Resumen U1 (A1... A6) + Gramatica

THE VERB TENSES
In this chapter, we are going to study the forms and use of the verb tenses in English.
1. Present tenses: the present simple and the present continuous.
2. Past tenses: the past simple, the past continuous, the present perfect simple, the present perfect
continuous, the past perfect simple and the past perfect continuous.
3. Future tenses: the future with will, the future with be going to, the future continuous and the
future perfect simple.
1.1. The present simple

Affirmative Negative* Interrogative
I work do not work do I work?
you work do not work do you work?
he/she/it works does not work does he/she/it work?
we work do not work do we work?
you work do not work do you work?
they work do not work do they work?
* The negative forms are often contracted to: don't, doesn't.

We use the present simple:
1) To express repeated actions:
➢ I have breakfast at eight everyday.
➢ We never take the bus to work
➢ They always come before nine.
2) To express occurrences that always happen in the same way (scientific facts):
➢ The sun sets in the west.
➢ Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
➢ Stones sink in the water.
3) To express fixed arrangements and scheduled events:
➢ Trains to Glasgow leave at 16:00pm.
➢ My working hours start at 8:00 am.
➢ We have meetings on Wednesdays.
With the present simple, we commonly use time expressions that indicate regularity:
Everyday
Every Sunday, every week, every month, etc.
On Mondays, on weekdays, etc.
We also use adverbs of frequency:
never, seldom, sometimes, often, usually, always
1
1.2. The present continuous
Affirmative* Negative* Interrogative
I am working am not working am I working?
you are working are not working are you working?
he/she/it is working is not working is he/she/it working?
we are working are not working are we working?
you are working are not working are you working?
they are working are not working are they working?
Conjugation of the present continuous (verb to work ):We often make these contractions:
➢ Pronouns + verb: I'm, you're, he's, she's, it's, we're, they're
➢ Auxiliary verb + not: aren't, isn't.
We use the present continuous:
1) To express actions happening at the moment of speaking:
➢ Look! It's raining.
➢ She's preparing her presentation now.
➢ Are you doing anything at the moment?
2) To express longer actions happening around the moment of speaking:
➢ Joe is working on a new project.
➢ We are organizing a retirement party for Mr Ross.
3) To express temporary actions:
➢ I'm working at Barbara's desk today.
➢ He's living in Chicago this year.
➢ I'm taking the bus this week.
4) To talk about future plans and intentions:
➢ I'm leaving for London tomorrow.
➢ What are you doing tonight?
With the present continuous, we commonly use time expressions like:

➢ Now, at the moment
➢ At present
➢ Today, this week, this month, etc.
When we use the present continuous to talk about the future, we must use time expressions referring to
the future:
➢ Tonight, Tomorrow, Next (Monday), next week, next month, next, year, etc.
2
1.3. The past simple
Conjugation of the past simple (regular verb to work ):
I worked did not work did I work?
you worked did not work did you work?
he/she/it worked did not work did he/she/it work?
we worked did not work did we work?
you worked did not work did you work?
they worked did not work did they work?
Conjugation of the past simple (irregular verb to go ):
I went did not go did I go?
you went did not go did you go?
he/she/it went did not go did he/she/it go?
we went did not go did we go?
you went did not go did you go?
they went did not go did they go?
* The negative forms are often contracted to: didn't.

We use the past simple:
1) To describe finished actions, states or habits in the past:
➢ Jim had the Covid-19 last week.
➢ Anne studied Philosophy when she was younger.
➢ We finished the presentation at five o'clock yesterday.
➢ I bought a new car last year.
2) In conditional sentences to express unreal or imaginary actions in the present or future:
➢ If I had more time, I would travel more.
➢ If you went now, you could still see the end of the speech.
➢ If it rained tonight, we wouldn't go anywhere.
3) With the expression I wish... to express a wish in the future:
➢ I wish I could see it!
➢ I wish he were more specific.
➢ I wish we earned a higher salary
3
With the past simple, we obviously use time expressions referring to the past. For example:
➢ Yesterday
➢ Last (Monday), last week, last month, last year...
➢ (One) hour ago, (two) days ago, (three) weeks ago...
➢ In the past, in the 80s, in 1909...
➢ When I was younger, when I was a child...
1.4. The past continuous

Conjugation of the past continuous (verb to work ):
I was working was not working was I working?
you were working were not working were you working?
he/she/it was working was not working was he/she/it working?
we were working were not working were we working?
you were working were not working were you working?
they were working were not working were they working?
* The negative forms are often contracted to: weren't, wasn't

We use the past continuous:
1) To describe an action that happened before and after a specific time in the past:
➢ I was having lunch at one thirty yesterday.
➢ They were still working at midnight.
➢ What were you doing at 10 o'clock last night?
2) To indicate an action that happened before and after another action in the past (in the past
simple):
➢ I was preparing my speech when Mrs Hackman came into the room.
➢ It was snowing when we went out last night.
➢ John was speaking to Laura when I saw him.
➢ I was driving to York when I received Mr Brown's call.
With the present continuous, we can use time expressions like these:
➢ At that time, yesterday, last week, last year...
➢ Then
➢ When I (arrived)...
➢ Yesterday
➢ Last (Monday), last week, last month, last year...
➢ (One) hour ago, (two) days ago, (three) weeks ago...
4
1.5. The present perfect simple
Conjugation of the present perfect simple (regular verb to work ):
I have worked have not worked have I worked?
you have worked have not worked have you worked?
he/she/it has worked has not worked has he/she/it worked?
we have worked have not worked have we worked?
you have worked have not worked have you worked?
they have worked have not worked have they worked?
Conjugation of the present perfect simple (irregular verb to go ):
I have gone have not gone have I gone?
you have gone have not gone have you gone?
he/she/it has gone has not gone has he/she/it gone?
we have gone have not gone have we gone?
you have gone have not gone have you gone?
they have gone have not gone have they gone?
* We often make these contractions:

➢ Pronoun + auxiliary (I've, you've, he's, we've, they've)
➢ Auxiliary + not (haven't, hasn't).
Use of the present perfect simple:
1) To express an action that started in the past and still continuous in the present (with for and
since):
➢ I have waited since this morning.
➢ We have worked in this company for eight years.
➢ Johnson has been in the meeting for five hours.
➢ I haven't seen Mike since he came to the office last week.
Difference between for and since:

1. For is used before a period of time: I have worked here for ten years (and I am still working
here).
2. Since is used before a specific point in the past to indicate the starting point of the
action: I have worked here since 2012 (and I am still working here).
When we use for and since with the present perfect, the action is not finished.
5
2) To express an action that happened at some unknown or unspecified time in the past:
➢ I have already finished my report.
➢ Rachel has never been Mr Rogers' secretary, hasn't she?
➢ They have spoken in public many times.
➢ Have you ever eaten Korean food?
To speak about an unspecified past, we often use the following adverbs:

➢ just: I have just met Ernest.
➢ already: I think Malcolm has already done the job.
➢ yet: Have you called the hotel yet?
➢ not...yet: No, I haven't called yet, I'm sorry.
➢ never: I have never been in Samoa, and you?
➢ ever: have you ever seen anything like this?
These adverbs are usually placed between the auxiliary have and the past participle, except yet, which is
placed at the end.
3) To talk about a recent past actions which has consequences in the present:
➢ I have lost my mobile phone (so I can't use it now).
➢ John has broken a leg (so he can't come to work today).
➢ Daniel is not here today because he has had an accident.
➢ It has rained tonight (so the street is wet).
1.6. The present perfect continuous

Conjugation of the present perfect continuous (verb to work ):
I have been working have not been working have I been working?
you have been working have not been working have you been working?
he/she/it has been working has not been working has he/she/it been working?
we have been working have not been working have we been working?
you have been working have not been working have you been working?
they have been working have not been working have they been working?

