 between unlike and like
repulsion of magnitude 9 × 10 N. One coulomb is
magnetic poles.
evidently too big a unit to be used. In practice, in
electrostatics, one uses smaller units like 1 mC or 1 µC.
The constant k in Eq. (1.1) is usually put as
k = 1/4πε0 for later convenience, so that Coulomb’s law is written as
1 q1 q2
F = (1.2)
4 π ε0 r2
ε 0 is called the permittivity of free space . The value of ε 0 in SI units is
ε 0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C2 N–1m–2

* Implicit in this is the assumption of additivity of charges and conservation:

two charges (q/2 each) add up to make a total charge q.
11

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 Physics
Since force is a vector, it is better to write
Coulomb’s law in the vector notation. Let the
position vectors of charges q1 and q2 be r1 and r2
respectively [see Fig.1.6(a)]. We denote force on
q 1 due to q2 by F12 and force on q2 due to q 1 by
F21. The two point charges q 1 and q 2 have been
numbered 1 and 2 for convenience and the vector
leading from 1 to 2 is denoted by r21:
r21 = r2 – r1
In the same way, the vector leading from 2 to
1 is denoted by r12:
r12 = r1 – r2 = – r21
The magnitude of the vectors r21 and r12 is
denoted by r 21 and r 12 , respectively (r 12 = r21). The
direction of a vector is specified by a unit vector
Iris along the vector. To denote the direction from 1
to 2 (or from 2 to 1), we define the unit vectors:
FIGURE 1.6 (a) Geometry and r r
(b) Forces between charges. r$ 21 = 21 , r$12 = 12 , r$ 21 − r$12
r21 r12
Coulomb’s force law between two point charges q1 and q 2 located at
r1 and r2, respectively is then expressed as

1 q1 q2 $
F21 = 2
r 21 (1.3)
4 π εo r21

Some remarks on Eq. (1.3) are relevant:

• Equation (1.3) is valid for any sign of q1 and q2 whether positive or
negative. If q1 and q2 are of the same sign (either both positive or both
negative), F21 is along r̂ 21, which denotes repulsion, as it should be for
like charges. If q1 and q2 are of opposite signs, F21 is along – r$ 21(= r$ 12),
which denotes attraction, as expected for unlike charges. Thus, we do
not have to write separate equations for the cases of like and unlike
charges. Equation (1.3) takes care of both cases correctly [Fig. 1.6(b)].
• The force F12 on charge q1 due to charge q2, is obtained from Eq. (1.3),
by simply interchanging 1 and 2, i.e.,
1 q1 q 2
F12 = 2
rˆ12 = −F21
4 π ε0 r12

Thus, Coulomb’s law agrees with the Newton’s third law.

• Coulomb’s law [Eq. (1.3)] gives the force between two charges q1 and
q 2 in vacuum. If the charges are placed in matter or the intervening
space has matter, the situation gets complicated due to the presence
of charged constituents of matter. We shall consider electrostatics in
12 matter in the next chapter.

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 Electric Charges
and Fields
Example 1.4 Coulomb’s law for electrostatic force between two point
charges and Newton’s law for gravitational force between two
stationary point masses, both have inverse-square dependence on
the distance between the charges and masses respectively.
(a) Compare the strength of these forces by determining the ratio of
their magnitudes (i) for an electron and a proton and (ii) for two
protons. (b) Estimate the accelerations of electron and proton due to
the electrical force of their mutual attraction when they are
1 Å (= 10-10 m) apart? (mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg, me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg)
Solution
(a) (i) The electric force between an electron and a proton at a distance
r apart is:
1 e2
Fe = −
4 πε 0 r 2
where the negative sign indicates that the force is attractive. The
corresponding gravitational force (always attractive) is:
mp me
FG = −G
r2
where mp and me are the masses of a proton and an electron
respectively.
Fe e2
= = 2.4 × 1039
FG 4 πε 0Gm pm e
(ii) On similar lines, the ratio of the magnitudes of electric force
to the gravitational force between two protons at a distance r
apart is:
Fe e2
= = 1.3 × 1036
FG 4πε 0Gm p m p
However, it may be mentioned here that the signs of the two forces
are different. For two protons, the gravitational force is attractive
in nature and the Coulomb force is repulsive. The actual values
of these forces between two protons inside a nucleus (distance
between two protons is ~ 10-15 m inside a nucleus) are Fe ~ 230 N,
whereas, FG ~ 1.9 × 10–34 N.
The (dimensionless) ratio of the two forces shows that electrical
forces are enormously stronger than the gravitational forces.
(b) The electric force F exerted by a proton on an electron is same in
magnitude to the force exerted by an electron on a proton; however,
the masses of an electron and a proton are different. Thus, the
magnitude of force is
1 e2
|F| = = 8.987 × 109 Nm2/C2 × (1.6 ×10–19C)2 / (10–10m)2
4 πε 0 r 2
= 2.3 × 10–8 N
Using Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma, the acceleration
that an electron will undergo is
a = 2.3×10–8 N / 9.11 ×10–31 kg = 2.5 × 1022 m/s2
Comparing this with the value of acceleration due to gravity, we
EXAMPLE 1.4

can conclude that the effect of gravitational field is negligible on

the motion of electron and it undergoes very large accelerations
under the action of Coulomb force due to a proton.
The value for acceleration of the proton is
2.3 × 10–8 N / 1.67 × 10–27 kg = 1.4 × 1019 m/s2 13

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 Physics
Example 1.5 A charged metallic sphere A is suspended by a nylon
thread. Another charged metallic sphere B held by an insulating
handle is brought close to A such that the distance between their
centres is 10 cm, as shown in Fig. 1.7(a). The resulting repulsion of A
is noted (for example, by shining a beam of light and measuring the
deflection of its shadow on a screen). Spheres A and B are touched
by uncharged spheres C and D respectively, as shown in Fig. 1.7(b).
C and D are then removed and B is brought closer to A to a
distance of 5.0 cm between their centres, as shown in Fig. 1.7(c).
What is the expected repulsion of A on the basis of Coulomb’s law?
Spheres A and C and spheres B and D have identical sizes. Ignore
the sizes of A and B in comparison to the separation between their
centres.
EXAMPLE 1.5

14 FIGURE 1.7

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 Electric Charges
and Fields

Solution Let the original charge on sphere A be q and that on B be

q′. At a distance r between their centres, the magnitude of the
electrostatic force on each is given by
1 qq ′
F =
4 πε 0 r 2
neglecting the sizes of spheres A and B in comparison to r. When an
identical but uncharged sphere C touches A, the charges redistribute
on A and C and, by symmetry, each sphere carries a charge q/2.
Similarly, after D touches B, the redistributed charge on each is
q′/2. Now, if the separation between A and B is halved, the magnitude
of the electrostatic force on each is

EXAMPLE 1.5
1 (q / 2 )(q ′ / 2) 1 (qq ′ )
F′ = 2
= =F
4 πε 0 (r / 2) 4 πε0 r 2

Thus the electrostatic force on A, due to B, remains unaltered.

1.7 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES

The mutual electric force between two charges is given
by Coulomb’s law. How to calculate the force on a
charge where there are not one but several charges
around? Consider a system of n stationary charges
q1, q2, q3, ..., qn in vacuum. What is the force on q1 due
to q2, q3, ..., qn? Coulomb’s law is not enough to answer
this question. Recall that forces of mechanical origin
add according to the parallelogram law of addition. Is
the same true for forces of electrostatic origin?
Experimentally, it is verified that force on any
charge due to a number of other charges is the vector
sum of all the forces on that charge due to the other
charges, taken one at a time. The individual forces
are unaffected due to the presence of other charges.
This is termed as the principle of superposition.
To better understand the concept, consider a
system of three charges q1, q2 and q3, as shown in
Fig. 1.8(a). The force on one charge, say q1, due to two
other charges q2, q3 can therefore be obtained by
performing a vector addition of the forces due to each
one of these charges. Thus, if the force on q1 due to q2
is denoted by F12, F12 is given by Eq. (1.3) even though
other charges are present.
1 q1q 2
Thus, F12 = 2
r̂12
4 πε 0 r12
In the same way, the force on q1 due to q3, denoted FIGURE 1.8 A system of (a) three
by F13, is given by charges (b) multiple charges.
1 q1q3
F13 = rˆ13
2
4 πε 0 r13 15

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 Physics
which again is the Coulomb force on q1 due to q3, even though other
charge q2 is present.
Thus the total force F1 on q1 due to the two charges q2 and q3 is
given as
1 q1q 2 1 q1q 3
F1 = F12 + F13 = 2
rˆ12 + 2
rˆ13 (1.4)
4 πε 0 r12 4 πε 0 r13
The above calculation of force can be generalised to a system of
charges more than three, as shown in Fig. 1.8(b).
The principle of superposition says that in a system of charges q1,
q2, ..., qn, the force on q1 due to q2 is the same as given by Coulomb’s law,
i.e., it is unaffected by the presence of the other charges q3, q4, ..., qn. The
total force F1 on the charge q1, due to all other charges, is then given by
the vector sum of the forces F12, F13, ..., F1n:
i.e.,

1  q1q 2 q1q 3 q1qn 

F1 = F12 + F13 + ...+ F1n =  2 rˆ12 + 2 rˆ13 + ... + 2 rˆ1n 
4 πε 0  r12 r13 r1n 

q1 n qi
= ∑ r̂1i
4πε 0 i = 2 r12i (1.5)
The vector sum is obtained as usual by the parallelogram law of
addition of vectors. All of electrostatics is basically a consequence of
Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle.

Example 1.6 Consider three charges q1, q2, q3 each equal to q at the
vertices of an equilateral triangle of side l. What is the force on a
charge Q (with the same sign as q) placed at the centroid of the
triangle, as shown in Fig. 1.9?

FIGURE 1.9
EXAMPLE 1.6

Solution In the given equilateral triangle ABC of sides of length l, if

we draw a perpendicular AD to the side BC,
AD = AC cos 30º = ( 3 /2 ) l and the distance AO of the centroid O
16 from A is (2/3) AD = ( 1/ 3 ) l. By symmatry AO = BO = CO.

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields

Thus,
3 Qq
Force F1 on Q due to charge q at A = along AO
4 πε 0 l2
3 Qq
Force F2 on Q due to charge q at B = 4 πε along BO
0 l2
3 Qq
Force F3 on Q due to charge q at C = 4 πε 2 along CO
0 l

3 Qq
The resultant of forces F 2 and F 3 is 4 πε 2 along OA, by the
0 l

3 Qq
parallelogram law. Therefore, the total force on Q = 4 πε 2 ( rˆ − rˆ )
0 l

EXAMPLE 1.6
= 0, where r̂ is the unit vector along OA.
It is clear also by symmetry that the three forces will sum to zero.
Suppose that the resultant force was non-zero but in some direction.
Consider what would happen if the system was rotated through 60°
about O.

Example 1.7 Consider the charges q, q, and –q placed at the vertices

of an equilateral triangle, as shown in Fig. 1.10. What is the force on
each charge?

FIGURE 1.10

Solution The forces acting on charge q at A due to charges q at B

and –q at C are F12 along BA and F13 along AC respectively, as shown
in Fig. 1.10. By the parallelogram law, the total force F1 on the charge
q at A is given by
F1 = F r̂1 where r̂1 is a unit vector along BC.
The force of attraction or repulsion for each pair of charges has the
EXAMPLE 1.7

q2
same magnitude F =
4 π ε0 l 2

The total force F2 on charge q at B is thus F2 = F r̂ 2, where r̂ 2 is a

unit vector along AC. 17

2022-23
 Physics
Similarly the total force on charge –q at C is F3 = 3 F n̂ , where n̂ is
the unit vector along the direction bisecting the ∠BCA.
It is interesting to see that the sum of the forces on the three charges

EXAMPLE 1.7
is zero, i.e.,
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0
The result is not at all surprising. It follows straight from the fact
that Coulomb’s law is consistent with Newton’s third law. The proof
is left to you as an exercise.

1.8 ELECTRIC FIELD

Let us consider a point charge Q placed in vacuum, at the origin O. If we
place another point charge q at a point P, where OP = r, then the charge Q
will exert a force on q as per Coulomb’s law. We may ask the question: If
charge q is removed, then what is left in the surrounding? Is there
nothing? If there is nothing at the point P, then how does a force act
when we place the charge q at P. In order to answer such questions, the
early scientists introduced the concept of field. According to this, we say
that the charge Q produces an electric field everywhere in the surrounding.
When another charge q is brought at some point P, the field there acts on
it and produces a force. The electric field produced by the charge Q at a
point r is given as
1 Q 1 Q
E ( r) = 2
rˆ = rˆ (1.6)
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r 2
where rˆ = r/r, is a unit vector from the origin to the point r. Thus, Eq.(1.6)
specifies the value of the electric field for each value of the position
vector r. The word “field” signifies how some distributed quantity (which
could be a scalar or a vector) varies with position. The effect of the charge
has been incorporated in the existence of the electric field. We obtain the
force F exerted by a charge Q on a charge q, as
1 Qq
F= rˆ (1.7)
4 πε 0 r 2
Note that the charge q also exerts an equal and opposite force on the
charge Q. The electrostatic force between the charges Q and q can be
looked upon as an interaction between charge q and the electric field of
Q and vice versa. If we denote the position of charge q by the vector r, it
experiences a force F equal to the charge q multiplied by the electric
field E at the location of q. Thus,
F(r) = q E(r) (1.8)
Equation (1.8) defines the SI unit of electric field as N/C*.
Some important remarks may be made here:
(i) From Eq. (1.8), we can infer that if q is unity, the electric field due to
FIGURE 1.11 Electric a charge Q is numerically equal to the force exerted by it. Thus, the
field (a) due to a electric field due to a charge Q at a point in space may be defined
charge Q, (b) due to a as the force that a unit positive charge would experience if placed
charge –Q.
18 * An alternate unit V/m will be introduced in the next chapter.

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields
at that point. The charge Q, which is producing the electric field, is
called a source charge and the charge q, which tests the effect of a
source charge, is called a test charge. Note that the source charge Q
must remain at its original location. However, if a charge q is brought
at any point around Q, Q itself is bound to experience an electrical
force due to q and will tend to move. A way out of this difficulty is to
make q negligibly small. The force F is then negligibly small but the
ratio F/q is finite and defines the electric field:
 F
E = lim   (1.9)
q →0  q 

A practical way to get around the problem (of keeping Q undisturbed

in the presence of q) is to hold Q to its location by unspecified forces!
This may look strange but actually this is what happens in practice.
When we are considering the electric force on a test charge q due to a
charged planar sheet (Section 1.15), the charges on the sheet are held to
their locations by the forces due to the unspecified charged constituents
inside the sheet.
(ii) Note that the electric field E due to Q, though defined operationally
in terms of some test charge q, is independent of q. This is because
F is proportional to q, so the ratio F/q does not depend on q. The
force F on the charge q due to the charge Q depends on the particular
location of charge q which may take any value in the space around
the charge Q. Thus, the electric field E due to Q is also dependent on
the space coordinate r. For different positions of the charge q all over
the space, we get different values of electric field E. The field exists at
every point in three-dimensional space.
(iii) For a positive charge, the electric field will be directed radially
outwards from the charge. On the other hand, if the source charge is
negative, the electric field vector, at each point, points radially inwards.
(iv) Since the magnitude of the force F on charge q due to charge Q
depends only on the distance r of the charge q from charge Q,
the magnitude of the electric field E will also depend only on the
distance r. Thus at equal distances from the charge Q, the magnitude
of its electric field E is same. The magnitude of electric field E due to
a point charge is thus same on a sphere with the point charge at its
centre; in other words, it has a spherical symmetry.

1.8.1 Electric field due to a system of charges

Consider a system of charges q1, q2, ..., qn with position vectors r1,
r2, ..., rn relative to some origin O. Like the electric field at a point in
space due to a single charge, electric field at a point in space due to the
system of charges is defined to be the force experienced by a unit
test charge placed at that point, without disturbing the original
positions of charges q1, q2, ..., qn. We can use Coulomb’s law and the
superposition principle to determine this field at a point P denoted by
position vector r. 19

2022-23
 Physics
Electric field E1 at r due to q1 at r1 is given by
1 q1
E1 = r̂1P
4 πε 0 r12P
where r̂1P is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to P,
and r1P is the distance between q1 and P.
In the same manner, electric field E2 at r due to q2 at
r2 is
1 q2
E2 = r̂2P
4 πε 0 r22P
where r̂2P is a unit vector in the direction from q2 to P
FIGURE 1.12 Electric field at a and r 2P is the distance between q 2 and P. Similar
point due to a system of charges is expressions hold good for fields E3, E4, ..., En due to
the vector sum of the electric fields charges q3, q4, ..., qn.
at the point due to individual By the superposition principle, the electric field E at r
charges. due to the system of charges is (as shown in Fig. 1.12)
E(r) = E1 (r) + E2 (r) + … + En(r)
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
= rˆ1P + rˆ2 P + ... + rˆnP
4 πε 0 r12P 4 πε 0 r22P 4 πε 0 rn2P

1 n
q
E(r) =
4π ε 0
∑ r 2i r̂i P (1.10)
i =1 i P

E is a vector quantity that varies from one point to another point in space
and is determined from the positions of the source charges.