● Pronoun + auxiliary (I've, you've, he's, we've, they've)
● Auxiliary + not (haven't, hasn't).
We use the present perfect continuous.
1) To express an action that started in the past and still continues in the present (with for and since):
➢ I have been working in the company for 10 years.
➢ They have been waiting for Paul since three o'clock.
➢ Norma has been writing her report for three hours.
6
2) To express a recent action that has consequences in the present:
➢ I'm hot because I've been running all the way to the office.
➢ The road is dangerous today because it has been snowing all night.
➢ I'm very tired. I've been working all the morning.
Present perfect continuous vs present perfect simple

We can often use both tenses.
With the present perfect continuous we emphasize the duration of the action. With the present perfect
simple, we are interested in the action itself.
Examples:
➢ I have lived in London since 2017 (the important thing is that I have lived in London)
➢ I have been living in London since 2017 (the important thing is that I have lived uninterruptedly
in London)
1.7. The past perfect simple

Conjugation of the past perfect simple (regular verb: to work)
I had worked had not worked had I worked?
you had worked had not worked had you worked?
he/she/it had worked had not worked had he/she/it worked?
we had worked had not worked had we worked?
you had worked had not worked had you worked?
they had worked had not worked had they worked?
Conjugation of the present perfect simple (irregular verb: to go ):
I had gone had not gone had I gone?
you had gone had not gone had you gone?
he/she/it had gone had not gone had he/she/it gone?
we had gone had not gone had we gone?
you had gone had not gone had you gone?
they had gone had not gone had they gone?

➢ Pronoun + had: I'd, you'd, he'd, we'd, they'd.
➢ Auxiliary + had: hadn't
7
We use the past perfect simple:
1) To express actions that happened before a specific point or before another action in the past:
➢ By nine o'clock, she had already been in the office for two hours.
➢ By the age of four, I had already been to Australia.
➢ He had answered the question even before I asked him.
➢ When you called, I had already finished.
➢ I had written the report long before he told me to do so.
➢ He had gone when I arrived.
With the past perfect simple, we often use time expressions like:
➢ Already
➢ Yet
➢ Never
➢ Ever
➢ Before (he) + past simple
➢ When (he) + past simple
➢ By the age of...
➢ By the time (he) + past simple
1.8. The past perfect continuous

Conjugation of the present perfect continuous (verb to work ):
I had been working had not been working had I been working?
you had been working had not been working had you been working?
he/she/it had been working had not been working had he/she/it been working?
we had been working had not been working had we been working?
you had been working had not been working had you been working?
they had been working had not been working had they been working?

● Pronoun + had: I'd, you'd, he'd, we'd, they'd
● Had + not: hadn't.
We use the past perfect continuous:
1) To express actions that happened before a specific point or before another action in the past:
➢ By nine o'clock, she had been working in the office for two hours.
➢ When you bought the new software, I had been using it for years.
➢ I had been talking to Mr Smith for a while when the meeting started.
8
Time expressions often used with the past perfect continuous:
➢ When (he) + past simple
➢ By (nine o'clock), by (1975), by the time (he) + past simple, etc.
1.9. The future: 'will'

Conjugation of the future with 'will' (verb to work ):
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I will work will not work will I work?
you will work will not work will you work?
he/she/it will work will not work will he/she/it work?
we will work will not work will we work?
you will work will not work will you work?
they will work will not work will they work?

➢ Pronoun + will: I'll, you'll, he'll, she'll, it'll, we'll and they'll.
➢ Will + not: won't.
We use the future with 'will'
1) To make predictions (that is, when you think or believe something about the future):
➢ I think this job will take longer than expected.
➢ I'm sure you'll like your new post.
➢ We'll talk about the new policies in our next meeting.
2) To express spontaneous decisions (that is, something you decide to do at the moment of speaking):
➢ Don't worry about anything. I'll be with you.
➢ I'm tired. I think I'll lie down a little bit.
➢ We are tired. We'll take a break and we'll continue later on.
3) To make requests:
➢ Will you pass me the salt please?
➢ Will you come to the job interview with me?
➢ I can't hear what you're saying. Will you speak louder?
4) In conditional sentences of the first type:
➢ Anne will help you if you ask her.
➢ If it's fine at the weekend, we'll go to the beach.
➢ If the inflation goes up, people will buy less.
9
To speak about the future, we often used time expressions:
➢ Tonight
➢ Tomorrow
➢ Next (Monday), next week, next month, next year...
➢ In the year (2030...)
➢ In the future
➢ One day
➢ When (he) + present simple
1.10. The future: 'be going to'

Conjugation of the future with 'be going to' (verb to work):
I am going to work am not going to work am I going to work?
you are going to work are not going to work are you going to work?
he/she/it is going to work is not going to work is he/she/it going to work?
we are going to work are not going to work are we going to work?
you are going to work are not going to work are you going to work?
they are going to work are not going to work are they going to work?

● Pronoun + auxiliary verb: I'm going to, you're going to, he's going to, we're going to and
they're going to.
● Auxiliary verb + not: I'm not going to, you aren't going to, he's not going to, we aren't going
to and they aren't going to.
● Going + to: gonna
We use the future with 'be going to':
1) To talk about future plans and intentions, usually when the decision about the future plans has
already been made:
➢ She's going to be a professional footballer when she grows up.
➢ I'm going to stay at home tonight
➢ What are you going to do next summer?
2) To predict something that you think it is certain to happen or for which we have evidence in the
present:
➢ It's going to rain again (the speaker can probably see dark clouds in the sky)
➢ He's driving very fast. He's going to have an accident.
➢ This is very difficult. We are going to need a lot of help, I'm afraid.
10
With be going to, we can use the same time expressions we use with will:
➢ Tonight
➢ Tomorrow
➢ Next (Monday), next week, next month, next year, etc.
➢ In the year 2030
➢ In the future
➢ One day
1.11. The future continuous

Conjugation of the future continuous (verb to work):
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I will be working will not be working will I be working?
you will be working will not be working will you be working?
he/she/it will be working will not be working will he/she/it be working?
we will be working will not be working will we be working?
you will be working will not be working will you be working?
they will be working will not be working will they be working?
We often make these contractions:

➢ Pronoun + will: I'll, you'll, he'll, we'll, they'll
➢ Will + not: won't
We use the future continuous:
1) To describe an action happening during a specific time in the future:
➢ I will be sleeping at midnight.
➢ He will be speaking at the conference at 4 this afternoon.
2) To describe several actions happening at the same time in the future:
➢ I will be working in the garden and Laura will be painting the living room.
➢ He will be playing the cello tonight and I will be listening to him.
3) To describe a future action that is interrupted by another action (in the present simple):
➢ I'm afraid I will be sleeping when he speaks.
➢ When the visitors arrive tomorrow, I will still be working on this report.
With the future continuous, we generally use these time expressions:

➢ Tonight, tomorrow, in the future, In the year 2030, One day
➢ Next (Monday), next week, next month, next year, etc.
11
The future with will vs the future continuous
1) When we use will, the action starts at a specific time in the future. When we use the future continuous,
the action is already taking place at the moment we specify.
1.12. The future perfect simple

Conjugation of the future perfect simple (regular verb: to work):
I will have worked will not have worked will I have worked?
you will have worked will not have worked will you have worked?
he/she/it will have worked will not have worked will he/she/it have worked?
we will have worked will not have worked will we have worked?
you will have worked will not have worked will you have worked?
they will have worked will not have worked will they have worked?
Conjugation of the future perfect simple (irregular verb: to go):
I will have gone will not have gone will I have gone?
you will have gone will not have gone will you have gone?
he/she/it will have gone will not have gone will he/she/it have gone?
we will have gone will not have gone will we have gone?
you will have gone will not have gone will you have gone?
they will have gone will not have gone will they have gone?