1.8.2 Physical significance of electric field

You may wonder why the notion of electric field has been introduced
here at all. After all, for any system of charges, the measurable quantity
is the force on a charge which can be directly determined using Coulomb’s
law and the superposition principle [Eq. (1.5)]. Why then introduce this
intermediate quantity called the electric field?
For electrostatics, the concept of electric field is convenient, but not
really necessary. Electric field is an elegant way of characterising the
electrical environment of a system of charges. Electric field at a point in
the space around a system of charges tells you the force a unit positive
test charge would experience if placed at that point (without disturbing
the system). Electric field is a characteristic of the system of charges and
is independent of the test charge that you place at a point to determine
the field. The term field in physics generally refers to a quantity that is
defined at every point in space and may vary from point to point. Electric
field is a vector field, since force is a vector quantity.
The true physical significance of the concept of electric field, however,
emerges only when we go beyond electrostatics and deal with time-
dependent electromagnetic phenomena. Suppose we consider the force
between two distant charges q1, q2 in accelerated motion. Now the greatest
speed with which a signal or information can go from one point to another
20 is c, the speed of light. Thus, the effect of any motion of q1 on q2 cannot

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields
arise instantaneously. There will be some time delay between the effect
(force on q2) and the cause (motion of q1). It is precisely here that the
notion of electric field (strictly, electromagnetic field) is natural and very
useful. The field picture is this: the accelerated motion of charge q1
produces electromagnetic waves, which then propagate with the speed
c, reach q2 and cause a force on q2. The notion of field elegantly accounts
for the time delay. Thus, even though electric and magnetic fields can be
detected only by their effects (forces) on charges, they are regarded as
physical entities, not merely mathematical constructs. They have an
independent dynamics of their own, i.e., they evolve according to laws
of their own. They can also transport energy. Thus, a source of time-
dependent electromagnetic fields, turned on for a short interval of time
and then switched off, leaves behind propagating electromagnetic fields
transporting energy. The concept of field was first introduced by Faraday
and is now among the central concepts in physics.

Example 1.8 An electron falls through a distance of 1.5 cm in a

uniform electric field of magnitude 2.0 × 104 N C–1 [Fig. 1.13(a)]. The
direction of the field is reversed keeping its magnitude unchanged
and a proton falls through the same distance [Fig. 1.13(b)]. Compute
the time of fall in each case. Contrast the situation with that of ‘free
fall under gravity’.

FIGURE 1.13
Solution In Fig. 1.13(a) the field is upward, so the negatively charged
electron experiences a downward force of magnitude eE where E is
the magnitude of the electric field. The acceleration of the electron is
ae = eE/me
where me is the mass of the electron.

Starting from rest, the time required by the electron to fall through a
2h 2h m e
distance h is given by t e = =
ae eE
For e = 1.6 × 10–19C, me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg,
E = 2.0 × 104 N C–1, h = 1.5 × 10–2 m,
te = 2.9 × 10–9s
In Fig. 1.13 (b), the field is downward, and the positively charged
proton experiences a downward force of magnitude eE . The
EXAMPLE 1.8

acceleration of the proton is

ap = eE/mp
where mp is the mass of the proton; mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg. The time of
fall for the proton is
21

2022-23
 Physics
2h 2h m p
tp = = = 1.3 × 10 –7 s
ap eE
Thus, the heavier particle (proton) takes a greater time to fall through
the same distance. This is in basic contrast to the situation of ‘free
fall under gravity’ where the time of fall is independent of the mass of
the body. Note that in this example we have ignored the acceleration
due to gravity in calculating the time of fall. To see if this is justified,
let us calculate the acceleration of the proton in the given electric
field:
eE
ap =
mp

(1.6 × 10−19 C) × (2.0 × 10 4 N C −1 )

=
1.67 × 10 −27 kg
EXAMPLE 1.8

= 1.9 × 1012 m s –2
which is enormous compared to the value of g (9.8 m s –2), the
acceleration due to gravity. The acceleration of the electron is even
greater. Thus, the effect of acceleration due to gravity can be ignored
in this example.

Example 1.9 Two point charges q1 and q2, of magnitude +10–8 C and
–10–8 C, respectively, are placed 0.1 m apart. Calculate the electric
fields at points A, B and C shown in Fig. 1.14.

FIGURE 1.14
Solution The electric field vector E1A at A due to the positive charge
q1 points towards the right and has a magnitude
(9 × 109 Nm 2C-2 ) × (10 −8 C)
E1A = = 3.6 × 104 N C–1
(0.05 m)2
The electric field vector E2A at A due to the negative charge q2 points
EXAMPLE 1.9

towards the right and has the same magnitude. Hence the magnitude
of the total electric field EA at A is
EA = E1A + E2A = 7.2 × 104 N C–1
EA is directed toward the right.
22

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields

The electric field vector E1B at B due to the positive charge q1 points
towards the left and has a magnitude
(9 × 109 Nm2 C –2 ) × (10 −8 C)
E1B = = 3.6 × 104 N C–1
(0.05 m)2
The electric field vector E2B at B due to the negative charge q2 points
towards the right and has a magnitude
(9 × 109 Nm 2 C –2 ) × (10 −8 C)
E 2B = = 4 × 103 N C–1
(0.15 m)2
The magnitude of the total electric field at B is
E B = E 1B – E 2B = 3.2 × 104 N C–1
EB is directed towards the left.
The magnitude of each electric field vector at point C, due to charge
q1 and q2 is
(9 × 109 Nm 2C –2 ) × (10−8 C)
E1C = E2C = = 9 × 103 N C–1
(0.10 m)2
The directions in which these two vectors point are indicated in

EXAMPLE 1.9
Fig. 1.14. The resultant of these two vectors is
π π
EC = E1c cos + E 2c cos = 9 × 103 N C–1
3 3
EC points towards the right.

1.9 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

We have studied electric field in the last section. It is a vector quantity
and can be represented as we represent vectors. Let us try to represent E
due to a point charge pictorially. Let the point charge be placed at the
origin. Draw vectors pointing along the direction of the
electric field with their lengths proportional to the strength
of the field at each point. Since the magnitude of electric
field at a point decreases inversely as the square of the
distance of that point from the charge, the vector gets
shorter as one goes away from the origin, always pointing
radially outward. Figure 1.15 shows such a picture. In
this figure, each arrow indicates the electric field, i.e., the
force acting on a unit positive charge, placed at the tail of
that arrow. Connect the arrows pointing in one direction
and the resulting figure represents a field line. We thus
get many field lines, all pointing outwards from the point
charge. Have we lost the information about the strength
or magnitude of the field now, because it was contained
in the length of the arrow? No. Now the magnitude of the
field is represented by the density of field lines. E is strong
near the charge, so the density of field lines is more near
the charge and the lines are closer. Away from the charge, FIGURE 1.15 Field of a point charge.
the field gets weaker and the density of field lines is less,
resulting in well-separated lines.
Another person may draw more lines. But the number of lines is not
important. In fact, an infinite number of lines can be drawn in any region.
23

2022-23
 Physics
It is the relative density of lines in different regions which is
important.
We draw the figure on the plane of paper, i.e., in two-
dimensions but we live in three-dimensions. So if one wishes
to estimate the density of field lines, one has to consider the
number of lines per unit cross-sectional area, perpendicular
to the lines. Since the electric field decreases as the square of
the distance from a point charge and the area enclosing the
charge increases as the square of the distance, the number
of field lines crossing the enclosing area remains constant,
whatever may be the distance of the area from the charge.
We started by saying that the field lines carry information
about the direction of electric field at different points in space.
FIGURE 1.16 Dependence of
Having drawn a certain set of field lines, the relative density
electric field strength on the
distance and its relation to the (i.e., closeness) of the field lines at different points indicates
number of field lines. the relative strength of electric field at those points. The field
lines crowd where the field is strong and are spaced apart
where it is weak. Figure 1.16 shows a set of field lines. We
can imagine two equal and small elements of area placed at points R and
S normal to the field lines there. The number of field lines in our picture
cutting the area elements is proportional to the magnitude of field at
these points. The picture shows that the field at R is stronger than at S.
To understand the dependence of the field lines on the area, or rather
the solid angle subtended by an area element, let us try to relate the
area with the solid angle, a generalisation of angle to three dimensions.
Recall how a (plane) angle is defined in two-dimensions. Let a small
transverse line element ∆l be placed at a distance r from a point O. Then
the angle subtended by ∆l at O can be approximated as ∆θ = ∆l/r.
Likewise, in three-dimensions the solid angle* subtended by a small
perpendicular plane area ∆S, at a distance r, can be written as
∆Ω = ∆S/r2. We know that in a given solid angle the number of radial
field lines is the same. In Fig. 1.16, for two points P1 and P2 at distances
r1 and r2 from the charge, the element of area subtending the solid angle
∆Ω is r12 ∆Ω at P1 and an element of area r22 ∆Ω at P2, respectively. The
number of lines (say n) cutting these area elements are the same. The
number of field lines, cutting unit area element is therefore n/( r12 ∆Ω) at
P1 and n/( r22 ∆Ω) at P2 , respectively. Since n and ∆Ω are common, the
strength of the field clearly has a 1/r 2 dependence.
The picture of field lines was invented by Faraday to develop an
intuitive non-mathematical way of visualising electric fields around
charged configurations. Faraday called them lines of force. This term is
somewhat misleading, especially in case of magnetic fields. The more
appropriate term is field lines (electric or magnetic) that we have
adopted in this book.
Electric field lines are thus a way of pictorially mapping the electric
field around a configuration of charges. An electric field line is, in general,

* Solid angle is a measure of a cone. Consider the intersection of the given cone
with a sphere of radius R. The solid angle ∆Ω of the cone is defined to be equal
24 2
to ∆S/R , where ∆S is the area on the sphere cut out by the cone.

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields
a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at each
point is in the direction of the net field at that point. An
arrow on the curve is obviously necessary to specify the
direction of electric field from the two possible directions
indicated by a tangent to the curve. A field line is a space
curve, i.e., a curve in three dimensions.
Figure 1.17 shows the field lines around some simple
charge configurations. As mentioned earlier, the field lines
are in 3-dimensional space, though the figure shows them
only in a plane. The field lines of a single positive charge
are radially outward while those of a single negative
charge are radially inward. The field lines around a system
of two positive charges (q, q) give a vivid pictorial
description of their mutual repulsion, while those around
the configuration of two equal and opposite charges
(q, –q), a dipole, show clearly the mutual attraction
between the charges. The field lines follow some important
general properties:
(i) Field lines start from positive charges and end at
negative charges. If there is a single charge, they may
start or end at infinity.
(ii) In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be taken
to be continuous curves without any breaks.
(iii) Two field lines can never cross each other. (If they did,
the field at the point of intersection will not have a
unique direction, which is absurd.)
(iv) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops.
This follows from the conservative nature of electric
field (Chapter 2).

1.10 ELECTRIC FLUX

Consider flow of a liquid with velocity v, through a small
flat surface dS, in a direction normal to the surface. The
rate of flow of liquid is given by the volume crossing the
area per unit time v dS and represents the flux of liquid
flowing across the plane. If the normal to the surface is
not parallel to the direction of flow of liquid, i.e., to v, but
makes an angle θ with it, the projected area in a plane
perpendicular to v is δ dS cos θ. Therefore, the flux going
out of the surface dS is v. n̂ dS. For the case of the electric
field, we define an analogous quantity and call it electric
flux. We should, however, note that there is no flow of a
physically observable quantity unlike the case of
liquid flow.
In the picture of electric field lines described above, FIGURE 1.17 Field lines due to
we saw that the number of field lines crossing a unit area, some simple charge configurations.
placed normal to the field at a point is a measure of the
strength of electric field at that point. This means that if 25

2022-23
 Physics
we place a small planar element of area ∆S
normal to E at a point, the number of field lines
crossing it is proportional* to E ∆S. Now
suppose we tilt the area element by angle θ.
Clearly, the number of field lines crossing the
area element will be smaller. The projection of
the area element normal to E is ∆S cosθ. Thus,
the number of field lines crossing ∆S is
proportional to E ∆S cosθ. When θ = 90°, field
lines will be parallel to ∆S and will not cross it
at all (Fig. 1.18).
The orientation of area element and not
merely its magnitude is important in many
contexts. For example, in a stream, the amount
of water flowing through a ring will naturally
depend on how you hold the ring. If you hold
it normal to the flow, maximum water will flow
FIGURE 1.18 Dependence of flux on the
inclination θ between E and n̂ . through it than if you hold it with some other
orientation. This shows that an area element
should be treated as a vector. It has a
magnitude and also a direction. How to specify the direction of a planar
area? Clearly, the normal to the plane specifies the orientation of the
plane. Thus the direction of a planar area vector is along its normal.
How to associate a vector to the area of a curved surface? We imagine
dividing the surface into a large number of very small area elements.
Each small area element may be treated as planar and a vector associated
with it, as explained before.
Notice one ambiguity here. The direction of an area element is along
its normal. But a normal can point in two directions. Which direction do
we choose as the direction of the vector associated with the area element?
This problem is resolved by some convention appropriate to the given
context. For the case of a closed surface, this convention is very simple.
The vector associated with every area element of a closed surface is taken
to be in the direction of the outward normal. This is the convention used
in Fig. 1.19. Thus, the area element vector ∆S at a point on a closed
surface equals ∆S n̂ where ∆S is the magnitude of the area element and
n̂ is a unit vector in the direction of outward normal at that point.
We now come to the definition of electric flux. Electric flux ∆φ through
an area element ∆S is defined by
∆φ = E.∆S = E ∆S cosθ (1.11)
which, as seen before, is proportional to the number of field lines cutting
the area element. The angle θ here is the angle between E and ∆S. For a
closed surface, with the convention stated already, θ is the angle between
FIGURE 1.19 E and the outward normal to the area element. Notice we could look at
Convention for the expression E ∆S cosθ in two ways: E (∆S cosθ ) i.e., E times the
defining normal
n̂ and ∆S. * It will not be proper to say that the number of field lines is equal to E ∆S. The
number of field lines is after all, a matter of how many field lines we choose to
draw. What is physically significant is the relative number of field lines crossing
26 a given area at different points.

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields
projection of area normal to E, or E⊥ ∆S, i.e., component of E along the
normal to the area element times the magnitude of the area element. The
unit of electric flux is N C–1 m2.
The basic definition of electric flux given by Eq. (1.11) can be used, in
principle, to calculate the total flux through any given surface. All we
have to do is to divide the surface into small area elements, calculate the
flux at each element and add them up. Thus, the total flux φ through a
surface S is
φ ~ Σ E.∆S (1.12)
The approximation sign is put because the electric field E is taken to
be constant over the small area element. This is mathematically exact
only when you take the limit ∆S → 0 and the sum in Eq. (1.12) is written
as an integral.

1.11 ELECTRIC DIPOLE

An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges q and –q,
separated by a distance 2a. The line connecting the two charges defines
a direction in space. By convention, the direction from –q to q is said to
be the direction of the dipole. The mid-point of locations of –q and q is
called the centre of the dipole.
The total charge of the electric dipole is obviously zero. This does not
mean that the field of the electric dipole is zero. Since the charge q and
–q are separated by some distance, the electric fields due to them, when
added, do not exactly cancel out. However, at distances much larger than
the separation of the two charges forming a dipole (r >> 2a), the fields
due to q and –q nearly cancel out. The electric field due to a dipole
therefore falls off, at large distance, faster than like 1/r 2 (the dependence
E→di pole
→
✗
¥}
on r of the field due to a single charge q). These qualitative ideas are
borne out by the explicit calculation as follows:

1.11.1 The field of an electric dipole

The electric field of the pair of charges (–q and q) at any point in space
can be found out from Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle.
The results are simple for the following two cases: (i) when the point is on
the dipole axis, and (ii) when it is in the equatorial plane of the dipole,
i.e., on a plane perpendicular to the dipole axis through its centre. The
electric field at any general point P is obtained by adding the electric
fields E–q due to the charge –q and E+q due to the charge q, by the
parallelogram law of vectors.
(i) For points on the axis
Let the point P be at distance r from the centre of the dipole on the side of
the charge q, as shown in Fig. 1.20(a). Then
q
E −q = − p [1.13(a)]
4πε0 (r + a )2
where p̂ is the unit vector along the dipole axis (from –q to q). Also
q
E +q = p [1.13(b)] 27
4 π ε 0 (r − a )2

2022-23
 Physics
The total field at P is
q  1 1 
E = E +q + E − q =  2
− p
4 π ε 0  (r − a ) (r + a )2 

q 4a r
= p (1.14)
4 π εo ( r 2 − a 2 )2
For r >> a
4qa
E= ˆ
p (r >> a) (1.15)
4 π ε 0r 3

(ii) For points on the equatorial plane

The magnitudes of the electric fields due to the two
charges +q and –q are given by
q 1
E +q = [1.16(a)]
4 πε 0 r 2 + a 2
q 1
E –q = [1.16(b)]
4 πε 0 r 2 + a 2

FIGURE 1.20 Electric field of a dipole and are equal.

at (a) a point on the axis, (b) a point The directions of E +q and E –q are as shown in
on the equatorial plane of the dipole. Fig. 1.20(b). Clearly, the components normal to the dipole
p is the dipole moment vector of
axis cancel away. The components along the dipole axis
magnitude p = q × 2a and
directed from –q to q.
add up. The total electric field is opposite to p̂ . We have
E = – (E +q + E –q ) cosθ p̂
2q a
=− p (1.17)
4 π ε o (r 2 + a 2 )3 / 2
At large distances (r >> a), this reduces to
2qa
E=− ˆ
p (r >> a ) (1.18)
4 π εo r 3
From Eqs. (1.15) and (1.18), it is clear that the dipole field at large
distances does not involve q and a separately; it depends on the product
qa. This suggests the definition of dipole moment. The dipole moment
vector p of an electric dipole is defined by
p = q × 2a p̂ (1.19)
that is, it is a vector whose magnitude is charge q times the separation
2a (between the pair of charges q, –q) and the direction is along the line
from –q to q. In terms of p, the electric field of a dipole at large distances
takes simple forms:
At a point on the dipole axis
2p
E= (r >> a) (1.20)
4 πε o r 3
At a point on the equatorial plane
p
E=− (r >> a) (1.21)
28 4πε or 3

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields
Notice the important point that the dipole field at large distances
falls off not as 1/r 2 but as1/r 3. Further, the magnitude and the direction
of the dipole field depends not only on the distance r but also on the
angle between the position vector r and the dipole moment p.
We can think of the limit when the dipole size 2a approaches zero,
the charge q approaches infinity in such a way that the product
p = q × 2a is finite. Such a dipole is referred to as a point dipole. For a
point dipole, Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21) are exact, true for any r.

1.11.2 Physical significance of dipoles

In most molecules, the centres of positive charges and of negative charges*
→ non -

polar
lie at the same place. Therefore, their dipole moment is zero. CO2 and
CH4 are of this type of molecules. However, they develop a dipole moment
when an electric field is applied. But in some molecules, the centres of
negative charges and of positive charges do not coincide. Therefore they
have a permanent electric dipole moment, even in the absence of an electric
field. Such molecules are called polar molecules. Water molecules, H2O,
is an example of this type. Various materials give rise to interesting
properties and important applications in the presence or absence of
electric field.

Example 1.10 Two charges ±10 µC are placed 5.0 mm apart.

Determine the electric field at (a) a point P on the axis of the dipole
15 cm away from its centre O on the side of the positive charge, as
shown in Fig. 1.21(a), and (b) a point Q, 15 cm away from O on a line
passing through O and normal to the axis of the dipole, as shown in
Fig. 1.21(b).
EXAMPLE 1.10

FIGURE 1.21

* Centre of a collection of positive point charges is defined much the same way
∑ qi ri
as the centre of mass: rcm = i .
∑ qi
i
29

2022-23
 Physics
Solution (a) Field at P due to charge +10 µC
10 −5 C 1
= ×
4 π (8.854 × 10−12 C2 N −1 m −2 ) (15 − 0.25)2 × 10 −4 m 2
= 4.13 × 106 N C–1 along BP
Field at P due to charge –10 µC
10 –5 C 1
= ×
4 π (8.854 × 10 −12 C2 N −1 m −2 ) (15 + 0.25)2 × 10 −4 m 2
= 3.86 × 106 N C–1 along PA
The resultant electric field at P due to the two charges at A and B is
= 2.7 × 105 N C–1 along BP.
In this example, the ratio OP/OB is quite large (= 60). Thus, we can
expect to get approximately the same result as above by directly using
the formula for electric field at a far-away point on the axis of a dipole.
For a dipole consisting of charges ± q, 2a distance apart, the electric
field at a distance r from the centre on the axis of the dipole has a
magnitude
2p
E = (r/a >> 1)
4 πε 0r 3
where p = 2a q is the magnitude of the dipole moment.
The direction of electric field on the dipole axis is always along the
direction of the dipole moment vector (i.e., from –q to q). Here,
p =10–5 C × 5 × 10–3 m = 5 × 10–8 C m
Therefore,
2 × 5 × 10−8 C m 1
E = −12 2 −1 −2
×
(15)3 × 10 −6 m 3
= 2.6 × 105 N C–1
4 π (8.854 × 10 C N m )
along the dipole moment direction AB, which is close to the result
obtained earlier.
(b) Field at Q due to charge + 10 µC at B
10−5 C 1
= 4 π (8.854 × 10 −12 C 2 N −1 m −2 ) × [152 + (0.25)2 ] × 10 −4 m 2

= 3.99 × 106 N C–1 along BQ

Field at Q due to charge –10 µC at A

10 −5 C 1
= ×
−12
4 π (8.854 × 10 C N m ) 2 −1 −2
[152 + (0.25)2 ] × 10 −4 m 2
= 3.99 × 106 N C–1 along QA.

Clearly, the components of these two forces with equal magnitudes

cancel along the direction OQ but add up along the direction parallel
to BA. Therefore, the resultant electric field at Q due to the two
charges at A and B is
0.25
EXAMPLE 1.10

=2× × 3.99 × 106 N C –1 along BA

2
15 + (0.25)2
= 1.33 × 105 N C–1 along BA.
As in (a), we can expect to get approximately the same result by
directly using the formula for dipole field at a point on the normal to
30 the axis of the dipole:

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields
p
E = (r/a >> 1)
4 πε 0 r 3

5 × 10−8 C m 1
= ×

EXAMPLE 1.10
−12 2
4 π (8.854 ×10 C N m )–1 –2
(15) × 10 −6 m 3
3

= 1.33 × 105 N C–1.

The direction of electric field in this case is opposite to the direction
of the dipole moment vector. Again, the result agrees with that obtained
before.

1.12 DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD

Consider a permanent dipole of dipole moment p in a uniform
external field E, as shown in Fig. 1.22. (By permanent dipole, we
mean that p exists irrespective of E; it has not been induced by E.)
There is a force qE on q and a force –qE on –q. The net force on
the dipole is zero, since E is uniform. However, the charges are
separated, so the forces act at different points, resulting in a torque
on the dipole. When the net force is zero, the torque (couple) is
independent of the origin. Its magnitude equals the magnitude of FIGURE 1.22 Dipole in a
each force multiplied by the arm of the couple (perpendicular uniform electric field.
distance between the two antiparallel forces).
Magnitude of torque = q E × 2 a sinθ
= 2 q a E sinθ
Its direction is normal to the plane of the paper, coming out of it.
The magnitude of p × E is also p E sinθ and its direction
is normal to the paper, coming out of it. Thus,
τ =p×E (1.22)
This torque will tend to align the dipole with the field
E. When p is aligned with E, the torque is zero.
What happens if the field is not uniform? In that case,
the net force will evidently be non-zero. In addition there
will, in general, be a torque on the system as before. The
general case is involved, so let us consider the simpler
situations when p is parallel to E or antiparallel to E. In
either case, the net torque is zero, but there is a net force
on the dipole if E is not uniform.
Figure 1.23 is self-explanatory. It is easily seen that
when p is parallel to E, the dipole has a net force in the
direction of increasing field. When p is antiparallel to E,
the net force on the dipole is in the direction of decreasing
field. In general, the force depends on the orientation of p
with respect to E.
This brings us to a common observation in frictional
electricity. A comb run through dry hair attracts pieces of FIGURE 1.23 Electric force on a
paper. The comb, as we know, acquires charge through dipole: (a) E parallel to p, (b) E
friction. But the paper is not charged. What then explains antiparallel to p.
the attractive force? Taking the clue from the preceding 31

2022-23
 Physics
discussion, the charged comb ‘polarises’ the piece of paper, i.e., induces
a net dipole moment in the direction of field. Further, the electric field
due to the comb is not uniform. This non-uniformity of the field makes a
dipole to experience a net force on it. In this situation, it is easily seen
that the paper should move in the direction of the comb!

1.13 CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

We have so far dealt with charge configurations involving discrete charges
q1, q2, ..., qn . One reason why we restricted to discrete charges is that the
mathematical treatment is simpler and does not involve calculus. For
many purposes, however, it is impractical to work in terms of discrete
charges and we need to work with continuous charge distributions. For
example, on the surface of a charged conductor, it is impractical to specify
the charge distribution in terms of the locations of the microscopic charged
constituents. It is more feasible to consider an area element ∆S (Fig. 1.24)
on the surface of the conductor (which is very small on the macroscopic
scale but big enough to include a very large number of electrons) and
specify the charge ∆Q on that element. We then define a surface charge
density σ at the area element by
∆Q
σ= (1.23)
∆S
We can do this at different points on the conductor and thus arrive at
a continuous function σ, called the surface charge density. The surface
charge density σ so defined ignores the quantisation of charge and the
discontinuity in charge distribution at the microscopic level*. σ represents
macroscopic surface charge density, which in a sense, is a smoothed out
average of the microscopic charge density over an area element ∆S which,
as said before, is large microscopically but small macroscopically. The
units for σ are C/m2.
FIGURE 1.24 Similar considerations apply for a line charge distribution and a volume
Definition of linear, charge distribution. The linear charge density λ of a wire is defined by
surface and volume
charge densities.
∆Q
λ = (1.24)
In each case, the ∆l
element (∆l, ∆S, ∆V ) where ∆l is a small line element of wire on the macroscopic scale that,
chosen is small on however, includes a large number of microscopic charged constituents,
the macroscopic and ∆Q is the charge contained in that line element. The units for λ are
scale but contains C/m. The volume charge density (sometimes simply called charge density)
a very large number
is defined in a similar manner:
of microscopic
constituents. ∆Q
ρ= (1.25)
∆V
where ∆Q is the charge included in the macroscopically small volume
element ∆V that includes a large number of microscopic charged
constituents. The units for ρ are C/m3.
The notion of continuous charge distribution is similar to that we
adopt for continuous mass distribution in mechanics. When we refer to

32 * At the microscopic level, charge distribution is discontinuous, because they are

discrete charges separated by intervening space where there is no charge.
2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields
the density of a liquid, we are referring to its macroscopic density. We
regard it as a continuous fluid and ignore its discrete molecular
constitution.
The field due to a continuous charge distribution can be obtained in
much the same way as for a system of discrete charges, Eq. (1.10). Suppose
a continuous charge distribution in space has a charge density ρ. Choose
any convenient origin O and let the position vector of any point in the
charge distribution be r. The charge density ρ may vary from point to
point, i.e., it is a function of r. Divide the charge distribution into small
volume elements of size ∆V. The charge in a volume element ∆V is ρ∆V.
Now, consider any general point P (inside or outside the distribution)
with position vector R (Fig. 1.24). Electric field due to the charge ρ∆V is
given by Coulomb’s law:
1 ρ ∆V
∆E = rˆ' (1.26)
4πε 0 r' 2
where r′ is the distance between the charge element and P, and r̂ ′ is a
unit vector in the direction from the charge element to P. By the
superposition principle, the total electric field due to the charge
distribution is obtained by summing over electric fields due to different
volume elements:
1 ρ ∆V
E≅ Σ rˆ' (1.27)
4 πε 0 all ∆V r' 2
Note that ρ, r′, rˆ ′ all can vary from point to point. In a strict
mathematical method, we should let ∆V→0 and the sum then becomes
an integral; but we omit that discussion here, for simplicity. In short,
using Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle, electric field can
be determined for any charge distribution, discrete or continuous or part
discrete and part continuous.

1.14 GAUSS’S LAW

As a simple application of the notion of electric flux, let us consider the
total flux through a sphere of radius r, which encloses a point charge q
at its centre. Divide the sphere into small area elements, as shown in
Fig. 1.25.
The flux through an area element ∆S is
q
∆φ = E i ∆ S = rˆ i ∆S (1.28)
4 πε 0 r 2
where we have used Coulomb’s law for the electric field due to a single
charge q. The unit vector r̂ is along the radius vector from the centre to
the area element. Now, since the normal to a sphere at every point is
along the radius vector at that point, the area element ∆S and r̂ have
the same direction. Therefore,
q FIGURE 1.25 Flux
∆φ = ∆S (1.29) through a sphere
4 πε 0 r 2 enclosing a point
since the magnitude of a unit vector is 1. charge q at its centre.
The total flux through the sphere is obtained by adding up flux
through all the different area elements: 33

2022-23
 Physics
q
φ= Σ ∆S
all ∆S 4 π ε0 r 2
Since each area element of the sphere is at the same
distance r from the charge,
FIGURE 1.26 Calculation of the q q
flux of uniform electric field
φ= Σ ∆S = S
4 πεo r 2 all ∆S 4 πε 0 r 2
through the surface of a cylinder.
Now S, the total area of the sphere, equals 4πr 2. Thus,
q q
φ= 2
× 4 πr 2 = (1.30)
4 πε 0 r ε0
Equation (1.30) is a simple illustration of a general result of
electrostatics called Gauss’s law.
We state Gauss’s law without proof:
Electric flux through a closed surface S
= q/ε0 (1.31)
q = total charge enclosed by S.
The law implies that the total electric flux through a closed surface is
zero if no charge is enclosed by the surface. We can see that explicitly in
the simple situation of Fig. 1.26.
Here the electric field is uniform and we are considering a closed
cylindrical surface, with its axis parallel to the uniform field E. The total
flux φ through the surface is φ = φ1 + φ2 + φ3, where φ1 and φ2 represent
the flux through the surfaces 1 and 2 (of circular cross-section) of the
cylinder and φ3 is the flux through the curved cylindrical part of the
closed surface. Now the normal to the surface 3 at every point is
perpendicular to E, so by definition of flux, φ3 = 0. Further, the outward
normal to 2 is along E while the outward normal to 1 is opposite to E.
Therefore,
φ1 = –E S1, φ2 = +E S2
S1 = S2 = S
where S is the area of circular cross-section. Thus, the total flux is zero,
as expected by Gauss’s law. Thus, whenever you find that the net electric
flux through a closed surface is zero, we conclude that the total charge
contained in the closed surface is zero.
The great significance of Gauss’s law Eq. (1.31), is that it is true in
general, and not only for the simple cases we have considered above. Let
us note some important points regarding this law:
(i) Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape
or size.
(ii) The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, Eq. (1.31), includes the
sum of all charges enclosed by the surface. The charges may be located
anywhere inside the surface.
(iii) In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are some
charges inside and some outside, the electric field [whose flux appears
on the left side of Eq. (1.31)] is due to all the charges, both inside and
outside S. The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, however,
34 represents only the total charge inside S.
2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields
(iv) The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called
the Gaussian surface. You may choose any Gaussian surface and
apply Gauss’s law. However, take care not to let the Gaussian surface
pass through any discrete charge. This is because electric field due
to a system of discrete charges is not well defined at the location of
any charge. (As you go close to the charge, the field grows without
any bound.) However, the Gaussian surface can pass through a
continuous charge distribution.
(v) Gauss’s law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of the
electrostatic field when the system has some symmetry. This is
facilitated by the choice of a suitable Gaussian surface.
(vi) Finally, Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on
distance contained in the Coulomb’s law. Any violation of Gauss’s
law will indicate departure from the inverse square law.