➢ Pronoun + will: I'll have..., you'll have... he'll have... we'll have... they'll have...
➢ Will + not: won't have...
We use the future perfect simple:
1) To talk about a completed action before something happens in the future:
➢ By next August, I will have retired.
➢ I won't have finished my work by three o'clock in the morning.
➢ By the time I turn 65, I will have worked for 45 years.
2) To talk about the duration of an action before something happens in the future:
➢ I will have lived in London for six years by the end of this year.
➢ In 2024, John and I will have known each other for 20 years.
➢ I will have been a firefighter for 25 years by the time I retire.
12
With the future perfect, we often use the following time expressions:
➢ By next (Monday), by next week, by next year...
➢ By (Monday), by (April), by (2025)...
➢ By the time (he) + present simple
[The preposition by indicates the end of an action in the future]
Apart from the adverbials of time, we often use for to indicate the duration of the action until this is
finished in the future.
1.13. Verbs not used in continuous forms

Most verbs are 'dynamic'. These verbs describe actions: fly, dance, sleep, run, work, stay, swim, speak, listen
to, etc. We can use dynamic verbs in the continuous tenses (I am running, he is speaking, we are
dancing, etc.). Some verbs are 'stative' or 'non-continuous' verbs. These verbs usually refer to permanent
states or describe mental processes, senses, emotions and possession. We cannot use these verbs in the
continuous tenses.
Verbs not used in the continuous tenses (stative verbs):
agree deserve involve please sound
appear disagree know possess suppose
astonish dislike lack prefer surprise
be doubt like promise taste
believe fit love realise think
belong hate matter recognise understand
concern have mean remember want
consist hear mind satisfy weigh
contain imagine need see wish
deny impress owe seem
depend include own smell

There are exceptions to the rule because some verbs have two meanings: one stative and one dynamic.
Examples:
1) Appear
a) He appears confused (=seems confused; stative verb)
b) She's appearing at the jazz club tonight (=is performing; dynamic verb)
2) Be
a) They are big (=they have a big size; stative verb)
b) They are being loud (=they are shouting; dynamic verb)
13
3) Have
a) We have a dog (=possess a dog; stative verb)
b) He's having breakfast (=experiencing, taking breakfast; dynamic verb)
4) Look
a) They look sad (=they seem sad; stative verb)
b) They are looking at the sky (=they are looking with their eyes; dynamic verb)
5) Miss
a) She misses her country (=she's sad because she's not there, stative verb)
b) She's missing the match (=she's not there to see the match; dynamic verb)
6) See
a) I see the house (=I see the house with my eyes; stative verb)
b) I'm seeing my doctor this evening (=I'm visiting my doctor; dynamic verb)
7) Smell
a) These flowers smell very good (=the flowers have a nice smell; stative verbs)
b) I'm smelling the flowers (=I'm sniffing the flowers to enjoy the smell; dynamic verb)
8) Taste
a) This cake tastes very good (=the cake has a very good taste; stative verb)
b) I'm tasting the cake (=I'm eating a piece of cake to see what it tastes like; dynamic verb)
9) Think
a) He thinks English is quite easy (=he has the opinion that English is quite easy; stative verb)
b) I'm thinking about the summer holidays (=I'm going over the summer holidays in my mind; dynamic
verb)
2. Questions
1. The structure of English questions
There are three patterns of English questions:
1) Auxiliary/modal verbs: (interrogative pronoun) + verb + subject + ... ?
Examples:
➢ Where are you staying these days?
➢ Is Helen a secretary or an administrative?
➢ Where should we start?
➢ Can you help me with the computer please?
2) Lexical verbs: (interrogative pronoun) + auxiliary verb 'do/does/did' + subject + base form of
the verb + ... ?
Examples:
➢ When did you arrive?
➢ Do you like your job?
➢ Where does your father live?
➢ Does Laura enjoy the city?
➢ Why did you call me last night?
➢ Did she tell you anything?
14
3) No auxiliary verb when the interrogative pronoun asks about the subject: interrogative
pronoun + conjugated verb + ... ?
Examples:
➢ Who called you last night?
➢ What happened in the conference?
➢ How many people came?
2. The interrogative pronouns

The following table shows the interrogative pronouns, with their meanings and examples of their use:
Interrogative Usage Examples

pronouns
Who? to ask about a person (subject) Who is the new CEO?
Whom? Formal: to ask about a person (object) Whom did you talk during the
break?
Whose? to ask about people and things (possessive) Whose office is this?
Whose is that black car?
What? to ask about things (in general) What is a SWOT analysis?

What are you doing?
Which? Which candidate do you think is

to ask about people and things (when there's a the best?
limited choice of answers) Which do you prefer - the green
one or the red one?
Where? to ask about a place Where do you live?
When? to ask about time When did you join the company?
How? to ask about the manner something is done How do you organize a meeting?
How much? to ask about quantity (with uncountable nouns) How much (money) did you pay?
How much wine did he drink?
How many? to ask about quantity (with countable nouns) How many people came to the
meeting?
How many days did you work last
week?
How (big, far, etc.) ? to ask about the degree of the adjective How big is the new company?
accompanying the pronoun. How far is London from
Edinburgh?
How good is the new secretary?
Why? to ask about a reason Why are you so nervous?
15
Notes:
1. Whom is used in formal writing when the pronoun is an object. In speech, we commonly
use who.
Compare: whom did you see? (formal) - who did you see? (informal).
2. We can use whose before a noun (whose car is this?) and before a verb (whose is this car?)
without any change of meaning.
3. Question tags
Question tags are short questions that we add to a statement. Question tags are very common in speech, but
they are seldom used in writing. We use question tags when we expect the other person to agree with our
statement.
How to form question tags
1. If the statement is positive, the question tag is negative.
2. If the statement is negative, the question tag is positive.
3. If the statement has an auxiliary or a modal verb, we use the verb to form the question tag.
4. If the statement has a lexical verb verb, we use the correct form of the auxiliary do (does, does, did).
5. In the question tag, we always say a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, it, we, they).
6. With the imperative form, the question tag is: will you?
Examples:
➢ Martha is our new colleague, isn't she?
➢ We shouldn't go on strike, should we?
➢ You speak German, don't you?
➢ Mr Sorensen doesn't write his own reports, does he?
➢ Your friend Marco plays football, doesn't he?
➢ You went running last night, didn't you?
➢ Come here, will you?
Intonation is important in question tags:
➢ When we are sure the listener will confirm that our statement is correct, we use a falling
intonation (as in a statement).
➢ When we are not sure the listener will confirm that our statement is true, we use a rising
intonation (as in a question).
3. The modal verbs

1. The characteristics of the modal verbs
The modal verbs are very special because they are different from all the other verbs, although they share
some characteristics with the auxiliary verbs.
Here are the characteristics of modal verbs:
1. They have no meaning of their own; they always need to go with another verb.
2. They add a special meaning to the verb they accompany (obligation, ability, possibility, future tense,
etc.)
3. They form the negative and the interrogative as the auxiliary verbs
4. They do not add an -s to the third person singular of the present simple.
16
5. They lack most of the verb tenses. They usually refer to the present or future. To express them in
other tenses, we need to use other words or expressions with the same meaning.
As for the sentence structure, all the modal verbs follow this pattern:
S. + MODAL VERB + V. in the bare infinitive (without to)
Examples:
➢ Affirmative statement: She can speak English (=she has the ability to speak English).
➢ Negative statement: She cannot speak English.
➢ Question: Can she speak English?
2. The modal verbs and their meanings (with examples):
It's used to... Examples
Can a) express ability a) I can see you at 5.

b) express future possibility b) You can lose your job next year
c) ask for permission (informal) c) Can I ask you a favour?
d) make a request (informal) d) Can you translate this email for me please?
Can't a) express inability a) I can't speak Portuguese

b) express impossibility b) This can't be true!
c) express prohibition c) You can't smoke in here
Could a) express ability in the past a) When I was younger I couldn't swim
b) express a remote possibility b) We could win, but it's very difficult
c) ask for permission (formal) c) Could I give you my opinion?
d) make a request (formal) d) Could you go to the meeting for me please?
Must a) express obligation a) We must be at the station at 4pm

b) express possibility b) This must be the new secretary
Mustn't a) express prohibition a) We mustn't work without a contract
Should a) express moral obligation a) I think I should apologize to her

b) give advice b) You should relax a little bit
May a) express possibility a) You may get the job if you apply
b) ask for permission (formal) b) May I arrange a meeting for this evening?
Might a) express remote possibility a) I know it's difficult, but we might be lucky
b) ask for permission (very formal) b) Might I borrow some money?
Will a) express the future a) One day, he will be a good manager

b) make a request (neutral form) b) Will you close the door, please?
Would a) express the conditional clauses a) If I were you, I wouldn't say anything
b) to make a request (formal) b) Would you please tell me where he is?
17
Alternative forms
Modal verbs only have one form. They usually refer to the present or to the future. If we need to express
a modal verb in other tenses, we must use other words or expressions with the same meaning.
Examples:
1) Be able to (=can/could)
➢ I can meet you tonight (future)
➢ We couldn't drive when we were younger (past)
➢ I haven't been able to fix the computer (present perfect)
➢ I may be able to meet you tonight, but I'm not sure (infinitive)
2) Have to (=must: obligation):
➢ We must go out of the house (present/future)
➢ Yesterday I had to go to the dentist (past)
➢ If he told us, we would have to do it (infinitive)
3) Should have (past only) (=should: moral obligation and advice):
➢ We should tell the problem to our CEO (moral obligation - present/future)
➢ You should sleep longer hours (advice - present/future)
➢ We should have told the problem to our CEO (moral obligation - past)
➢ You should have slept longer hours (advice - past)
4) May have/might have (past only) (=may/might: possibility):
➢ It may rain at the weekend (future possibility)
➢ It may have rained during the night (a possibility in the past)
➢ We might retire next year (future possibility)
➢ I don't know anything about Mr Darley. He might have retired (a possibility in the past)
4. The passive voice

1. The passive form of the verbs
We form the passive like this: VERB 'TO BE' (conjugated) + PAST PARTICIPLE
Examples:
1) Regular verb to ask (3rd person singular):
Verb tense Active voice Passive voice
present simple he asks he is asked
present continuous he is asking he is being asked
past simple he asked he was asked
past continuous he was asking he was being asked
present perfect he has asked he has been asked
past perfect he had asked he had been asked
future he will ask he will be asked
infinitive to ask to be asked
18
2) Irregular verb to do (3rd person singular):
Verb tense Active voice Passive voice
present simple he does it is done
present continuous he is doing it is being done
past simple he did it was done
past continuous he was doing it was being done
present perfect he has done it has been done
past perfect he had done it had been done
future he will do it will be done
infinitive to do to be done
2. The structure of the passive sentences

The structure of the passive sentences is:
➢ Subject: unlike the active voice, the subject in the passive voice does not perform the action of the
verb (the pyramids didn't build anything). In the passive voice, the subject receives or is affected by
the action of the verb.
➢ Verb: the estructure is VERB TO BE + PAST PARTICIPLE. The verb to be is conjugated in the
appropriate tense. The past participle is invariable. Like the past simple, the past participle can be
regular (ends in -ed) or irregular (built).
➢ By...: in the passive voice, we express the person or thing that performs the action of the verb with
the preposition by (the Egyptians built the pyramids).
Compare with the active voice:
➢ The direct object of the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice (we can only use
the passive voice with sentences that have a direct object).
➢ The subject of the active voice becomes the complement with by in the passive voice.
When the active sentence has both a direct object and an indirect object, we can build two passive
sentences:
Active voice:
Passive 1 (the indirect object becomes the subject):
19
Passive 2 (the direct object becomes the subject):
The choice depends on the emphasis we want to place either on the indirect object or in the direct object. In
a normal intonation, the emphasis is always on the beginning of a sentence.
3. The use of the passive sentences
We use the passive voice (rather than the active voice) in these cases:
1) When the person who performs the action of the verb is unknown or uncertain. In this case, we
don't usually say the complement with by:
➢ Several cars were damaged during the riots.
➢ We were stolen all our money.
➢ The office will be renovated next week.
2) When we are interested in the action, not in the person who performed the action. In this case,
we usually say the complement with by:
➢ The company was bought by the Chinese last year.
➢ I was told by Mr Anderson.
➢ The conclusions were presented by our CEO.
3) When the subject is very long:
➢ I was surprised by your decision to give up swimming and take up smoking [better than: Your
decision to give up swimming and take up smoking surprised me]
5. Verbs with gerund and infinitive

When a verb has another verb as complement, there are three patterns in English:
1. Verb + Gerund (V-ing)
2. Verb + Infinitive (with to)
3. Verb + Bare infinitive (without to)
All the modal verbs, as well as let, make and the auxiliary do, are followed by the bare infinitive, but there are
no rules to know which verbs are followed by the gerund or the infinitive.
The following tables show the most common verbs that follow each pattern:
1. Verb + gerund
admit discuss finish practice
advise dislike forgive put off
avoid enjoy give up risk
be worth fancy keep (on) suggest
can't help feel like mind recommend
20
2. Verb + infinitive:
agree decide plan tend
ask help prepare wait
can't afford hope pretend want
can't wait learn promise wish
dare pay struggle would like
3. Verb + gerund or infinitive (with no change of meaning):
begin love
can't bear prefer
can't stand propose
continue start
like
4. Verb + gerund or infinitive (with a change of meaning):
forget remember
go on stop
mean try
regret
Forget:
1. Gerund [refers to the past]: I'll never forget flying over the fields in a ballon .
2. Infinitive [refers to the future]: Don't forget to turn off the lights when you go out.
Go on:
1. Gerund [continue doing the same thing]: Go on speaking.
2. Infinitive [stop doing something and start another thing]: Go on to speak.
Mean:
1. Gerund [something must be done to get a result]: There's something wrong with the accounts. This
means staying at work until late.
2. Infinitive [I have the intention of doing something]: I mean to move to another city next year.
Regret:
1. Gerund [I did something in the past and I'm not happy about it]: I regret being so lazy.
2. Infinitive [I have bad news and I'm not happy about it]: I regret to tell you that John is late again.
Remember:
1. Gerund [refers to the past]: I remember listening to my father's stories.
2. Infinitive [refers to the future]: Please remember to review the passive voice.
21
Stop:
1. Gerund [to stop doing an activity]: She stopped speaking.
2. Infinitive [to stop an activity in order to do something else]: She stopped to speak.
Try:
1. Gerund [to test something]: We tried getting out of the window, but it was too high.
2. Infinitive [to do something that is difficult]: Try to find what's going on.
5. Verb + bare infinitive:
do might
let + object must
make + object shall
can should
could will
may would
6. Comparative and superlative sentences

1. Comparative sentences
We use the comparative forms to compare two people or things. There are three types of comparative
sentences:
Comparative of inferiority: LESS + (adjective/adverb) + (THAN)...
➢ My job is much less important than yours, I'm afraid.
➢ Try to exercise less intensely or you will get hurt.
➢ The speech was less boring than I thought.
Comparative of equality: AS + (adjective/adverb) + AS...
➢ We are as good as they are, aren't we?
➢ I work as hard as you.
➢ We'll arrive as far as we can
Comparative of superiority:
a) Comparative adjective/adverb + (THAN)...
b) MORE + (adjective/adverb) + (THAN)...
➢ I think Laura is more efficient than Sarah.
➢ My office is much smaller than yours. Why's that?
➢ I'll take up this job. I think it's easier.
➢ You should speak more openly and let them know what you think.
➢ You're very good, but Mike works faster than you.
22
Formation of the comparative adjectives/adverbs:
➢ 1-syllable adjectives: -ER (bigger, older, faster, richer, lower...)
➢ 2-syllable adjectives ending in -Y: -IER (easier, happier, prettier...)
➢ 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -Y: MORE (more common, more charming...)
➢ 3+-syllable adjectives: MORE (more difficult, more intelligent, more beautiful...)
➢ Irregular forms (good>better, bad>worse, far>farther, little>less
2. The superlative sentences

We use the superlative sentences to compare one person or thing with all the rest.
Formation of the superlative adjectives and adverbs:

➢ 1-syllable adjectives: the -EST (the biggest, the oldest, the fastest, the richest, the lowest...)
➢ 2-syllable adjectives ending in -Y: the -IEST (the easiest, the happiest, the prettiest...)
➢ 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -Y: the MOST (the most common, the most charming...)
➢ 3+-syllable adjectives: the MOST (the most difficult, the most intelligent, the most beautiful...)
➢ Irregular forms (good > the best, bad > the worst, far > the farthest, little > the least)
Examples of superlative sentences:

➢ This church is the oldest in the city.
➢ Elon Musk is one of the richest men in the world.
➢ We should always choose the easiest way to solve the problem.
➢ Let's make a list of the most common mistakes so we can correct them in the future.
➢ I had the most difficult time of my life.
➢ Is this the best you can do?
➢ This situation is the worst that we could have come to.
7. The conditional sentences

1. Structure of the conditional sentences
All the conditional sentences have the same structure. They are composed of:
➢ The conditional clause expresses the condition. It usually starts with the conditional
adverb if.
➢ The main clause expresses the result if the condition is fulfilled.
Here is an example of a typical conditional sentence (conditional 1):
(Please note that in the written form there is a comma between the two clauses).
23
We can reverse the order of the clauses without changing the meaning:
In this structure, there is no comma.