Example 1.11 The electric field components in Fig. 1.27 are

E x = αx1/2, E y = E z = 0, in which α = 800 N/C m1/2. Calculate (a) the
flux through the cube, and (b) the charge within the cube. Assume
that a = 0.1 m.

FIGURE 1.27
Solution
(a) Since the electric field has only an x component, for faces
perpendicular to x direction, the angle between E and ∆S is
± π/2. Therefore, the flux φ = E.∆S is separately zero for each face
of the cube except the two shaded ones. Now the magnitude of
the electric field at the left face is
E L = αx1/2 = αa1/2
(x = a at the left face).
The magnitude of electric field at the right face is
E R = α x1/2 = α (2a)1/2
(x = 2a at the right face).
The corresponding fluxes are
EXAMPLE 1.11

φ = E .∆S = ∆S E L ⋅ n
L L
ˆ L =E ∆S cosθ = –E ∆S, since θ = 180°
L L

= –ELa2
φR= ER.∆S = E R ∆S cosθ = E R ∆S, since θ = 0°
= E Ra2
Net flux through the cube 35

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 Electric Charges
and Fields

1.15 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW

The electric field due to a general charge distribution is, as seen above,
given by Eq. (1.27). In practice, except for some special cases, the
summation (or integration) involved in this equation cannot be carried
out to give electric field at every point in
space. For some symmetric charge
configurations, however, it is possible to
obtain the electric field in a simple way using
the Gauss’s law. This is best understood by
some examples.

1.15.1 Field due to an infinitely

long straight uniformly
charged wire
Consider an infinitely long thin straight wire
with uniform linear charge density λ. The wire
is obviously an axis of symmetry. Suppose we
take the radial vector from O to P and rotate it
around the wire. The points P, P′, P′′ so
obtained are completely equivalent with
respect to the charged wire. This implies that
the electric field must have the same magnitude
at these points. The direction of electric field at
every point must be radial (outward if λ > 0,
inward if λ < 0). This is clear from Fig. 1.29.
Consider a pair of line elements P1 and P2
of the wire, as shown. The electric fields
produced by the two elements of the pair when
summed give a resultant electric field which
is radial (the components normal to the radial
vector cancel). This is true for any such pair
and hence the total field at any point P is
radial. Finally, since the wire is infinite,
electric field does not depend on the position
of P along the length of the wire. In short, the
electric field is everywhere radial in the plane
cutting the wire normally, and its magnitude
depends only on the radial distance r.
To calculate the field, imagine a cylindrical
Gaussian surface, as shown in the Fig. 1.29(b).
Since the field is everywhere radial, flux
through the two ends of the cylindrical
Gaussian surface is zero. At the cylindrical
FIGURE 1.29 (a) Electric field due to an
part of the surface, E is normal to the surface infinitely long thin straight wire is radial,
at every point, and its magnitude is constant, (b) The Gaussian surface for a long thin
since it depends only on r. The surface area wire of uniform linear charge density.
of the curved part is 2πrl, where l is the length
of the cylinder. 37

2022-23
 Physics
Flux through the Gaussian surface
= flux through the curved cylindrical part of the surface
= E × 2πrl
The surface includes charge equal to λ l. Gauss’s law then gives
E × 2πrl = λl/ε0
λ
i.e., E =
2πε 0r
Vectorially, E at any point is given by
λ
E= ˆ
n (1.32)
2πε0r
where n̂ is the radial unit vector in the plane normal to the wire passing
through the point. E is directed outward if λ is positive and inward if λ is
negative.
Note that when we write a vector A as a scalar multiplied by a unit
vector, i.e., as A = A â , the scalar A is an algebraic number. It can be
negative or positive. The direction of A will be the same as that of the unit
vector â if A > 0 and opposite to â if A < 0. When we want to restrict to
non-negative values, we use the symbol A and call it the modulus of A .
Thus, A ≥ 0 .
Also note that though only the charge enclosed by the surface (λl )
was included above, the electric field E is due to the charge on the entire
wire. Further, the assumption that the wire is infinitely long is crucial.
Without this assumption, we cannot take E to be normal to the curved
part of the cylindrical Gaussian surface. However, Eq. (1.32) is
approximately true for electric field around the central portions of a long
wire, where the end effects may be ignored.

1.15.2 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

Let σ be the uniform surface charge density of an infinite plane sheet
(Fig. 1.30). We take the x-axis normal to the given plane. By symmetry,
the electric field will not depend on y and z coordinates and its direction
at every point must be parallel to the x-direction.
We can take the Gaussian surface to be a
rectangular parallelepiped of cross-sectional area
A, as shown. (A cylindrical surface will also do.) As
seen from the figure, only the two faces 1 and 2 will
contribute to the flux; electric field lines are parallel
to the other faces and they, therefore, do not
contribute to the total flux.
The unit vector normal to surface 1 is in –x
direction while the unit vector normal to surface 2
is in the +x direction. Therefore, flux E.∆S through
both the surfaces are equal and add up. Therefore
FIGURE 1.30 Gaussian surface for a the net flux through the Gaussian surface is 2 EA.
uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.
The charge enclosed by the closed surface is σA.
38 Therefore by Gauss’s law,

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields
2 EA = σA/ε0
or, E = σ/2ε0
Vectorically,
σ
E= ˆ
n (1.33)
2ε 0
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane and going away from it.
E is directed away from the plate if σ is positive and toward the plate
if σ is negative. Note that the above application of the Gauss’ law has
brought out an additional fact: E is independent of x also.
For a finite large planar sheet, Eq. (1.33) is approximately true in the
middle regions of the planar sheet, away from the ends.

1.15.3 Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell

Let σ be the uniform surface charge density of a thin spherical shell of
radius R (Fig. 1.31). The situation has obvious spherical symmetry. The
field at any point P, outside or inside, can depend only on r (the radial
distance from the centre of the shell to the point) and must be radial (i.e.,
along the radius vector).
(i) Field outside the shell: Consider a point P outside the
shell with radius vector r. To calculate E at P, we take the
Gaussian surface to be a sphere of radius r and with centre
O, passing through P. All points on this sphere are equivalent
relative to the given charged configuration. (That is what we
mean by spherical symmetry.) The electric field at each point
of the Gaussian surface, therefore, has the same magnitude
E and is along the radius vector at each point. Thus, E and
∆S at every point are parallel and the flux through each
element is E ∆S. Summing over all ∆S, the flux through the
Gaussian surface is E × 4 π r 2. The charge enclosed is
σ × 4 π R 2. By Gauss’s law
σ
E × 4 π r2 = 4 π R2
ε0

σ R2 q
Or, E = =
ε 0 r 2 4 π ε0 r 2
where q = 4 π R2 σ is the total charge on the spherical shell.
Vectorially,
q FIGURE 1.31 Gaussian
E= rˆ (1.34)
4 πε 0 r 2 surfaces for a point with
(a) r > R, (b) r < R.
The electric field is directed outward if q > 0 and inward if
q < 0. This, however, is exactly the field produced by a charge
q placed at the centre O. Thus for points outside the shell, the field due
to a uniformly charged shell is as if the entire charge of the shell is
concentrated at its centre.
(ii) Field inside the shell: In Fig. 1.31(b), the point P is inside the
shell. The Gaussian surface is again a sphere through P centred at O. 39

2022-23
 Physics
The flux through the Gaussian surface, calculated as before, is
E × 4 π r 2. However, in this case, the Gaussian surface encloses no
charge. Gauss’s law then gives
E × 4 π r2 = 0
i.e., E = 0 (r < R ) (1.35)
that is, the field due to a uniformly charged thin shell is zero at all points
inside the shell*. This important result is a direct consequence of Gauss’s
law which follows from Coulomb’s law. The experimental verification of
this result confirms the 1/r2 dependence in Coulomb’s law.

Example 1.13 An early model for an atom considered it to have a

positively charged point nucleus of charge Ze, surrounded by a
uniform density of negative charge up to a radius R. The atom as a
whole is neutral. For this model, what is the electric field at a distance
r from the nucleus?

FIGURE 1.32

Solution The charge distribution for this model of the atom is as

shown in Fig. 1.32. The total negative charge in the uniform spherical
charge distribution of radius R must be –Z e, since the atom (nucleus
of charge Z e + negative charge) is neutral. This immediately gives us
the negative charge density ρ, since we must have
4 πR3
ρ = 0 – Ze
3
3 Ze
or ρ = −
4 π R3
To find the electric field E(r) at a point P which is a distance r away
from the nucleus, we use Gauss’s law. Because of the spherical
symmetry of the charge distribution, the magnitude of the electric
field E(r) depends only on the radial distance, no matter what the
direction of r. Its direction is along (or opposite to) the radius vector r
from the origin to the point P. The obvious Gaussian surface is a
EXAMPLE 1.13

spherical surface centred at the nucleus. We consider two situations,

namely, r < R and r > R.
(i) r < R : The electric flux φ enclosed by the spherical surface is
φ = E (r ) × 4 π r 2
where E (r ) is the magnitude of the electric field at r. This is because

* Compare this with a uniform mass shell discussed in Section 8.5 of Class XI
40 Textbook of Physics.

2022-23
 Electric Charges
and Fields

the field at any point on the spherical Gaussian surface has the
same direction as the normal to the surface there, and has the same
magnitude at all points on the surface.
The charge q enclosed by the Gaussian surface is the positive nuclear
charge and the negative charge within the sphere of radius r,
4 πr3
i.e., q = Z e + ρ
3
Substituting for the charge density ρ obtained earlier, we have
r3
q = Ze−Ze
R3
Gauss’s law then gives,
Z e 1 r
E (r ) = − ; r < R
4 π ε0 r 2 R3
The electric field is directed radially outward.
(ii) r > R: In this case, the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian

EXAMPLE 1.13
spherical surface is zero since the atom is neutral. Thus, from Gauss’s
law,
E (r ) × 4 π r 2 = 0 or E (r ) = 0; r > R
At r = R, both cases give the same result: E = 0.

ON SYMMETRY OPERATIONS

In Physics, we often encounter systems with various symmetries. Consideration of these

symmetries helps one arrive at results much faster than otherwise by a straightforward
calculation. Consider, for example an infinite uniform sheet of charge (surface charge
density σ) along the y-z plane. This system is unchanged if (a) translated parallel to the
y-z plane in any direction, (b) rotated about the x-axis through any angle. As the system
is unchanged under such symmetry operation, so must its properties be. In particular,
in this example, the electric field E must be unchanged.
Translation symmetry along the y-axis shows that the electric field must be the same
at a point (0, y1, 0) as at (0, y2, 0). Similarly translational symmetry along the z-axis
shows that the electric field at two point (0, 0, z1) and (0, 0, z2) must be the same. By
using rotation symmetry around the x-axis, we can conclude that E must be
perpendicular to the y-z plane, that is, it must be parallel to the x-direction.
Try to think of a symmetry now which will tell you that the magnitude of the electric
field is a constant, independent of the x-coordinate. It thus turns out that the magnitude
of the electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite conducting sheet is the same at all
points in space. The direction, however, is opposite of each other on either side of
the sheet.
Compare this with the effort needed to arrive at this result by a direct calculation
using Coulomb’s law.

41

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 Electric Charges
and Fields

POINTS TO PONDER

1. You might wonder why the protons, all carrying positive charges, are
compactly residing inside the nucleus. Why do they not fly away? You
will learn that there is a third kind of a fundamental force, called the
strong force which holds them together. The range of distance where
this force is effective is, however, very small ~10-14 m. This is precisely
the size of the nucleus. Also the electrons are not allowed to sit on
top of the protons, i.e. inside the nucleus, due to the laws of quantum
mechanics. This gives the atoms their structure as they exist in nature.
2. Coulomb force and gravitational force follow the same inverse-square
law. But gravitational force has only one sign (always attractive), while
Coulomb force can be of both signs (attractive and repulsive), allowing
possibility of cancellation of electric forces. This is how gravity, despite
being a much weaker force, can be a dominating and more pervasive
force in nature.
3. The constant of proportionality k in Coulomb’s law is a matter of
choice if the unit of charge is to be defined using Coulomb’s law. In SI
units, however, what is defined is the unit of current (A) via its magnetic
effect (Ampere’s law) and the unit of charge (coulomb) is simply defined
by (1C = 1 A s). In this case, the value of k is no longer arbitrary; it is
approximately 9 × 109 N m2 C–2.
4. The rather large value of k, i.e., the large size of the unit of charge
(1C) from the point of view of electric effects arises because (as
mentioned in point 3 already) the unit of charge is defined in terms of
magnetic forces (forces on current–carrying wires) which are generally
much weaker than the electric forces. Thus while 1 ampere is a unit
of reasonable size for magnetic effects, 1 C = 1 A s, is too big a unit for
electric effects.
5. The additive property of charge is not an ‘obvious’ property. It is related
to the fact that electric charge has no direction associated with it;
charge is a scalar.
6. Charge is not only a scalar (or invariant) under rotation; it is also
invariant for frames of reference in relative motion. This is not always
true for every scalar. For example, kinetic energy is a scalar under
rotation, but is not invariant for frames of reference in relative
motion.
7. Conservation of total charge of an isolated system is a property
independent of the scalar nature of charge noted in point 6.
Conservation refers to invariance in time in a given frame of reference.
A quantity may be scalar but not conserved (like kinetic energy in an
inelastic collision). On the other hand, one can have conserved vector
quantity (e.g., angular momentum of an isolated system).
8. Quantisation of electric charge is a basic (unexplained) law of nature;
interestingly, there is no analogous law on quantisation of mass.
9. Superposition principle should not be regarded as ‘obvious’, or equated
with the law of addition of vectors. It says two things: force on one
charge due to another charge is unaffected by the presence of other
charges, and there are no additional three-body, four-body, etc., forces
which arise only when there are more than two charges.
10. The electric field due to a discrete charge configuration is not defined
at the locations of the discrete charges. For continuous volume charge
distribution, it is defined at any point in the distribution. For a surface
charge distribution, electric field is discontinuous across the surface. 45

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 Physics
11. The electric field due to a charge configuration with total charge zero
is not zero; but for distances large compared to the size of
the configuration, its field falls off faster than 1/r 2, typical of field
due to a single charge. An electric dipole is the simplest example of
this fact.