The order of the two clauses depends on whether we wish to emphasize the condition or the
result. The clause that comes first is the one that is emphasized.
2. Types of conditional sentences
There are four main types of conditional sentences:
1. Conditional 0 or Zero conditional
2. Conditional 1 or First conditional
3. Conditional 2 or Second conditional
4. Conditional 3 or Third conditional
Conditional 0
It is used to express what is considered a universal truth, that is, an action that always follows
another one without exception.
The structure is:
a) If + S + V in present simple , S + V in present simple
➢ If I have breakfast in the morning, I feel well all day.
➢ If you throw a stone into the water, it sinks.
➢ If you live in England, you learn English very well.
b) If + S + V in past simple , S + V in past simple
➢ If they came, they always spoke to the company's president.
➢ In those times, if you didn't respect your superior, you were immediately fired.
➢ If you had a university degree, you were very important.
Conditional 1
The conditional 1 expresses a future situation that is likely to happen if the condition is fulfilled.
The structure is:
If + S + V in present simple , S + will/may/might/can/could/should + Infinitive
➢ If you apply for this job, you will get it. [Will implies almost certainty that the action will happen
if the condition is fulfilled]
➢ If you invest in the stock market, you may lose a lot of money. [May expresses a certain degree of
uncertainty that the action happens if the condition is fulfilled]
➢ If you explain the situation, the CEO might give you a rise. [Might implies a high degree of
uncertainty that the action happens if the condition is fulfilled]
➢ If you do all the activities, you can pass the exam very easily. [Can indicates that the result is very
possible that happens if the condition is fulfilled]
➢ If you work hard, you could get a promotion. [Could indicates that the result is possible that
happens if the condition is fulfilled]
➢ If you speak in English, you should improve your pronunciation. [Should indicates that the
speaker is giving their opinion]
24
Conditional 2
The conditional 2 is used to express future actions that are very unlikely to happen if the condition
is fulfilled or situations that are untrue or impossible that happen.
The structure is:
If + S + V in past simple , S + would/might/could + Infinitive
➢ If I had time, I would go to the cinema more often. [=It is unlikely that I go to the cinema more
often]
➢ If you spoke English, you could find a job in another country. [=It is possible but very unlikely
that you find a job in another country if you don't speak English]
➢ If she came earlier in the morning, she might have time to do all the work. [=There's a possibility
that she has time to do all the job, but it is very unlikely]
➢ If I were you, I would be more careful. [=It's impossible that this happens because I am not you]
➢ If I were the CEO of this company, I would introduce many changes. [=It's not possible that I
introduce many changes because I'm not the CEO of this company]
In the conditional sentences of the second type, we use the form were for all the persons.
Conditional 3
The conditional 3 expresses an action in the past that didn't happen and the possible result if it had
actually happened.
The structure is:
If + S + V in past perfect , S + would/could/might + have + past participle
➢ If I had known, I wouldn't have told you anything. [=I didn't know so I told you]
➢ If you had finished the report, we could have presented it in the next meeting. [=You didn't
finish the report, so we couldn't present it in the next meeting]
➢ If you had told me before, I might have helped you. [=You didn't tell me so I didn't have the
possibility of helping you]
8. The reported speech

The reported speech is used when we explain what other people said . The person's actual words
are the direct speech. For example:
➢ Direct speech: "I don't smoke".
➢ Reported speech: He told me that he didn't smoke.
1. Structure of the reported speech:
A reported sentence is composed of:
1. A main clause: He told me...
2. A subordinate clause: ...that he didn't smoke.
The main clause includes the reporting verb (in the past simple). Common reporting verbs are:
➢ said
➢ told
➢ asked
➢ answered
➢ suggested
➢ advised
25
2. Examples of reported speech.
The subordinate clause in the reported speech has different structures. this depends on depending on
whether we report a statement, a yes/no question, a wh-question, a command, a suggestion or a piece of
advice.
a) Reported statements:
➢ Direct speech: "I'm very hungry".
➢ Reported speech: He told me that he was very hungry
➢ Direct speech: "Peter didn't say anything at the meeting".
➢ Reported speech: Laura said that Peter hadn't said anything at the meeting"
b) Reported yes/no questions:
➢ Direct speech: "Do you speak any languages?"
➢ Reported speech: Anne asked me if I spoke any languages.
c) Reported wh-questions:
➢ Direct speech: "What where you doing last night?"
➢ Reported speech: She asked me what I was doing last night.
d) Reported commands:
➢ Direct speech: "Sit down, Mark!"
➢ Reported speech: The CEO asked Mark to sit down.
e) Reported suggestions:
➢ Direct speech: "Let's have a brake now".
➢ Reported speech: George suggested to have a break then.
f ) Reported advice:
➢ Direct speech: "You should take things easier".
➢ Reported speech: Norma advised Karen to take things easier or Norma asked Karen to take things
easier.
3. Changes from direct to reported speech
In the examples above you can see some of the changes that take place in the reporting speech. The changes
are due to the difference in the point of view. These changes affect the verb tenses, the pronouns, the
demonstratives and, sometimes, the adverbials of place and time.
a) Changes in the verb tenses
Direct speech Reported speech Examples
present simple past simple 'I live...' He said that he lived...
present continuous past continuous 'I am living...' He said that he was living...
past simple past perfect 'I lived...' He said that he had lived...
past continuous past perfect 'I was living...' He said that he had been
continuous living...
present perfect simple past perfect simple 'I have lived...' He said that he had lived...
26
Direct speech Reported speech Examples
present perfect past perfect 'I have been He said that he had been
continuous continuous living...' living...
past perfect simple past perfect simple 'I had lived...' He said that he had lived...
past perfect continuous past perfect 'I had been He said that he had been
continuous linving...' living...
will would 'I will live...' He said that he would live...
must had to 'I must live...' He said that he had to live...
should should 'I should live...' He said that he should live...
can could 'I can live...' He said that he could live...
may might 'I may live...' He said that he might live...
might might 'I might live...' He said that he might live...
would would 'I would live...' He said that he would live...
b) Changes in the demonstrative adjectives and adverbial complements:

Direct speech Reported speech
this that
these those
here there
now then
today that day
tonight that night
yesterday the day before
tomorrow the next day
this week, etc. that week, etc.
last week, etc. the week before, etc.
next week, etc. the following week, etc.
one week ago, etc. one week before, etc.
c) Changes in the pronouns and possessives:

● "Do you speak French?" > She asked me if I spoke French.
● "We like going out" > He said that they liked going out.
● "I didn't see anything" > She/He said that she/he hadn't seen anything.
27
UNIT 1: People’s profiles
1.1. The speaking skills
Many students of English say that speaking is the most difficult skill. They are probably right. You can learn
how to read and write in a relatively short time, but speaking correctly may take a long time and a lot of
patience because it requires a lot of practice. This is also true of the listening skills.
The main obstacle in speaking is the pronunciation. As English is not a phonetic language, it is necessary to
learn the meaning and the pronunciation together. However, a theoretical knowledge is not enough. In
order to speak English correctly, you must practise, practise and practise.
You may need to use your English speaking skills in two main situations:
1. in a conversation
2. in a speech.
A conversation is an interchange of ideas between two or more speakers. In a speech, there is no immediate
interchange: speaker addresses an audience, who listen in silence. Here are some suggestions:
1. Start with the pronunciation: you can use text-to-speech software to listen to a text in a variety of
English voices and accents and then practise the pronunciation by repeating what you hear again
and again until your pronunciation gets better. Two good programmes for practising the
pronunciation on your own are: TTSMP3 and Narakeet. They both allow to download the files in
MP3 format and listen to them offline.
2. Listen to films, videos and songs in English: this will not only help you improve your listening
skills, but it will also help you understand the pronunciation, stress and intonation of the language.
3. Find someone to speak with: in order to put your speaking skills into practice, you need to speak
to another person. Some possibilities are: to join conversation classes, to find someone (preferably a
native speaker) to speak to and who can help you with your pronunciation, or to meet a friend who
is also learning English to speak to each other, so you can both practise the language.
4. Travel to an English-speaking country: staying in an environment where you must necessarily
speak in English is highly motivating and surely the best way of improving your speaking skills.
1.2. The English pronunciation, stress and intonation
You will speak English well when you master these three aspects in a natural, unconscious way:
➢ The pronunciation
➢ The stress
➢ The intonation
1.2.1. Pronunciation
The word ‘read’ can be pronounced in two different ways:
➢ I read novels (present tense): the pronunciation is /ri:d/.
➢ I have read a novel (past participle): the pronunciation is /red/.
➢ I read three novels last summer (past tense): the pronunciation is /red/.
The words ‘life’ and ‘live’ are usually mispronounced:
➢ He has a good life (noun): the pronunciation is /laif/.
➢ I live in a village (verb): the pronunciation is /liv/.
➢ It is a live concert (adjective): the pronunciation is /laiv/.
28
English has 13 vowel sounds. Compare them to the 5 Spanish sounds and the 8 Catalan sounds.
➢ Spanish: / /, / /, / /, / /, / /
➢ Catalan: / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /
➢ English: / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /, / /
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was created to represent the sounds of a language and
show how the words are pronounced. In the dictionaries, you can usually see the transcription of a
word in the IPA
1.2.2. Stress
However, non-native speakers must make an effort to place the stress on the right syllable. If you don’t use
the stress correctly, people may not understand you
For example:
➢ Record (noun) (Cat. ‘disc, rècord’)
➢ Record (verb) (Cat. ‘gravar’)
➢ Present (noun/adjective) (Cat. ‘regal, present’)
➢ Present (verb) (Cat. ‘presentar’)
➢ Object (noun) (Cat. ‘objecte’)
➢ Object (verb) (Cat. ‘objectar, contradir’)
➢ Contrast (noun) (Cat. ‘contrast’)
➢ Contrast (verb) (Cat. ‘contrastar’)
When we say a sentence in a normal, neutral tone, we tend to stress the most important words, that is, the
words that carry the meaning (called content words).
➢ I left the jacket on the desk.
In this sentence, the key words are: left, jacket and desk. We know these are the key words because we
can probably understand the meaning of the sentence if a person just says: Left jacket desk.
Sometimes, you can change the sentence stress to put the emphasis on certain words to transmit specific
information. For example, you can say our sentence like this:
➢ I left the jacket on the desk. [The meaning is: I left de jacket, not you].
Or like this:
➢ I left the jacket on the desk. [The meaning is: I left it on the desk, not under it].
1.2.3. Intonation
In English, there are four main patterns:
1) Falling intonation (↓) (the voice falls at the end of a sentence): it is the most common pattern in
English. Generally used in statements, wh-questions and commands:
➢ It’s going to rain (↓)
➢ What’s the weather like (↓) ?
➢ Sit down (↓) !
29
2) Rising intonation (↑) (the voice rises at the end of a sentence):common in yes-no questions:
➢ Is it going to rain (↑) ?
➢ Are you sure (↑) ?
3) Rise-Fall intonation (↑↓) (the voice rises and then falls): it is commonly used when giving
alternatives, in unfinished statements and conditional sentences:
➢ Are you going on Saturday (↑) or Sunday (↓) ?
➢ The salad (↑) was good (↓),…(but the rest was not so good).
➢ If you come early (↑), give me a call (↓).
4) Fall-rise intonation (↓↑) (the voice falls and then rises, usually within a word): it is used to express
hesitation and be more polite:
➢ Will you come in the morning? - I don’t know, I sup(↓)pose(↑) so.
➢ Do you think this is al(↓)lowed(↑) ?
1.3. Introductions, greetings and goodbyes
1.3.1. Introductions
formal introductions informal introductions
May I introduce you to Ms Jennifer Simmons? This is Jennifer Simmons
Let me introduce you to Ms Jennifer Simmons
I’d like to introduce you to Ms Jennifer Simmons
In very formal situations, the usual response to an introduction is:

➔ Mary: George, may I introduce you to Ms Jennifer Simmons?
➔ George: How do you do, Ms Simmons?
➔ Ms Simmons: How do you do.
In formal situations, it is more common to respond like this:
➔ Mary: George, let me introduce you to Ms Jennifer Simmons.
➔ George: Hello, Ms Simmons. How are you?
➔ Ms Simmons: I’m fine, thank you. And you?
In informal situations, we can respond like this:
➔ Mary: George, this is Jenny Simmons.
➔ George: Hi, Jenny. How are you doing?
➔ Jenny: Fine. How about you?
To introduce vs to present
To introduce: to make two people acquainted to each other so they know their names (Cat.
presentar una persona a una altra).
To present: to show something to the public (Cat. presentar una cosa, fer una presentació).
30
1.2.3. Greetings
Formal greetings Informal greetings
Good morning Good morning
Good afternoon Good afternoon
Good evening Good evening
Hello Hi
How are you? Hey
How are you doing?
How’s it going?
What’s up?
Morning
In formal situations:
➔ George: How are you, Ms Simmons?
➔ Ms Simmons: I’m fine, thank you. And you?
In informal situations:
➔ Mary: Hey, George. How’s it going?
➔ George: Fine, thanks. And you?
Morning, afternoon, evening and night

As a general guideline, the time ranges are the following:
➢ Morning: from 6am to noon
➢ Afternoon: from noon to 6pm
➢ Evening: from 6pm to midnight
➢ Night: from midnight to 6am
➢ Good morning: from midnight to noon (from 12am to 12pm)
➢ Good afternoon: from noon to 6pm
➢ Good evening: from 6pm to midnight
1.3.3. Goodbyes
(Formal):
➔ Mr Black, what a surprise! I haven’t seen you for a long time! Where have you been?
➔ Mrs Flint! What an unexpected delight! How are you?
(Informal):
➔ Hey, Jack. What a surprise! What are you doing here?
➔ Hi, Susan. I didn’t expect to see you in this meeting. How’s everything going?
31
Formal goodbyes Informal goodbyes
Goodbye Bye
I must go, I’m afraid I’m off!
It was a pleasure meeting you It was nice to meet you
I’ll seee you later See you
Good night Good night
Take care
Have a nice day
(Formal):
➔ George: Well, Ms Simmons. I must go, I’m afraid. It was a pleasure meeting you.
➔ Ms Simmons: A pleasure for me too. Goodbye.
➔ George: Goodbye.
(Informal):
➔ George: Ok, Mary. I’m off. See you on Monday.
➔ Mary: Yes, see you, It was nice to meet you here.
➔ George: Nice for me too. Bye.
➔ Mary: Bye.
1.4. Speaking about your job
English Catalan English Catalan
administrative administratiu, empleat d’oficina employee empleat

assistant
administration departament d’administració to address complaints atendre les queixes

departament
customer client financial consultant consultor financer
investments inversions Business Management Gestió empresarial
customer service departament d’atenció al client to give donar consells

department advice
accountant comptable fee tarifa, preu
colleague company de feina secretary secretari
duties obligacions, tasques to keep the minutes fer les actes de les
reunions
executive director director executiu to manage the agenda portar l’agenda
32
Customer vs client
The terms customer and client have similar meanings, but there’s a difference:
➢ A customer is a person who buys products or services from a company.
➢ A client is a type of customer who buys professional services and solutions.
For example, if you run a manufacturing company, a retail store, a bank or a restaurant, you have
customers.
If you run a law firm, an insurance company, a real state agency or a marketing agency, you have clients.
English Catalan English Catalan English Catalan