EXERCISES
1.1 What is the force between two small charged spheres having
charges of 2 × 10–7C and 3 × 10–7C placed 30 cm apart in air?
1.2 The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4 µC due to
another small sphere of charge – 0.8 µC in air is 0.2 N. (a) What is
the distance between the two spheres? (b) What is the force on the
second sphere due to the first?
1.3 Check that the ratio ke2/G memp is dimensionless. Look up a Table
of Physical Constants and determine the value of this ratio. What
does the ratio signify?
1.4 (a) Explain the meaning of the statement ‘electric charge of a body
is quantised’.
(b) Why can one ignore quantisation of electric charge when dealing
with macroscopic i.e., large scale charges?
1.5 When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, charges appear on
both. A similar phenomenon is observed with many other pairs of
bodies. Explain how this observation is consistent with the law of
conservation of charge.
1.6 Four point charges qA = 2 µC, qB = –5 µC, qC = 2 µC, and qD = –5 µC are
located at the corners of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the
force on a charge of 1 µC placed at the centre of the square?
1.7 (a) An electrostatic field line is a continuous curve. That is, a field
line cannot have sudden breaks. Why not?
(b) Explain why two field lines never cross each other at any point?
1.8 Two point charges qA = 3 µC and qB = –3 µC are located 20 cm apart
in vacuum.
(a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line AB joining
the two charges?
(b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 × 10–9 C is placed at
this point, what is the force experienced by the test charge?
1.9 A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10–7 C and qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C
located at points A: (0, 0, –15 cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively.
What are the total charge and electric dipole moment of the system?
1.10 An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10–9 C m is aligned at 30°
with the direction of a uniform electric field of magnitude 5 × 104 NC–1.
Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole.
1.11 A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative
charge of 3 × 10–7 C.
(a) Estimate the number of electrons transferred (from which to
which?)
(b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool to polythene?
1.12 (a) Two insulated charged copper spheres A and B have their centres
46 separated by a distance of 50 cm. What is the mutual force of

2022-23
Chapter Two

ELECTROSTATIC
POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITANCE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapters 6 and 8 (Class XI), the notion of potential energy was
introduced. When an external force does work in taking a body from a
point to another against a force like spring force or gravitational force,
that work gets stored as potential energy of the body. When the external
force is removed, the body moves, gaining kinetic energy and losing
an equal amount of potential energy. The sum of kinetic and
potential energies is thus conserved. Forces of this kind are called
conservative forces. Spring force and gravitational force are examples of
conservative forces.
Coulomb force between two (stationary) charges is also a conservative
force. This is not surprising, since both have inverse-square dependence
on distance and differ mainly in the proportionality constants – the
masses in the gravitational law are replaced by charges in Coulomb’s
law. Thus, like the potential energy of a mass in a gravitational
field, we can define electrostatic potential energy of a charge in an
electrostatic field.
Consider an electrostatic field E due to some charge configuration.
First, for simplicity, consider the field E due to a charge Q placed at the
origin. Now, imagine that we bring a test charge q from a point R to a
point P against the repulsive force on it due to the charge Q. With reference

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 Physics
to Fig. 2.1, this will happen if Q and q are both positive
or both negative. For definiteness, let us take Q, q > 0.
Two remarks may be made here. First, we assume
that the test charge q is so small that it does not disturb
the original configuration, namely the charge Q at the
origin (or else, we keep Q fixed at the origin by some
FIGURE 2.1 A test charge q (> 0) is unspecified force). Second, in bringing the charge q from
moved from the point R to the R to P, we apply an external force Fext just enough to
point P against the repulsive counter the repulsive electric force FE (i.e, Fext= –FE).
force on it by the charge Q (> 0) This means there is no net force on or acceleration of
placed at the origin. the charge q when it is brought from R to P, i.e., it is
brought with infinitesimally slow constant speed. In
this situation, work done by the external force is the negative of the work
done by the electric force, and gets fully stored in the form of potential
energy of the charge q. If the external force is removed on reaching P, the
electric force will take the charge away from Q – the stored energy (potential
energy) at P is used to provide kinetic energy to the charge q in such a
way that the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is conserved.
Thus, work done by external forces in moving a charge q from R to P is
P

WRP = ∫F ext idr

R

= − ∫ FE idr (2.1)
R

This work done is against electrostatic repulsive force and gets stored
as potential energy. → true
always
At every point in electric field, a particle with charge q possesses a
certain electrostatic potential energy, this work done increases its potential
energy by an amount equal to potential energy difference between points
R and P.
Thus, potential energy difference
∆U = U P − U R = WRP (2.2)
( Note here that this displacement is in an opposite sense to the electric
force and hence work done by electric field is negative, i.e., –WRP .)
Therefore, we can define electric potential energy difference between
two points as the work required to be done by an external force in moving
(without accelerating ) charge q from one point to another for electric field
of any arbitrary charge configuration.
Two important comments may be made at this stage:
(i) The right side of Eq. (2.2) depends only on the initial and final positions
of the charge. It means that the work done by an electrostatic field in
moving a charge from one point to another depends only on the initial
and the final points and is independent of the path taken to go from
one point to the other. This is the fundamental characteristic of a
conservative force. The concept of the potential energy would not be
meaningful if the work depended on the path. The path-independence
of work done by an electrostatic field can be proved using the
52 Coulomb’s law. We omit this proof here.

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
(ii) Equation (2.2) defines potential energy difference in terms
of the physically meaningful quantity work. Clearly,
potential energy so defined is undetermined to within an
additive constant.What this means is that the actual value
of potential energy is not physically significant; it is only
the difference of potential energy that is significant. We can
always add an arbitrary constant α to potential energy at
every point, since this will not change the potential energy
difference:
(U P + α ) − (U R + α ) = U P − U R
Put it differently, there is a freedom in choosing the point
where potential energy is zero. A convenient choice is to have
electrostatic potential energy zero at infinity. With this choice,
if we take the point R at infinity, we get from Eq. (2.2) Count Alessandro Volta

COUNT ALESSANDRO VOLTA (1745 –1827)

(1745 – 1827) Italian
W∞ P = U P − U ∞ = U P (2.3) physicist, professor at
Since the point P is arbitrary, Eq. (2.3) provides us with a Pavia. Volta established
definition of potential energy of a charge q at any point. that the animal electri-
Potential energy of charge q at a point (in the presence of field city observed by Luigi
Galvani, 1737–1798, in
due to any charge configuration) is the work done by the
experiments with frog
external force (equal and opposite to the electric force) in
muscle tissue placed in
bringing the charge q from infinity to that point.
contact with dissimilar
metals, was not due to
2.2 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL any exceptional property
Consider any general static charge configuration. We define of animal tissues but
was also generated
potential energy of a test charge q in terms of the work done
whenever any wet body
on the charge q. This work is obviously proportional to q, since was sandwiched between
the force at any point is qE, where E is the electric field at that dissimilar metals. This
point due to the given charge configuration. It is, therefore, led him to develop the
convenient to divide the work by the amount of charge q, so first voltaic pile , or
that the resulting quantity is independent of q. In other words, battery, consisting of a
work done per unit test charge is characteristic of the electric large stack of moist disks
field associated with the charge configuration. This leads to of cardboard (electro-
lyte) sandwiched
the idea of electrostatic potential V due to a given charge
between disks of metal
configuration. From Eq. (2.1), we get: (electrodes).
Work done by external force in bringing a unit positive
charge from point R to P

 U −UR 
= V P – VR  = P  (2.4)
 q

where VP and VR are the electrostatic potentials at P and R, respectively.

Note, as before, that it is not the actual value of potential but the potential
difference that is physically significant. If, as before, we choose the
potential to be zero at infinity, Eq. (2.4) implies:
Work done by an external force in bringing a unit positive charge
from infinity to a point = electrostatic potential (V ) at that point. 53

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 Physics
In other words, the electrostatic potential (V )
at any point in a region with electrostatic field is
the work done in bringing a unit positive
charge (without acceleration) from infinity to
that point.
The qualifying remarks made earlier regarding
potential energy also apply to the definition of
potential. To obtain the work done per unit test
charge, we should take an infinitesimal test charge
FIGURE 2.2 Work done on a test charge q δq, obtain the work done δW in bringing it from
by the electrostatic field due to any given infinity to the point and determine the ratio
charge configuration is independent δW/δq. Also, the external force at every point of the
of the path, and depends only on
path is to be equal and opposite to the electrostatic
its initial and final positions.
force on the test charge at that point.

2.3 POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

Consider a point charge Q at the origin (Fig. 2.3). For definiteness, take Q
to be positive. We wish to determine the potential at any point P with
position vector r from the origin. For that we must
calculate the work done in bringing a unit positive
test charge from infinity to the point P. For Q > 0,
the work done against the repulsive force on the
test charge is positive. Since work done is
independent of the path, we choose a convenient
path – along the radial direction from infinity to
the point P.
At some intermediate point P′ on the path, the
electrostatic force on a unit positive charge is
FIGURE 2.3 Work done in bringing a unit
positive test charge from infinity to the Q ×1
point P, against the repulsive force of rˆ ′ (2.5)
4πε 0r '2
charge Q (Q > 0), is the potential at P due to
the charge Q. where rˆ ′ is the unit vector along OP′. Work done
against this force from r′ to r′ + ∆r′ is
Q
∆W = − ∆r ′ (2.6)
4πε 0r '2
The negative sign appears because for ∆r ′ < 0, ∆W is positive. Total
work done (W) by the external force is obtained by integrating Eq. (2.6)
from r′ = ∞ to r′ = r,

r r
Q Q Q
W = −∫ 2
dr ′ = = (2.7)
∞
4 πε 0r ′ 4 πε 0r ′ ∞ 4 πε 0r
This, by definition is the potential at P due to the charge Q

Q
54 V (r ) = (2.8)
4πε 0r

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
Equation (2.8) is true for any
sign of the charge Q, though we
considered Q > 0 in its derivation.
For Q < 0, V < 0, i.e., work done (by
the external force) per unit positive
test charge in bringing it from
infinity to the point is negative. This
is equivalent to saying that work
done by the electrostatic force in
bringing the unit positive charge
form infinity to the point P is
positive. [This is as it should be,
since for Q < 0, the force on a unit
positive test charge is attractive, so
that the electrostatic force and the
displacement (from infinity to P) are FIGURE 2.4 Variation of potential V with r [in units of
in the same direction.] Finally, we (Q/4πε0) m-1] (blue curve) and field with r [in units
of (Q/4πε0) m-2] (black curve) for a point charge Q.
note that Eq. (2.8) is consistent with
the choice that potential at infinity
be zero.
Figure (2.4) shows how the electrostatic potential ( ∝ 1/r ) and the
electrostatic field ( ∝ 1/r 2 ) varies with r.

Example 2.1
(a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4 × 10–7C
located 9 cm away.
(b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10–9 C
from infinity to the point P. Does the answer depend on the path
along which the charge is brought?
Solution

(a)

= 4 × 104 V
(b) W = qV = 2 × 10–9C × 4 × 104V
= 8 × 10–5 J
EXAMPLE 2.1

No, work done will be path independent. Any arbitrary infinitesimal

path can be resolved into two perpendicular displacements: One along
r and another perpendicular to r. The work done corresponding to
the later will be zero.

2.4 POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE

As we learnt in the last chapter, an electric dipole consists of two charges
q and –q separated by a (small) distance 2a. Its total charge is zero. It is
characterised by a dipole moment vector p whose magnitude is q × 2a
and which points in the direction from –q to q (Fig. 2.5). We also saw that
the electric field of a dipole at a point with position vector r depends not
just on the magnitude r, but also on the angle between r and p. Further, 55

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 Physics
the field falls off, at large distance, not as
1/r 2 (typical of field due to a single charge)
but as 1/r 3. We, now, determine the electric
potential due to a dipole and contrast it
with the potential due to a single charge.
As before, we take the origin at the
centre of the dipole. Now we know that the
electric field obeys the superposition
principle. Since potential is related to the
work done by the field, electrostatic
potential also follows the superposition
principle. Thus, the potential due to the
dipole is the sum of potentials due to the
charges q and –q

1 q q
V = − (2.9)
FIGURE 2.5 Quantities involved in the calculation 4πε 0  r1 r2 
of potential due to a dipole.
where r1 and r2 are the distances of the
point P from q and –q, respectively.
Now, by geometry,
r12 = r 2 + a 2 − 2ar cosθ

r22 = r 2 + a 2 + 2ar cosθ (2.10)

We take r much greater than a ( r >> a ) and retain terms only upto
the first order in a/r
2
 2a cos θ a 
r12 = r 2 1 − + 2 
 r r 

 2a cos θ 
≅ r 2 1 −  (2.11)
 r
Similarly,
 2a cos θ 
r22 ≅ r 2 1 +  (2.12)
 r
Using the Binomial theorem and retaining terms upto the first order
in a/r ; we obtain,
− 1/ 2
1 1 2a cos θ  1 a 
≅ 1 −  ≅ 1 + cos θ  [2.13(a)]
r1 r  r r r
− 1/ 2
1 1 2a cos θ  1 a 
≅ 1 +  ≅ 1 − cos θ  [2.13(b)]
r2 r  r r r
Using Eqs. (2.9) and (2.13) and p = 2qa, we get
q 2acosθ p cos θ
V = = (2.14)
4 πε 0 r2 4 πε 0r 2
56 Now, p cos θ = p.r̂

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

where r̂ is the unit vector along the position vector OP.

The electric potential of a dipole is then given by
1 p.r̂
V = ; (r >> a) (2.15)
4 πε 0 r 2
Equation (2.15) is, as indicated, approximately true only for distances
large compared to the size of the dipole, so that higher order terms in
a/r are negligible. For a point dipole p at the origin, Eq. (2.15) is, however,
exact.
From Eq. (2.15), potential on the dipole axis (θ = 0, π ) is given by
1 p
V =± (2.16)
4 πε 0 r 2
(Positive sign for θ = 0, negative sign for θ = π.) The potential in the
equatorial plane (θ = π/2) is zero.
The important contrasting features of electric potential of a dipole
from that due to a single charge are clear from Eqs. (2.8) and (2.15):
(i) The potential due to a dipole depends not just on r but also on the
angle between the position vector r and the dipole moment vector p.
(It is, however, axially symmetric about p. That is, if you rotate the
position vector r about p, keeping θ fixed, the points corresponding
to P on the cone so generated will have the same potential as at P.)
(ii) The electric dipole potential falls off, at large distance, as 1/r 2, not as
1/r, characteristic of the potential due to a single charge. (You can
refer to the Fig. 2.5 for graphs of 1/r 2 versus r and 1/r versus r,
drawn there in another context.)

2.5 POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

Consider a system of charges q1, q2,…, qn with position vectors r1, r2,…,
rn relative to some origin (Fig. 2.6). The potential V1 at P due to the charge
q1 is
1 q1
V1 =
4 πε 0 r1P
where r1P is the distance between q1 and P.
Similarly, the potential V2 at P due to q2 and
V3 due to q3 are given by
1 q2 1 q3
V2 = , V3 =
4 πε 0 r2P 4 πε 0 r3P
where r2P and r3P are the distances of P from
charges q2 and q3, respectively; and so on for the
potential due to other charges. By the FIGURE 2.6 Potential at a point due to a
superposition principle, the potential V at P due system of charges is the sum of potentials
to the total charge configuration is the algebraic due to individual charges.
sum of the potentials due to the individual
charges
V = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn (2.17) 57

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 Physics
1  q1 q 2 q 
=  + + ...... + n  (2.18)
4 πε 0  r1P r2 P rnP 
If we have a continuous charge distribution characterised by a charge
density ρ (r), we divide it, as before, into small volume elements each of
size ∆v and carrying a charge ρ ∆v. We then determine the potential due
to each volume element and sum (strictly speaking , integrate) over all
such contributions, and thus determine the potential due to the entire
distribution.
We have seen in Chapter 1 that for a uniformly charged spherical shell,
the electric field outside the shell is as if the entire charge is concentrated
at the centre. Thus, the potential outside the shell is given by
1 q
V = (r ≥ R ) [2.19(a)]
4πε 0 r
where q is the total charge on the shell and R its radius. The electric field
inside the shell is zero. This implies (Section 2.6) that potential is constant
inside the shell (as no work is done in moving a charge inside the shell),
and, therefore, equals its value at the surface, which is
1 q
V = [2.19(b)]
4 πε0 R

Example 2.2 Two charges 3 × 10–8 C and –2 × 10–8 C are located

15 cm apart. At what point on the line joining the two charges is the
electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero.
Solution Let us take the origin O at the location of the positive charge.
The line joining the two charges is taken to be the x-axis; the negative
charge is taken to be on the right side of the origin (Fig. 2.7).

FIGURE 2.7

Let P be the required point on the x-axis where the potential is zero.
If x is the x-coordinate of P, obviously x must be positive. (There is no
possibility of potentials due to the two charges adding up to zero for
x < 0.) If x lies between O and A, we have

1  3 × 10–8 2 × 10 –8 
− = 0
4 πε 0  x × 10 (15 − x ) × 10 –2 
–2

where x is in cm. That is,

3 2
− =0
EXAMPLE 2.2

x 15 − x
which gives x = 9 cm.
If x lies on the extended line OA, the required condition is
3 2
− =0
x x − 15
58

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

which gives

EXAMPLE 2.2
x = 45 cm
Thus, electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the
positive charge on the side of the negative charge. Note that the
formula for potential used in the calculation required choosing
potential to be zero at infinity.

Example 2.3 Figures 2.8 (a) and (b) show the field lines of a positive
and negative point charge respectively.

FIGURE 2.8

(a) Give the signs of the potential difference VP – VQ; VB – VA.

(b) Give the sign of the potential energy difference of a small negative
charge between the points Q and P; A and B.
(c) Give the sign of the work done by the field in moving a small
positive charge from Q to P.
(d) Give the sign of the work done by the external agency in moving
a small negative charge from B to A.
(e) Does the kinetic energy of a small negative charge increase or
decrease in going from B to A?
Solution
1
(a) As V ∝ , VP > VQ. Thus, (VP – VQ ) is positive. Also VB is less negative
r
than VA . Thus, VB > VA or (VB – VA) is positive.
(b) A small negative charge will be attracted towards positive charge.
The negative charge moves from higher potential energy to lower
potential energy. Therefore the sign of potential energy difference
of a small negative charge between Q and P is positive.
Similarly, (P.E.)A > (P.E.)B and hence sign of potential energy
differences is positive.
(c) In moving a small positive charge from Q to P, work has to be
done by an external agency against the electric field. Therefore,
work done by the field is negative.
EXAMPLE 2.3

(d) In moving a small negative charge from B to A work has to be

done by the external agency. It is positive.
(e) Due to force of repulsion on the negative charge, velocity decreases
and hence the kinetic energy decreases in going from B to A.
59

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 Physics
2.6 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of potential
at all points on the surface. For a single charge q, the potential is given
by Eq. (2.8):
1 q
V=
4 πεo r
This shows that V is a constant if r is constant. Thus, equipotential
surfaces of a single point charge are concentric spherical surfaces centred
at the charge.
Now the electric field lines for a single charge q are radial lines starting
from or ending at the charge, depending on whether q is positive or negative.
Clearly, the electric field at every point is normal to the equipotential surface
passing through that point. This is true in general: for any charge
configuration, equipotential surface through a point is normal to the
electric field at that point. The proof of this statement is simple.
If the field were not normal to the equipotential surface, it would
have non-zero component along the surface. To move a unit test charge
against the direction of the component of the field, work would have to
be done. But this is in contradiction to the definition of an equipotential
FIGURE 2.9 For a surface: there is no potential difference between any two points on the
single charge q surface and no work is required to move a test charge on the surface.
(a) equipotential The electric field must, therefore, be normal to the equipotential surface
surfaces are at every point. Equipotential surfaces offer an alternative visual picture
spherical surfaces in addition to the picture of electric field lines around a charge
centred at the
configuration.
charge, and
(b) electric field
lines are radial,
starting from the
charge if q > 0.