adaptable adaptable, determined decidit interesting interessant
flexible
amazing increïble, disciplined disciplinat introvert introvertit
sorprenent
ambitious ambiciós dynamic dinàmic kind amable
artistic artístic easy-going fàcil de tractar lazy mandrós
brilliant brillant efficient eficient, eficaç logical raonable
calm tranquil enthusiastic entusiasta lovely encantador
capable competent, capaç excellent excel·lent meticulous meticulós
careful cuidadós, extrovert extrovertit motivated motivat,
prudent entusiasmat
careless descuidat, flexible flexible open-minded de mentalitat
negligent oberta
challenge-orientat que li agraden els generous generós organized organitzat
ed reptes
charismatic carismàtic gentle dolç, tendre outgoing extrovertit
clever intel·ligent, astut good-natured bo passionate apassionat,
entusiasmat
clumsy maldestre helpful disposat a ajudar patient que té paciència
confident segur de sí mateix imaginative amb imaginació, practical pràctic
creatiu
conscientious meticulós impatient impacient punctual puntual
creative creatiu impulsive impulsiu reliable fiable, responsable
dependable fiable, que s’hi intelligent intel·ligent sociable sociable
pot confiar
Remember!
Adjectives come before the noun: A sociable person, a modern company.
Adjectives have no plural form: Two enthusiastic employees, they are very helpful.
33
UNIT 1: The company’s organization
2.1. The reading skills
To practise the reading skills, you may use the following material:
➢ Graded readers: There are many graded readers at different levels, from beginners to advanced
learners.
➢ Wikipedia: if you prefer reading online, the Internet offers a huge quantity of reading material.
Has millions of articles about any possible topic that you can imagine.
➢ Simple English Wikipedia: if you find the articles in the Wikipedia too difficult, there is a
more simple version specially designed for learners of English.
➢ HowStuffWorks: You can find a great variety of articles divided into different areas of
knowledge. It is especially recommended for intermediate to advanced students.
You may also want to practise your reading skills and do some comprehension exercises:
➢ Linguapress
➢ British Council
➢ Agenda Web
Here are some tips for practising your reading skills:
➢ Read slowly.
➢ You don’t need to know all the words to understand the general meaning of a text.
➢ Don’t mentally translate the text into your own language, but try to ‘think’ in English.
➢ Try to guess the meaning of unknown words. Many English words are of Latin origin.
➢ Do not use automatic translators to understand a text, look it up in a dictionary.
➢ Choose a topic of your interest and read as much as possible in your free time.
When you finish, ask yourself the following questions:
1. After the first reading, can I explain (in my own language) what the text is about?
2. Did I understand a sentence without knowing all the words?
3. Did I guess the meaning of many words?
If the answer to the three questions is ‘yes’, you can say that you can understand an English text.
2.2. The company’s organizational structure
The organizational structure refers to the hierarchical outline of a company. It defines the
employee’s roles, whom they report to, who makes the decisions and how these are made. They are
important because they help businesses implement efficient decision-making processes and offer
guidance and clarity to understand the employees’ roles within the company. There are four essential
elements in all the organizational structures, although more components can be added depending on the
business needs. These four elements are:
1. The chain of command: Which explains how tasks are distributed and work is approved
within the company.
2. Departamentation: It distributes the company’s personnel into similar roles and
responsibilities.
3. The span of control: Explains how the tasks are distributed, which ones are assigned to the
management and which ones correspond to a department.
4. Centralization: Describes how decisions are made. In a centralized company (by a single
individual), in a decentralised company (by a team or a department).
34
Mechanistic structures represents the traditional,
hierarchical approach where decisions are made on the top
and travel down to the bottom. They are highly centralized
and very rigid as to the tasks assigned to the departments.
This model holds employees more accountable for their work
and the chain of command is very clear, as everybody knows
what is expected of them. However, this rigidness may
sometimes become a problem because it usually prevents
creativity and lacks the agility and flexibility that is
required to adapt to the ever-changing markets.
On the other hand, organic structures represents a
collaborative approach where decisions are taken collectively.
They are highly decentralized and little specialized, so the roles
of the departments are rather loose. In this model, employees
are organized in teams that take up projects based on
their capabilities rather than assuming tasks that have been
assigned to them from above. The chain of command is
sometimes difficult to understand and the division of
labour tends to be rather confusing. However, the high
flexibility of this model allows a business to easily adapt to
fast-moving industries like those related to the new
technologies. The organic approach also encourages workers
to be creative and develop as professionals, thus creating a
powerful workforce in the long run.
accountable responsable management direcció (d’una empresa)
brand recognition reconeixement de marca mechanistic estructura mecànica

structure
business negoci, empresa narrow estret
capability capacitat organic structure estructura orgànica
centralization centralització organizational estructura organitzativa

structure
chain of command cadena de comandament outline perfil
collaborative enfocament col·laboratiu role paper, funció
approach
company companyia, empresa span of control amplitud administrativa
decentralized descentralitzat team equip
departamentation divisió per departaments to approve aprovar, donar l’aprovació
division of labour divisió de la feina to encourage animar
35
employee empleat, treballador to gain adquirir, guanyar
guidance guia, orientació to report informar, retre comptes
hierarchical enfocament jeràrquic to take up agafar, assumir
approach
in the long run a llarg termini wide ample
loose imprecís, poc definit workforce força de treball
Language notes:
➢ Business: It refers to a person, partnership or corporation that are engaged in activities destined to
earn a profit.
➢ Company: It refers to a legal entity formed by a group of people whose purpose is to earn a profit.
These companies are usually referred to as small and middle-sized business or SMB. A company
may also have thousands of workers and operate worldwide, as in the case of multinational
corporations. A company may also be private or public.
➢ Corporation: Is a legal entity that is separated from its owners. The owners are shareholders (Cat.
accionistes), each with a specific percentage of ownership.
➢ Firm: Is specifically used with businesses that offer professional services and advice, as for example,
a Law firm (Cat. bufet d’advocats).
➢ Enterprise: this term is used in the commercial world to describe a project undertaken for gain. It is
often called ‘business enterprise’.
➢ Society: Whereas a company’s main purpose is to make money, societies are formed for social and
charitable purposes. Societies often take the form of a cooperative society, whose purpose is to
provide essential service for the benefit of its members.
Some words are often confused in the business world:
➢ Employer (Cat. empresari, el que dona feina)
➢ Employee (Cat. empleat, treballador): it is synonymous with worker.
➢ Work (Cat. treball, feina): this term has a general sense and it refers to any activity, mental or
physical. For example: to have work, to start work, to finish work, to go to work, to be at
work, to be hard work…
➢ Job (Cat. feina): this term refers to a specific activity that we do to earn a living. It is synonymous
with occupation and profession. For example: to apply for a job, to get a job, to do my job, to
have a good job…
2.3. Departamentation and chain of command
Accounting departament de Marketing departament de màrqueting
department comptabilitat department
Administration departament Operations gerència general
department d’administració department
Customer departament d’atenció al Public relations departament de relacions
service client department publiques
Finance department departament de finances Purchase department departament de compres
36
General direcció general Research and development departament de recerca i
management department investigació
Human resources departament de recursos Sales departament de vendes
department humans department
Senior management Middle management

Catalan Catalan
(escala superior) (escala intermèdia)
Chief Executive Officer director executiu Vice President vicepresident
(CEO)
Chief Operating Officer cap d’operacions Manager director, gerent
(COO)
Chief Financial Officer director financer Supervisor supervisor, encarregat
(CFO)
Chief Marketing Officer director de màrqueting Foreman encarregat, mestre d’obres (en
(CMO) empreses de construcció)
Chief Technology Officer director de recursos the regular employees Catalan
(CTO) tecnològics
Chairman of the Board president de la junta Financial analyst analista financer
Vice Chairman vicepresident Sales representant de vendes, agent de
representative vendes
President president Administrative administratiu, auxiliar
assistant administratiu
Director director Caretaker conserge
Owner propietari Receptionist recepcionista
Secretary secretari
Unit 1: International relationships

3.1. The listening skills
Here are some effective strategies to practise and improve your listening skills in a conversation:
1. Be fully present: give your full attention to the speaker and eliminate distractions.
2. Maintain eye contact: maintain eye contact with the speaker to show your engagement and
understanding. It also helps you understand non-verbal communication.
3. Practice empathy: try to understand their perspective, emotions and intentions. This will
encourage active listening and create a deeper connection with the speaker.
4. Avoid interrupting: interrupting can disrupt the speaker’s speech and indicate a lack of respect.
Instead, make mental notes of any questions or points you want to address when it’s your turn to
speak.
5. Focus on understanding, not just hearing: try to understand the speaker’s intended meaning.
6. Use active listening techniques: engage actively by nodding, providing verbal cues like I see,
Uh-huh and using encouraging phrases to show your attentiveness. Summarize or paraphrase the
speaker’s main points to confirm your understanding.
7. Practice reflective listening: reflective listening involves summarizing what the speaker said in
your own words. This technique helps clarify any misunderstandings.
37
8. Ask for clarification when needed: it shows your genuine interest and helps you grasp the
speaker’s message accurately.
9. Practice mindfulness: train yourself to absorb the speaker’s words without distractions or
preconceived notions.
10. Engage in active listening exercises: use resources such as podcasts, TED Talks, or audiobooks to
practice active listening regularly. Take notes, summarize the main points, and reflect on the content
to strengthen your listening skills.
Here are some suggestions:
1. Watch films, TV series or TV documentaries in their original English language. Use subtitles
(preferably in English) to help you understand, if you wish.
2. Listen to songs in English and read the lyrics at the same time.
3. Watch videos of your interest in YouTube, Vimeo, etc.
4. Surf the Internet.
3.2. Cultural differences
Therefore, a certain knowledge of religion, politics, history, gender roles, business ethics, social institutions,
humour, values and non-verbal communication will help you understand people from other countries.
Learning foreign languages is important for two reasons. On the one hand, you need to use language
to communicate with people from other countries. On the other hand, there are certain items, such as
letters, brochures or leaflets, that might need to be translated for the benefit of others. Becoming
aware of the differences between cultures and exploring cultural similarities are two important skills when
we learn a language because cultural knowledge will help us communicate with others more
harmoniously and establish a positive environment.