FIGURE 2.10 Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field.

For a uniform electric field E, say, along the x -axis, the equipotential
surfaces are planes normal to the x -axis, i.e., planes parallel to the y-z
plane (Fig. 2.10). Equipotential surfaces for (a) a dipole and (b) two
identical positive charges are shown in Fig. 2.11.

FIGURE 2.11 Some equipotential surfaces for (a) a dipole,

60 (b) two identical positive charges.

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
2.6.1 Relation between field and potential
Consider two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and B (Fig. 2.12)
with potential values V and V + δ V, where δ V is the change in V in the
direction of the electric field E. Let P be a point on the
surface B. δ l is the perpendicular distance of the
surface A from P. Imagine that a unit positive charge
is moved along this perpendicular from the surface B
to surface A against the electric field. The work done
in this process is |E|δ l.
This work equals the potential difference
VA–VB.
Thus,
|E|δ l = V – (V + δV )= – δV

δV
i.e., |E|= − (2.20)
δl
Since δV is negative, δV = – |δV|. we can rewrite FIGURE 2.12 From the
Eq (2.20) as potential to the field.

δV δV
E =− =+ (2.21)
δl δl
We thus arrive at two important conclusions concerning the relation
between electric field and potential:
(i) Electric field is in the direction in which the potential decreases
steepest.
(ii) Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential
per unit displacement normal to the equipotential surface at the point.

2.7 POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

Consider first the simple case of two charges q1and q2 with position vector
r1 and r 2 relative to some origin. Let us calculate the work done
(externally) in building up this configuration. This means that we consider
the charges q1 and q2 initially at infinity and determine the work done by
an external agency to bring the charges to the given locations. Suppose,
first the charge q1 is brought from infinity to the point r1. There is no
external field against which work needs to be done, so work done in
bringing q1 from infinity to r1 is zero. This charge produces a potential in
space given by
1 q1
V1 =
4 πε 0 r1P
where r1P is the distance of a point P in space from the location of q1.
From the definition of potential, work done in bringing charge q2 from
infinity to the point r2 is q2 times the potential at r2 due to q1:
1 q1q2
work done on q2 =
4 πε 0 r12 61

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 Physics
where r12 is the distance between points 1 and 2.
Since electrostatic force is conservative, this work gets
stored in the form of potential energy of the system. Thus,
the potential energy of a system of two charges q1 and q2 is
FIGURE 2.13 Potential energy of a 1 q1q 2
system of charges q1 and q2 is
U = (2.22)
4 πε 0 r12
directly proportional to the product
of charges and inversely to the Obviously, if q2 was brought first to its present location and
distance between them. q1 brought later, the potential energy U would be the same.
More generally, the potential energy expression,
Eq. (2.22), is unaltered whatever way the charges are brought to the specified
locations, because of path-independence of work for electrostatic force.
Equation (2.22) is true for any sign of q1and q2. If q1q2 > 0, potential
energy is positive. This is as expected, since for like charges (q1q2 > 0),
electrostatic force is repulsive and a positive amount of work is needed to
be done against this force to bring the charges from infinity to a finite
distance apart. For unlike charges (q1 q2 < 0), the electrostatic force is
attractive. In that case, a positive amount of work is needed against this
force to take the charges from the given location to infinity. In other words,
a negative amount of work is needed for the reverse path (from infinity to
the present locations), so the potential energy is negative.
Equation (2.22) is easily generalised for a system of any number of
point charges. Let us calculate the potential energy of a system of three
charges q1, q2 and q3 located at r1, r2, r3, respectively. To bring q1 first
from infinity to r1, no work is required. Next we bring q2 from infinity to
r2. As before, work done in this step is
1 q1q2
q2V1( r2 ) = (2.23)
4 πε 0 r12
The charges q1 and q2 produce a potential, which at any point P is
given by

1  q1 q 2 
V1, 2 = + (2.24)
4 πε 0  r1P r2 P 
Work done next in bringing q3 from infinity to the point r3 is q3 times
V1, 2 at r3

1  q1q3 q 2q 3 
q3V1, 2 ( r3 ) = + (2.25)
4 πε 0  r13 r23 
The total work done in assembling the charges
at the given locations is obtained by adding the work
done in different steps [Eq. (2.23) and Eq. (2.25)],

1  q1q 2 q1q 3 q 2q 3 
U = + + (2.26)
FIGURE 2.14 Potential energy of a 4 πε 0  r12 r13 r23 
system of three charges is given by Again, because of the conservative nature of the
Eq. (2.26), with the notation given
electrostatic force (or equivalently, the path
in the figure.
independence of work done), the final expression for
U, Eq. (2.26), is independent of the manner in which
62 the configuration is assembled. The potential energy

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
is characteristic of the present state of configuration, and not the way
the state is achieved. since
,
#electrostatic is conservative .

Example 2.4 Four charges are arranged at the corners of a square

ABCD of side d, as shown in Fig. 2.15.(a) Find the work required to
put together this arrangement. (b) A charge q0 is brought to the centre
E of the square, the four charges being held fixed at its corners. How
much extra work is needed to do this?

FIGURE 2.15

Solution
(a) Since the work done depends on the final arrangement of the
charges, and not on how they are put together, we calculate work
needed for one way of putting the charges at A, B, C and D. Suppose,
first the charge +q is brought to A, and then the charges –q, +q, and
–q are brought to B, C and D, respectively. The total work needed can
be calculated in steps:
(i) Work needed to bring charge +q to A when no charge is present
elsewhere: this is zero.
(ii) Work needed to bring –q to B when +q is at A. This is given by
(charge at B) × (electrostatic potential at B due to charge +q at A)
 q  q2
= −q ×   =−
 4 πε 0 d  4 πε 0d
(iii) Work needed to bring charge +q to C when +q is at A and –q is at
B. This is given by (charge at C) × (potential at C due to charges
at A and B)
 +q −q 
= +q  +
 4 πε 0 d 2 4 πε 0d 
−q 2  1 
= 1−
4 πε 0 d  
2
(iv) Work needed to bring –q to D when +q at A,–q at B, and +q at C.
This is given by (charge at D) × (potential at D due to charges at A,
B and C)
EXAMPLE 2.4

 +q −q q 
= −q  + + 
 4 πε 0 d 4πε 0d 2 4 πε 0d 
−q 2  1 
=  2 − 
4 πε 0d 2 63

2022-23
 Physics
Add the work done in steps (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv). The total work
required is
−q 2   1   1 
= ( 0) + (1) + 1 −  + 2 − 
4 πε 0 d   2  2

−q 2
=
4 πε 0 d
(4− 2 )
The work done depends only on the arrangement of the charges, and
not how they are assembled. By definition, this is the total
electrostatic energy of the charges.
(Students may try calculating same work/energy by taking charges
in any other order they desire and convince themselves that the energy
will remain the same.)
(b) The extra work necessary to bring a charge q0 to the point E when
EXAMPLE 2.4

the four charges are at A, B, C and D is q0 × (electrostatic potential at

E due to the charges at A, B, C and D). The electrostatic potential at
E is clearly zero since potential due to A and C is cancelled by that
due to B and D. Hence, no work is required to bring any charge to
point E.

2.8 POTENTIAL ENERGY IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD

2.8.1 Potential energy of a single charge
In Section 2.7, the source of the electric field was specified – the charges
and their locations - and the potential energy of the system of those charges
was determined. In this section, we ask a related but a distinct question.
What is the potential energy of a charge q in a given field? This question
was, in fact, the starting point that led us to the notion of the electrostatic
potential (Sections 2.1 and 2.2). But here we address this question again
to clarify in what way it is different from the discussion in Section 2.7.
The main difference is that we are now concerned with the potential
energy of a charge (or charges) in an external field. The external field E is
not produced by the given charge(s) whose potential energy we wish to
calculate. E is produced by sources external to the given charge(s).The
external sources may be known, but often they are unknown or
unspecified; what is specified is the electric field E or the electrostatic
potential V due to the external sources. We assume that the charge q
does not significantly affect the sources producing the external field. This
is true if q is very small, or the external sources are held fixed by other
unspecified forces. Even if q is finite, its influence on the external sources
may still be ignored in the situation when very strong sources far away
at infinity produce a finite field E in the region of interest. Note again that
we are interested in determining the potential energy of a given charge q
(and later, a system of charges) in the external field; we are not interested
in the potential energy of the sources producing the external electric field.
The external electric field E and the corresponding external potential
V may vary from point to point. By definition, V at a point P is the work
64 done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to the point P.

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
(We continue to take potential at infinity to be zero.) Thus, work done in
bringing a charge q from infinity to the point P in the external field is qV.
This work is stored in the form of potential energy of q. If the point P has
position vector r relative to some origin, we can write:
Potential energy of q at r in an external field
= qV (r) (2.27)
where V(r) is the external potential at the point r.
Thus, if an electron with charge q = e = 1.6×10–19 C is accelerated by
a potential difference of ∆V = 1 volt, it would gain energy of q∆V = 1.6 ×
10–19J. This unit of energy is defined as 1 electron volt or 1eV, i.e.,
1 eV=1.6 × 10–19J. The units based on eV are most commonly used in
atomic, nuclear and particle physics, (1 keV = 103eV = 1.6 × 10–16J, 1 MeV
= 106eV = 1.6 × 10–13J, 1 GeV = 109eV = 1.6 × 10–10J and 1 TeV = 1012eV
= 1.6 × 10–7J). [This has already been defined on Page 117, XI Physics
Part I, Table 6.1.]

2.8.2 Potential energy of a system of two charges in an

external field
Next, we ask: what is the potential energy of a system of two charges q1
and q2 located at r1and r2, respectively, in an external field? First, we
calculate the work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to r1.
Work done in this step is q1 V(r1), using Eq. (2.27). Next, we consider the
work done in bringing q2 to r2. In this step, work is done not only against
the external field E but also against the field due to q1.
Work done on q2 against the external field
= q2 V (r2)
Work done on q2 against the field due to q1
q1q2
=
4 πεo r12
where r12 is the distance between q1 and q2. We have made use of Eqs.
(2.27) and (2.22). By the superposition principle for fields, we add up
the work done on q2 against the two fields (E and that due to q1):
Work done in bringing q2 to r2
q1q 2
= q 2V ( r2 ) + (2.28)
4πε or12
Thus,
Potential energy of the system
= the total work done in assembling the configuration
q1q 2
= q1V ( r1 ) + q 2V ( r2 ) + (2.29)
4 πε 0r12

Example 2.5
EXAMPLE 2.5

(a) Determine the electrostatic potential energy of a system consisting

of two charges 7 µC and –2 µC (and with no external field) placed
at (–9 cm, 0, 0) and (9 cm, 0, 0) respectively.
(b) How much work is required to separate the two charges infinitely
away from each other? 65

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 Physics
(c) Suppose that the same system of charges is now placed in an
external electric field E = A (1/r 2); A = 9 × 105 NC–1 m2. What would
the electrostatic energy of the configuration be?
Solution
1 q1q2 7 × ( −2) × 10 −12
(a) U = = 9 × 109 × = –0.7 J.
4 πε 0 r 0.18
(b) W = U 2 – U 1 = 0 – U = 0 – (–0.7) = 0.7 J.
(c) The mutual interaction energy of the two charges remains
unchanged. In addition, there is the energy of interaction of the
two charges with the external electric field. We find,
7 µC −2µC
q1V (r1 ) + q 2V ( r2 ) = A+A
0.09m 0.09m
EXAMPLE 2.5

and the net electrostatic energy is

q1q2 7 µC −2 µC
q1V ( r1 ) + q2V ( r2 ) + =A +A − 0.7 J
4 πε 0r12 0.09 m 0.09 m
= 70 − 20 − 0.7 = 49.3 J

2.8.3 Potential energy of a dipole in an external field

Consider a dipole with charges q 1 = +q and q 2 = –q placed in a uniform
electric field E, as shown in Fig. 2.16.
As seen in the last chapter, in a uniform electric field,
the dipole experiences no net force; but experiences a
torque τ given by
τ = p×E (2.30)
which will tend to rotate it (unless p is parallel or
antiparallel to E). Suppose an external torque τext is
applied in such a manner that it just neutralises this
torque and rotates it in the plane of paper from angle θ0
to angle θ1 at an infinitesimal angular speed and without
angular acceleration. The amount of work done by the
external torque will be given by

FIGURE 2.16 Potential energy of a

dipole in a uniform external field.
= pE (cos θ0 − cos θ1 ) (2.31)

This work is stored as the potential energy of the system. We can

then associate potential energy U(θ ) with an inclination θ of the dipole.
Similar to other potential energies, there is a freedom in choosing the
angle where the potential energy U is taken to be zero. A natural choice
is to take θ0 = π / 2. (Αn explanation for it is provided towards the end of
discussion.) We can then write,

(2.32)
66

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
This expression can alternately be understood also from Eq. (2.29).
We apply Eq. (2.29) to the present system of two charges +q and –q. The
potential energy expression then reads
q2
U ′ (θ ) = q [V ( r1 ) − V ( r2 )] − (2.33)
4 πε 0 × 2a
Here, r1 and r2 denote the position vectors of +q and –q. Now, the
potential difference between positions r1 and r2 equals the work done
in bringing a unit positive charge against field from r2 to r1. The
displacement parallel to the force is 2a cosθ. Thus, [V(r1)–V (r2)] =
–E × 2a cosθ . We thus obtain,
q2 q2
U ′ (θ ) = − pE cos θ − = − p.E − (2.34)
4πε 0 × 2a 4 πε 0 × 2a
We note that U′ (θ ) differs from U(θ ) by a quantity which is just a constant
for a given dipole. Since a constant is insignificant for potential energy, we
can drop the second term in Eq. (2.34) and it then reduces to Eq. (2.32).
We can now understand why we took θ0=π/2. In this case, the work
done against the external field E in bringing +q and – q are equal and
opposite and cancel out, i.e., q [V (r1) – V (r2)]=0.

Example 2.6 A molecule of a substance has a permanent electric

dipole moment of magnitude 10–29 C m. A mole of this substance is
polarised (at low temperature) by applying a strong electrostatic field
of magnitude 106 V m–1. The direction of the field is suddenly changed
by an angle of 60º. Estimate the heat released by the substance in
aligning its dipoles along the new direction of the field. For simplicity,
assume 100% polarisation of the sample.
Solution Here, dipole moment of each molecules = 10–29 C m
As 1 mole of the substance contains 6 × 1023 molecules,
total dipole moment of all the molecules, p = 6 × 1023 × 10–29 C m
= 6 × 10–6 C m
EXAMPLE 2.6

Initial potential energy, Ui = –pE cos θ = –6×10–6×106 cos 0° = –6 J

Final potential energy (when θ = 60°), Uf = –6 × 10–6 × 106 cos 60° = –3 J
Change in potential energy = –3 J – (–6J) = 3 J
So, there is loss in potential energy. This must be the energy released
by the substance in the form of heat in aligning its dipoles.

2.9 ELECTROSTATICS OF CONDUCTORS

Conductors and insulators were described briefly in Chapter 1.
Conductors contain mobile charge carriers. In metallic conductors, these
charge carriers are electrons. In a metal, the outer (valence) electrons
part away from their atoms and are free to move. These electrons are free
within the metal but not free to leave the metal. The free electrons form a
kind of ‘gas’; they collide with each other and with the ions, and move
randomly in different directions. In an external electric field, they drift
against the direction of the field. The positive ions made up of the nuclei
and the bound electrons remain held in their fixed positions. In electrolytic
conductors, the charge carriers are both positive and negative ions; but 67

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 Physics
the situation in this case is more involved – the movement of the charge
carriers is affected both by the external electric field as also by the
so-called chemical forces (see Chapter 3). We shall restrict our discussion
to metallic solid conductors. Let us note important results regarding
electrostatics of conductors.

1. Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero

Consider a conductor, neutral or charged. There may also be an external
electrostatic field. In the static situation, when there is no current inside
or on the surface of the conductor, the electric field is zero everywhere
inside the conductor. This fact can be taken as the defining property of a
conductor. A conductor has free electrons. As long as electric field is not
zero, the free charge carriers would experience force and drift. In the
static situation, the free charges have so distributed themselves that the
electric field is zero everywhere inside. Electrostatic field is zero inside a
conductor.

2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field

must be normal to the surface at every point
If E were not normal to the surface, it would have some non-zero
component along the surface. Free charges on the surface of the conductor
would then experience force and move. In the static situation, therefore,
E should have no tangential component. Thus electrostatic field at the
surface of a charged conductor must be normal to the surface at every
point. (For a conductor without any surface charge density, field is zero
even at the surface.) See result 5.

3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in

the static situation
A neutral conductor has equal amounts of positive and negative charges
in every small volume or surface element. When the conductor is charged,
the excess charge can reside only on the surface in the static situation.
This follows from the Gauss’s law. Consider any arbitrary volume element
v inside a conductor. On the closed surface S bounding the volume
element v, electrostatic field is zero. Thus the total electric flux through S
is zero. Hence, by Gauss’s law, there is no net charge enclosed by S. But
the surface S can be made as small as you like, i.e., the volume v can be
made vanishingly small. This means there is no net charge at any point
inside the conductor, and any excess charge must reside at the surface.

4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume

of the conductor and has the same value (as inside) on
its surface
This follows from results 1 and 2 above. Since E = 0 inside the conductor
and has no tangential component on the surface, no work is done in
moving a small test charge within the conductor and on its surface. That
is, there is no potential difference between any two points inside or on
68 the surface of the conductor. Hence, the result. If the conductor is charged,

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
electric field normal to the surface exists; this means potential will be
different for the surface and a point just outside the surface.
In a system of conductors of arbitrary size, shape and
charge configuration, each conductor is characterised by a constant
value of potential, but this constant may differ from one conductor to
the other.

5. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor

σ
E= ˆ
n (2.35)
ε0
where σ is the surface charge density and n̂ is a unit vector normal
to the surface in the outward direction.
To derive the result, choose a pill box (a short cylinder) as the Gaussian
surface about any point P on the surface, as shown in Fig. 2.17. The pill
box is partly inside and partly outside the surface of the conductor. It
has a small area of cross section δ S and negligible height.
Just inside the surface, the electrostatic field is zero; just outside, the
field is normal to the surface with magnitude E. Thus,
the contribution to the total flux through the pill box
comes only from the outside (circular) cross-section
of the pill box. This equals ± EδS (positive for σ > 0,
negative for σ < 0), since over the small area δS, E
may be considered constant and E and δS are parallel
or antiparallel. The charge enclosed by the pill box
is σδS.
By Gauss’s law
σ δS
Eδ S =
ε0

σ
E= (2.36)
ε0
Including the fact that electric field is normal to the FIGURE 2.17 The Gaussian surface
surface, we get the vector relation, Eq. (2.35), which (a pill box) chosen to derive Eq. (2.35)
is true for both signs of σ. For σ > 0, electric field is for electric field at the surface of a
normal to the surface outward; for σ < 0, electric field charged conductor.
is normal to the surface inward.

6. Electrostatic shielding
Consider a conductor with a cavity, with no charges inside the cavity. A
remarkable result is that the electric field inside the cavity is zero, whatever
be the size and shape of the cavity and whatever be the charge on the
conductor and the external fields in which it might be placed. We have
proved a simple case of this result already: the electric field inside a charged
spherical shell is zero. The proof of the result for the shell makes use of
the spherical symmetry of the shell (see Chapter 1). But the vanishing of
electric field in the (charge-free) cavity of a conductor is, as mentioned
above, a very general result. A related result is that even if the conductor 69

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is charged or charges are induced on a neutral
conductor by an external field, all charges reside
only on the outer surface of a conductor with cavity.
The proofs of the results noted in Fig. 2.18 are
omitted here, but we note their important
implication. Whatever be the charge and field
configuration outside, any cavity in a conductor
remains shielded from outside electric influence: the
field inside the cavity is always zero. This is known
as electrostatic shielding. The effect can be made
use of in protecting sensitive instruments from
FIGURE 2.18 The electric field inside a
outside electrical influence. Figure 2.19 gives a
cavity of any conductor is zero. All
summary of the important electrostatic properties
charges reside only on the outer surface
of a conductor with cavity. (There are no of a conductor.
charges placed in the cavity.)

FIGURE 2.19 Some important electrostatic properties of a conductor.

Example 2.7
(a) A comb run through one’s dry hair attracts small bits of paper.
Why?
What happens if the hair is wet or if it is a rainy day? (Remember,
a paper does not conduct electricity.)
(b) Ordinary rubber is an insulator. But special rubber tyres of
aircraft are made slightly conducting. Why is this necessary?
(c) Vehicles carrying inflammable materials usually have metallic
ropes touching the ground during motion. Why?
(d) A bird perches on a bare high power line, and nothing happens
to the bird. A man standing on the ground touches the same line
and gets a fatal shock. Why?
Solution
EXAMPLE 2.7

(a) This is because the comb gets charged by friction. The molecules
in the paper gets polarised by the charged comb, resulting in a
net force of attraction. If the hair is wet, or if it is rainy day, friction
between hair and the comb reduces. The comb does not get
charged and thus it will not attract small bits of paper.
70

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

(b) To enable them to conduct charge (produced by friction) to the

EXAMPLE 2.7
ground; as too much of static electricity accumulated may result
in spark and result in fire.
(c) Reason similar to (b).
(d) Current passes only when there is difference in potential.

2.10 DIELECTRICS AND POLARISATION

Dielectrics are non-conducting substances. In contrast to conductors,
they have no (or negligible number of ) charge carriers. Recall from Section
2.9 what happens when a conductor is placed in an
external electric field. The free charge carriers move
and charge distribution in the conductor adjusts
itself in such a way that the electric field due to
induced charges opposes the external field within
the conductor. This happens until, in the static
situation, the two fields cancel each other and the
net electrostatic field in the conductor is zero. In a
dielectric, this free movement of charges is not
possible. It turns out that the external field induces
dipole moment by stretching or re-orienting
molecules of the dielectric. The collective effect of all
the molecular dipole moments is net charges on the
surface of the dielectric which produce a field that FIGURE 2.20 Difference in behaviour
of a conductor and a dielectric
opposes the external field. Unlike in a conductor,
in an external electric field.
however, the opposing field so induced does not
exactly cancel the external field. It only reduces it.
The extent of the effect depends on the
nature of the dielectric. To understand the
effect, we need to look at the charge
distribution of a dielectric at the
molecular level.
The molecules of a substance may be
polar or non-polar. In a non-polar
molecule, the centres of positive and
negative charges coincide. The molecule
then has no permanent (or intrinsic) dipole
moment. Examples of non-polar molecules
are oxygen (O 2 ) and hydrogen (H 2 )
molecules which, because of their
symmetry, have no dipole moment. On the
other hand, a polar molecule is one in which
the centres of positive and negative charges
are separated (even when there is no
FIGURE 2.21 Some examples of polar
external field). Such molecules have a
and non-polar molecules.
permanent dipole moment. An ionic
molecule such as HCl or a molecule of water
(H2O) are examples of polar molecules. 71

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In an external electric field, the
positive and negative charges of a non-
polar molecule are displaced in opposite
directions. The displacement stops when
the external force on the constituent
charges of the molecule is balanced by
the restoring force (due to internal fields
in the molecule). The non-polar molecule
thus develops an induced dipole moment.
The dielectric is said to be polarised by
the external field. We consider only the
simple situation when the induced dipole
moment is in the direction of the field and
is proportional to the field strength.
(Substances for which this assumption
is true are called linear isotropic
dielectrics.) The induced dipole moments
of different molecules add up giving a net
dipole moment of the dielectric in the
presence of the external field.
A dielectric with polar molecules also
develops a net dipole moment in an
external field, but for a different reason.
FIGURE 2.22 A dielectric develops a net dipole In the absence of any external field, the
moment in an external electric field. (a) Non-polar different permanent dipoles are oriented
molecules, (b) Polar molecules.
randomly due to thermal agitation; so
the total dipole moment is zero. When
an external field is applied, the individual dipole moments tend to align
with the field. When summed overall the molecules, there is then a net
dipole moment in the direction of the external field, i.e., the dielectric is
polarised. The extent of polarisation depends on the relative strength of
two mutually opposite factors: the dipole potential energy in the external
=
field tending to align the dipoles with the field and thermal energy tending
to disrupt the alignment. There may be, in addition, the ‘induced dipole
moment’ effect as for non-polar molecules, but generally the alignment
effect is more important for polar molecules.
Thus in either case, whether polar or non-polar, a dielectric develops
a net dipole moment in the presence of an external field. The dipole
moment per unit volume is called polarisation and is denoted by P. For
linear isotropic dielectrics,
P = ε 0 χe E (2.37)
where χe is a constant characteristic of the dielectric and is known as the
electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium.
It is possible to relate χe to the molecular properties of the substance,
but we shall not pursue that here.
The question is: how does the polarised dielectric modify the original
external field inside it? Let us consider, for simplicity, a rectangular
dielectric slab placed in a uniform external field E0 parallel to two of its
72 faces. The field causes a uniform polarisation P of the dielectric. Thus

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
every volume element ∆v of the slab has a dipole moment
P ∆v in the direction of the field. The volume element ∆v is
macroscopically small but contains a very large number of
molecular dipoles. Anywhere inside the dielectric, the
volume element ∆v has no net charge (though it has net
dipole moment). This is, because, the positive charge of one
dipole sits close to the negative charge of the adjacent dipole.
However, at the surfaces of the dielectric normal to the
electric field, there is evidently a net charge density. As seen
in Fig 2.23, the positive ends of the dipoles remain
unneutralised at the right surface and the negative ends at
the left surface. The unbalanced charges are the induced
charges due to the external field.
Thus, the polarised dielectric is equivalent to two charged
surfaces with induced surface charge densities, say σp
and –σp. Clearly, the field produced by these surface charges
opposes the external field. The total field in the dielectric FIGURE 2.23 A uniformly
is, thereby, reduced from the case when no dielectric is polarised dielectric amounts
present. We should note that the surface charge density to induced surface charge
±σp arises from bound (not free charges) in the dielectric. density, but no volume
charge density.
2.11 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator
(Fig. 2.24). The conductors have charges, say Q1 and Q2, and potentials
V1 and V2. Usually, in practice, the two conductors have charges Q
and – Q, with potential difference V = V1 – V2 between them. We shall
consider only this kind of charge configuration of the capacitor. (Even a
single conductor can be used as a capacitor by assuming the other at
infinity.) The conductors may be so charged by connecting them to the
two terminals of a battery. Q is called the charge of the capacitor, though
this, in fact, is the charge on one of the conductors – the total charge of
the capacitor is zero.
The electric field in the region between the
conductors is proportional to the charge Q. That
is, if the charge on the capacitor is, say doubled,
the electric field will also be doubled at every point.
(This follows from the direct proportionality
between field and charge implied by Coulomb’s
law and the superposition principle.) Now,
potential difference V is the work done per unit
positive charge in taking a small test charge from
the conductor 2 to 1 against the field. FIGURE 2.24 A system of two conductors
Consequently, V is also proportional to Q, and the separated by an insulator forms a capacitor.
ratio Q/V is a constant:
Q
C= (2.38)
V
The constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. C is independent
of Q or V, as stated above. The capacitance C depends only on the 73

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 Physics
geometrical configuration (shape, size, separation) of the system of two
conductors. [As we shall see later, it also depends on the nature of the
insulator (dielectric) separating the two conductors.] The SI unit of
capacitance is 1 farad (=1 coulomb volt-1) or 1 F = 1 C V –1. A capacitor
with fixed capacitance is symbolically shown as ---||---, while the one with
variable capacitance is shown as .
Equation (2.38) shows that for large C, V is small for a given Q. This
means a capacitor with large capacitance can hold large amount of charge
Q at a relatively small V. This is of practical importance. High potential
difference implies strong electric field around the conductors. A strong
electric field can ionise the surrounding air and accelerate the charges so
produced to the oppositely charged plates, thereby neutralising the charge
on the capacitor plates, at least partly. In other words, the charge of the
capacitor leaks away due to the reduction in insulating power of the
intervening medium.
The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand
without break-down (of its insulating property) is called its dielectric
strength; for air it is about 3 × 106 Vm–1. For a separation between
conductors of the order of 1 cm or so, this field corresponds to a potential
difference of 3 × 104 V between the conductors. Thus, for a capacitor to
store a large amount of charge without leaking, its capacitance should
be high enough so that the potential difference and hence the electric
field do not exceed the break-down limits. Put differently, there is a limit
to the amount of charge that can be stored on a given capacitor without
significant leaking. In practice, a farad is a very big unit; the most common
units are its sub-multiples 1 µF = 10–6 F, 1 nF = 10–9 F, 1 pF = 10–12 F,
etc. Besides its use in storing charge, a capacitor is a key element of most
ac circuits with important functions, as described in Chapter 7.

2.12 THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting
plates separated by a small distance (Fig. 2.25). We first take the
intervening medium between the plates to be
vacuum. The effect of a dielectric medium between
the plates is discussed in the next section. Let A be
the area of each plate and d the separation between
them. The two plates have charges Q and –Q. Since
d is much smaller than the linear dimension of the
plates (d2 << A), we can use the result on electric
field by an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface
charge density (Section 1.15). Plate 1 has surface
charge density σ = Q/A and plate 2 has a surface
charge density –σ. Using Eq. (1.33), the electric field
in different regions is:
Outer region I (region above the plate 1),
FIGURE 2.25 The parallel plate capacitor.
σ σ
74 E= − =0 (2.39)
2ε 0 2ε 0

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
Outer region II (region below the plate 2),
σ σ
E= − =0 (2.40)
2ε 0 2ε 0
In the inner region between the plates 1 and 2, the electric fields due
to the two charged plates add up, giving
σ σ σ Q
E= + = = (2.41)
2ε 0 2ε 0 ε 0 ε 0 A
The direction of electric field is from the positive to the negative plate.
Thus, the electric field is localised between the two plates and is
uniform throughout. For plates with finite area, this will not be true near
the outer boundaries of the plates. The field lines bend outward at the
edges — an effect called ‘fringing of the field’. By the same token, σ will
not be strictly uniform on the entire plate. [E and σ are related by Eq.
(2.35).] However, for d2 << A, these effects can be ignored in the regions
sufficiently far from the edges, and the field there is given by Eq. (2.41).
Now for uniform electric field, potential difference is simply the electric
field times the distance between the plates, that is,
1 Qd
V = Ed = (2.42)
ε0 A
The capacitance C of the parallel plate capacitor is then
Q ε0 A
C= = = (2.43)
V d
which, as expected, depends only on the geometry of the system. For
typical values like A = 1 m2, d = 1 mm, we get
8.85 × 10−12 C2 N –1m –2 × 1m 2
C= = 8.85 × 10 −9 F (2.44)
10 −3 m
(You can check that if 1F= 1C V–1 = 1C (NC–1m)–1 = 1 C2 N–1m–1.)
This shows that 1F is too big a unit in practice, as remarked earlier.
Another way of seeing the ‘bigness’ of 1F is to calculate the area of the
plates needed to have C = 1F for a separation of, say 1 cm:

A=
Cd
= 1F × 10−2 m
= 109 m 2 (2.45)
ε0 8.85 × 10 −12 C2 N –1 m –2
which is a plate about 30 km in length and breadth!

2.13 EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC ON CAPACITANCE

With the understanding of the behaviour of dielectrics in an external
field developed in Section 2.10, let us see how the capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor is modified when a dielectric is present. As before, we
have two large plates, each of area A, separated by a distance d. The
charge on the plates is ±Q, corresponding to the charge density ±σ (with
σ = Q/A). When there is vacuum between the plates,
σ
E0 =
ε0 75

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 Physics
and the potential difference V0 is
V0 = E0d
The capacitance C0 in this case is
Q A
C0 = = ε0 (2.46)
V0 d
Consider next a dielectric inserted between the plates fully occupying
the intervening region. The dielectric is polarised by the field and, as
explained in Section 2.10, the effect is equivalent to two charged sheets
(at the surfaces of the dielectric normal to the field) with surface charge
densities σp and –σp. The electric field in the dielectric then corresponds
to the case when the net surface charge density on the plates is ±(σ – σp ).
That is,
σ − σP
E= (2.47)
ε0
so that the potential difference across the plates is
σ − σP
V = Ed = d (2.48)
ε0
For linear dielectrics, we expect σp to be proportional to E0, i.e., to σ.
Thus, (σ – σp ) is proportional to σ and we can write
σ
σ − σP = (2.49)
K
where K is a constant characteristic of the dielectric. Clearly, K > 1. We
then have
σd Qd
V = = (2.50)
ε0 K Aε0 K
The capacitance C, with dielectric between the plates, is then
Q ε 0 KA
C= = (2.51)
V d
The product ε0K is called the permittivity of the medium and is
denoted by ε
ε = ε0 K (2.52)
For vacuum K = 1 and ε = ε0; ε0 is called the permittivity of the vacuum.
The dimensionless ratio
ε
K= (2.53)
ε0
is called the dielectric constant of the substance. As remarked before,
from Eq. (2.49), it is clear that K is greater than 1. From Eqs. (2.46) and
(2. 51)
C
K = (2.54)
C0
Thus, the dielectric constant of a substance is the factor (>1) by which
the capacitance increases from its vacuum value, when the dielectric is
76 inserted fully between the plates of a capacitor. Though we arrived at

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
Eq. (2.54) for the case of a parallel plate capacitor, it holds good for any
type of capacitor and can, in fact, be viewed in general as a definition of
the dielectric constant of a substance.

ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT

We have introduced the notion of dielectric constant and arrived at Eq. (2.54), without
giving the explicit relation between the induced charge density σp and the polarisation P.
We take without proof the result that
ˆ
σP = P • n
where n̂ is a unit vector along the outward normal to the surface. Above equation is
general, true for any shape of the dielectric. For the slab in Fig. 2.23, P is along n̂ at the
right surface and opposite to n̂ at the left surface. Thus at the right surface, induced
charge density is positive and at the left surface, it is negative, as guessed already in our
qualitative discussion before. Putting the equation for electric field in vector form
σ −P•nˆ
ˆ=
E•n
ε0
ˆ =σ
or (ε0 E + P) • n
The quantity ε0 E + P is called the electric displacement and is denoted by D. It is a
vector quantity. Thus,
ˆ = σ,
D = ε0 E + P, D • n
The significance of D is this : in vacuum, E is related to the free charge density σ.
When a dielectric medium is present, the corresponding role is taken up by D. For a
dielectric medium, it is D not E that is directly related to free charge density σ, as seen in
above equation. Since P is in the same direction as E, all the three vectors P, E and D are
parallel.
The ratio of the magnitudes of D and E is
D σε 0
= = ε0 K
E σ − σP
Thus,
D = ε0 K E
and P = D –ε0E = ε0 (K –1)E
This gives for the electric susceptibility χe defined in Eq. (2.37)
χe = (K–1)

Example 2.8 A slab of material of dielectric constant K has the same

area as the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor but has a thickness
(3/4)d, where d is the separation of the plates. How is the capacitance
EXAMPLE 2.8

changed when the slab is inserted between the plates?

Solution Let E 0 = V0/d be the electric field between the plates when
there is no dielectric and the potential difference is V0. If the dielectric
is now inserted, the electric field in the dielectric will be E = E0/K.
The potential difference will then be 77

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 Physics
1 E 3
V = E0( d ) + 0 ( d )
4 K 4
1 3 K +3
= E 0d ( + ) = V0
4 4K 4K
EXAMPLE 2.8 The potential difference decreases by the factor (K + 3)/4K while the
free charge Q 0 on the plates remains unchanged. The capacitance
thus increases
Q 4K Q0 4K
C= 0 = = C0
V K + 3 V0 K +3

2.14 COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS

We can combine several capacitors of capacitance C1, C 2,…, Cn to obtain
a system with some effective capacitance C. The effective capacitance
depends on the way the individual capacitors are combined. Two simple
possibilities are discussed below.

2.14.1 Capacitors in series

Figure 2.26 shows capacitors C 1 and C 2 combined in series.
The left plate of C1 and the right plate of C2 are connected to two
terminals of a battery and have charges Q and –Q ,
respectively. It then follows that the right plate of C1
has charge –Q and the left plate of C2 has charge Q.
If this was not so, the net charge on each capacitor
would not be zero. This would result in an electric
field in the conductor connecting C1and C2. Charge
would flow until the net charge on both C1 and C 2
is zero and there is no electric field in the conductor
connecting C 1 and C 2 . Thus, in the series
combination, charges on the two plates (±Q) are the
same on each capacitor. The total potential drop V
across the combination is the sum of the potential
drops V1 and V2 across C1 and C2, respectively.
FIGURE 2.26 Combination of two Q Q
capacitors in series. V = V1 + V2 = + (2.55)
C1 C 2

V 1 1
i.e., Q = C + C , (2.56)
1 2

Now we can regard the combination as an

effective capacitor with charge Q and potential
difference V. The effective capacitance of the
combination is
Q
C= (2.57)
V
We compare Eq. (2.57) with Eq. (2.56), and
obtain
FIGURE 2.27 Combination of n
capacitors in series. 1 1 1
78 = + (2.58)
C C1 C2

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
The proof clearly goes through for any number of
capacitors arranged in a similar way. Equation (2.55),
for n capacitors arranged in series, generalises to
Q Q Q
V = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn = + + ... + (2.59)
C1 C 2 Cn
Following the same steps as for the case of two
capacitors, we get the general formula for effective
capacitance of a series combination of n capacitors:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... + (2.60)
C C1 C2 C3 Cn

2.14.2 Capacitors in parallel

Figure 2.28 (a) shows two capacitors arranged in
parallel. In this case, the same potential difference is
applied across both the capacitors. But the plate charges
(±Q1) on capacitor 1 and the plate charges (±Q2) on the
capacitor 2 are not necessarily the same:
Q1 = C1V, Q2 = C2V (2.61)
The equivalent capacitor is one with charge
Q = Q1 + Q2 (2.62)
and potential difference V.
Q = CV = C1V + C2V (2.63)
The effective capacitance C is, from Eq. (2.63),
C = C1 + C2 (2.64)
The general formula for effective capacitance C for
parallel combination of n capacitors [Fig. 2.28 (b)] FIGURE 2.28 Parallel combination of
follows similarly, (a) two capacitors, (b) n capacitors.
Q = Q1 + Q2 + ... + Qn (2.65)
i.e., CV = C1V + C2V + ... CnV (2.66)
which gives
C = C1 + C2 + ... Cn (2.67)
Example 2.9 A network of four 10 µF capacitors is connected to a 500 V
supply, as shown in Fig. 2.29. Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance
of the network and (b) the charge on each capacitor. (Note, the charge
on a capacitor is the charge on the plate with higher potential, equal
and opposite to the charge on the plate with lower potential.)
EXAMPLE 2.9

FIGURE 2.29 79

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 Physics
Solution
(a) In the given network, C1, C2 and C 3 are connected in series. The
effective capacitance C′ of these three capacitors is given by
1 1 1 1
= + +
C ′ C1 C2 C3
For C1 = C 2 = C 3 = 10 µF, C ′ = (10/3) µF. The network has C ′ and C 4
connected in parallel. Thus, the equivalent capacitance C of the
network is
 10 
C = C′ + C4 =  + 10 µF =13.3µF
 3 
(b) Clearly, from the figure, the charge on each of the capacitors, C 1,
C 2 and C3 is the same, say Q. Let the charge on C 4 be Q′ . Now, since
the potential difference across AB is Q/C 1, across BC is Q/C 2, across
CD is Q/C 3 , we have
Q Q Q
+ + = 500 V .
C1 C2 C3
Also, Q ′/C4 = 500 V.
EXAMPLE 2.9

This gives for the given value of the capacitances,

10
Q = 500 V × µF = 1.7 × 10 −3 C and
3
Q ′ = 500 V × 10 µF = 5.0 × 10−3 C

2.15 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

A capacitor, as we have seen above, is a system of two conductors with
charge Q and –Q. To determine the energy stored in this configuration,
consider initially two uncharged conductors 1 and 2. Imagine next a
process of transferring charge from conductor 2 to conductor 1 bit by
bit, so that at the end, conductor 1 gets charge Q. By
charge conservation, conductor 2 has charge –Q at
the end (Fig 2.30 ).
In transferring positive charge from conductor 2
to conductor 1, work will be done externally, since at
any stage conductor 1 is at a higher potential than
conductor 2. To calculate the total work done, we first
calculate the work done in a small step involving
transfer of an infinitesimal (i.e., vanishingly small)
amount of charge. Consider the intermediate situation
when the conductors 1 and 2 have charges Q ′ and
–Q′ respectively. At this stage, the potential difference
FIGURE 2.30 (a) Work done in a small V′ between conductors 1 to 2 is Q ′/C, where C is the
step of building charge on conductor 1 capacitance of the system. Next imagine that a small
from Q′ to Q ′ + δ Q ′. (b) Total work done charge δ Q′ is transferred from conductor 2 to 1. Work
in charging the capacitor may be done in this step (δ W), resulting in charge Q ′ on
viewed as stored in the energy of
conductor 1 increasing to Q ′+ δ Q ′, is given by
electric field between the plates.
Q′
80 δ W = V ′δ Q ′ = δ Q′ (2.68)
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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
Since δ Q′ can be made as small as we like, Eq. (2.68) can be written as
1
δW = [(Q ′ + δ Q ′ )2 − Q ′ 2 ] (2.69)
2C
Equations (2.68) and (2.69) are identical because the term of second
order in δ Q′, i.e., δ Q′ 2/2C, is negligible, since δ Q′ is arbitrarily small. The
total work done (W ) is the sum of the small work (δ W ) over the very large
number of steps involved in building the charge Q ′ from zero to Q.

W = ∑ δW
sum over all steps

1
= ∑ 2C
[(Q ′ + δ Q ′ )2 − Q ′2 ] (2.70)
sum over all steps

1
= [{δ Q ′ 2 − 0} + {(2δ Q ′ )2 − δ Q ′ 2 } + {(3 δ Q ′ )2 − (2 δ Q ′ )2 } + ...
2C
+ {Q 2 − (Q − δ Q' )2 }] (2.71)
1 Q2
= [Q 2 − 0] = (2.72)
2C 2C
The same result can be obtained directly from Eq. (2.68) by integration
Q Q
Q′ 1 Q ′2 Q2
W = ∫C δ Q ’ =
C 2
=
2C
0 0

This is not surprising since integration is nothing but summation of

a large number of small terms.
We can write the final result, Eq. (2.72) in different ways
Q2 1 1
W = = CV 2 = QV (2.73)
2C 2 2
Since electrostatic force is conservative, this work is stored in the form
of potential energy of the system. For the same reason, the final result for
potential energy [Eq. (2.73)] is independent of the manner in which the
charge configuration of the capacitor is built up. When the capacitor
discharges, this stored-up energy is released. It is possible to view the
potential energy of the capacitor as ‘stored’ in the electric field between
the plates. To see this, consider for simplicity, a parallel plate capacitor
[of area A (of each plate) and separation d between the plates].
Energy stored in the capacitor
1 Q 2 ( Aσ )2 d
= = × (2.74)
2 C 2 ε0 A
The surface charge density σ is related to the electric field E between
the plates,
σ
E= (2.75)
ε0
From Eqs. (2.74) and (2.75) , we get
Energy stored in the capacitor
81
U = (1/ 2) ε 0 E 2 × A d (2.76)

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 Physics
Note that Ad is the volume of the region between the plates (where
electric field alone exists). If we define energy density as energy stored
per unit volume of space, Eq (2.76) shows that
Energy density of electric field,
u =(1/2)ε0E 2 (2.77)
Though we derived Eq. (2.77) for the case of a parallel plate capacitor,
the result on energy density of an electric field is, in fact, very general and
holds true for electric field due to any configuration of charges.

Example 2.10 (a) A 900 pF capacitor is charged by 100 V battery

[Fig. 2.31(a)]. How much electrostatic energy is stored by the capacitor?
(b) The capacitor is disconnected from the battery and connected to
another 900 pF capacitor [Fig. 2.31(b)]. What is the electrostatic energy
stored by the system?

FIGURE 2.31

Solution
(a) The charge on the capacitor is
Q = CV = 900 × 10–12 F × 100 V = 9 × 10–8 C
The energy stored by the capacitor is
= (1/2) CV 2 = (1/2) QV
EXAMPLE 2.10

= (1/2) × 9 × 10–8C × 100 V = 4.5 × 10–6 J

(b) In the steady situation, the two capacitors have their positive
plates at the same potential, and their negative plates at the
same potential. Let the common potential difference be V′. The

82

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 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

where C1, C2, C3... are individual capacitances.

12. The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, with charge Q and

voltage V is

1 1 1 Q2
U = QV = CV 2 =
2 2 2 C
The electric energy density (energy per unit volume) in a region with
electric field is (1/2)ε0E2.

Physical quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remark

Potential or V [M1 L2 T–3 A–1] V Potential difference is

physically significant
Capacitance C [M–1 L–2 T–4 A2] F
Polarisation P [L–2 AT] C m-2 Dipole moment per unit
volume
Dielectric constant K [Dimensionless]

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Electrostatics deals with forces between charges at rest. But if there is a

force on a charge, how can it be at rest? Thus, when we are talking of
electrostatic force between charges, it should be understood that each
charge is being kept at rest by some unspecified force that opposes the
net Coulomb force on the charge.
2. A capacitor is so configured that it confines the electric field lines within
a small region of space. Thus, even though field may have considerable
strength, the potential difference between the two conductors of a
capacitor is small.
3. Electric field is discontinuous across the surface of a spherical charged
σ
shell. It is zero inside and ε0 n̂ outside. Electric potential is, however
continuous across the surface, equal to q/4πε0R at the surface. it means :
→
4. The torque p × E on a dipole causes it to oscillate about E. Only- if there mechanical
is a dissipative mechanism, the oscillations are damped and the dipole
Mmr
If
eventually aligns with E.
energy of dipole
5. Potential due to a charge q at its own location is not defined – it is
infinite.
get lost
during
it 's motion
6. In the expression qV (r) for potential energy of a charge q, V (r) is the
potential due to external charges and not the potential due to q. As seen
in point 5, this expression will be ill-defined if V (r) includes potential
due to a charge q itself. 85

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 Physics
7. A cavity inside a conductor is shielded from outside electrical influences.
It is worth noting that electrostatic shielding does not work the other
way round; that is, if you put charges inside the cavity, the exterior of
the conductor is not shielded from the fields by the inside charges.

EXERCISES

2.1 Two charges 5 × 10–8 C and –3 × 10–8 C are located 16 cm apart. At

what point(s) on the line joining the two charges is the electric
potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero.
2.2 A regular hexagon of side 10 cm has a charge 5 µC at each of its
vertices. Calculate the potential at the centre of the hexagon.
2.3 Two charges 2 µC and –2 µC are placed at points A and B 6 cm
apart.
(a) Identify an equipotential surface of the system.
(b) What is the direction of the electric field at every point on this
surface?
2.4 A spherical conductor of radius 12 cm has a charge of 1.6 × 10–7C
distributed uniformly on its surface. What is the electric field
(a) inside the sphere
(b) just outside the sphere
(c) at a point 18 cm from the centre of the sphere?
2.5 A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has a
capacitance of 8 pF (1pF = 10–12 F). What will be the capacitance if
the distance between the plates is reduced by half, and the space
between them is filled with a substance of dielectric constant 6?
2.6 Three capacitors each of capacitance 9 pF are connected in series.
(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination?
(b) What is the potential difference across each capacitor if the
combination is connected to a 120 V supply?
2.7 Three capacitors of capacitances 2 pF, 3 pF and 4 pF are connected
in parallel.
(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination?
(b) Determine the charge on each capacitor if the combination is
connected to a 100 V supply.
2.8 In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates, each plate
has an area of 6 × 10–3 m2 and the distance between the plates is 3 mm.
Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this capacitor is
connected to a 100 V supply, what is the charge on each plate of the
capacitor?
86

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