behaviour costum, comportament point of view punt de vista
challenge repte to be acquainted with estar familiaritzat amb
cheek galta to be aware of tenir en compte
cultural background entorn cultural to be conscious of ser conscient de
custom costum to be in a hurry tenir presa
environment ambient, entorn to be successful tenir èxit
foreigner estranger (n.) to bow fer una reverència
lack mancança, falta to deal with tractar amb
misunderstanding malentès, confusió to kiss besar
pace ritme to set schedules posar terminis
performance rendiment to shake hands donar la mà
38
3.3. Varieties of English
British American Catalan British American Catalan
aerial antenna antena luggage baggage equipatge
angry mad enfadat main road highway carretera general
autumn fall tardor motorway freeway autopista
banknote bill bitllet de banc petrol gasoline gasolina
bill check compte (al restaurant) petrol station gas station gasolinera
biscuit cookie galeta post mail correu
caretaker janitor conserge postbox mailbox bústia de correus
chemist’s drug store farmàcia postman mailman carter
crazy mad boig queue line cua (de persones)
crossroads intersection cruïlla railway railroad via (del tren)
curtains drapes cortines rise raise augment (del salari)
dustbin trashcan cubell de les escombraries shop store botiga
engine motor motor sidewalk pavement vorera
film movie pel·lícula taxi cab taxi
flyover overpass pas elevat term semester semestre
garden yard jardí the cinema the movies el cinema
ground floor first floor planta baixa timetable schedule horari
handbag purse bolso toilets restroom, lavabo, WC
bathroom
holiday vacation vacances toll motorway turnpike autopista de peatge
ill sick malalt (adj) trousers pants pantalons
lift elevator ascensor underground subway metro
Spelling
British spelling American spelling Examples
-t -ed burnt/burned, learnt/learned, spelt/spelled
-ence -ense defence/defense, licence/license
-ell- -el- cancelled/canceled, traveller/traveler
-ise -ize realise/realize, organise/organize
-l -ll fulfil/fulfill, enrol/enroll
-ogue -og catalogue/catalog, analogue/analog
-our -or colour/color, behaviour/behavior
-re -er metre/meter, centre/center
Grammar
1. The verb needn’t is considered a modal verb in British English, but in American English it is used
as a lexical verb:
British English: You needn’t go > American English: You don’t need to go.
2. The verb have (in the sense of possess) is considered an auxiliary verb in British English, which
usually adds the particle got, but in American English it is used as a lexical verb:
British English: I‘ve got a sister > American English: I have a sister.
British English: I haven’t got any sisters > American English: I don’t have any sisters.
British English: Have you got any sisters? > American English: Do you have any sisters?
3. In British English, we use the present perfect to speak about recent actions with an effect in the
present, but in American English they use the past simple instead:
British English: I have seen Max this morning > American English: I saw Max this morning.
British English: Have you slept well? > American English: Did you sleep well?
39
The dates in British and American English
British English American English
9th June 2023 June 9, 2023
9/6/2023 6/9/2023
9/6/23 6/9/23
Please note:
➢ For a British person, 9/6/2023 is 9th June, but for an American person, it is: 6th
September.
➢ For a British person, 6/9/2007 is 6th September, but for an American person, it is: 9th
June.
.Independently of the written format, we say the dates like this:
➢ British English: the ninth of June, twenty twenty-three
➢ American English: June the ninth, twenty twenty-three
3.4. False friends

English word In Catalan it means… Similar Catalan word …which in English means…
actually de fet, en realitat actualment currently, now
embarrassed avergonyit, vergoyós embarassada pregnant
embarrassement ridícul,vergonya embaràs pregnancy
exit sortida èxit success
lecture xerrada, conferència lectura reading
library biblioteca llibreria bookshop (BrE), bookstore
(AmE)
sympathetic solidari, compasiu, empàtic simpàtic nice, kind, agreeable
sensible sensat, amb seny sensible sensitive
Some words are Partial false friends. Here are a few examples of words that are easily confused:
1. Direction/address:
a. Meaning 1: direction > Cat. ‘direcció, sentit’
b. Meaning 2: address > Cat. ‘adreça’, Sp. ‘dirección’
2. Manifestation/demonstration:
a. Meaning 1: manifestation > Cat. ‘manifestació, expressió’
b. Meaning 2: demonstration > Cat. ‘manifestació, marxa, protesta’
3. Note/mark:
a. Meaning 1: note > Cat. ‘nota, anotació’
b. Meaning 2: mark > Cat. ‘nota, qualificació’ (en un examen)
4. To approve/to pass:
a. Meaning 1: approve > Cat. ‘aprovar, donar el vistiplau’
b. Meaning 2: pass > Cat. ‘aprovar (un examen)'
5. To assist/to attend (similarly: assistance/attendance):
a. Meaning 1: to assist > Cat. ‘assistir, ajudar’(una persona)
b. Meaning 2: to attend > Cat. ‘assistir a, anar a (un lloc)'
6. To present/to introduce (similarly: presentation/introduction):
a. Meaning 1: to present > Cat. ‘presentar, ensenyar, mostrar’
b. Meaning 2: to introduce > Cat. ‘presentar (una persona a una altra)'
7. To pretend/to intend:
a. Meaning 1: to pretend > Cat. ‘pretendre, fer veure, simular, aparentar’
b. Meaning 2: to intend > Cat. ‘pretendre, tenir pensat fer, intentar fer’
40
UNIT 1: Business correspondence
4.1. The writing skills
a) Think about the objective of the text. The objectives may be very different: to describe facts, to express
your opinion, to give advice, to persuade a person, to make a complaint, to request information, etc. When
you write a text, you must think about the type of language required for each objective (for example,
when you express your opinion, you can say: I think that…, in my opinion, …, etc.)
b) Think about the contents (what you want to say). You can write down your ideas in note form and
then develop these ideas in the text. For example, imagine that you must write about the topic: The
importance of the English language. You can write down the following ideas:
➢ Introduction: Learning English very important
➢ Advantages: speaking with other people; find a job, get a promotion, international relations …
➢ Disadvantages: expensive, needs time, frustrating…
➢ Conclusion: necessary to learn.
c) Organize the text. Write an appropriate title, divide the text into paragraphs and write clear
and simple sentences. Use one paragraph for each idea. For example, one for the introduction, one for
the advantages of English, one for the disadvantages and a final one for the conclusion.
d) Think about the following aspects:
➢ Appropriate vocabulary: use the right words to express your ideas and the specific words and
expressions used for giving opinions (see them highlighted in yellow in the model text below).
➢ Appropriate syntactical structures: correct use and forms of the verb tenses, word order, etc.
➢ Correct spelling: many spelling mistakes are due to typewriting errors; if in doubt about the
correct spelling of a word, look it up in a dictionary. You may also want to run the text through the
spellcheck of your text editor.
➢ Use of connectors (see them highlighted in bold type in the model text below) and punctuation
(stops, commas, etc.).
4.2. Connectors, spelling and punctuation
4.2.1. Connectors
➢ Expressing positive addition:
○ and: I like reading and listening to music.
○ also (formal): I also like reading.
○ too (informal): I like reading too.
○ as well as: I play football as well as handball.
○ in addition: It rained all the time. In addition, it was cold.
○ moreover: It rained all the time. Moreover, it was cold.
➢ Expressing negative addition:
○ or: I don’t like reading or listening to music. I prefer doing exercise.
○ neither…nor: They neither work nor study.
○ either: I don’t like reading - Well, I don’t like it either.
➢ Expressing alternatives:
○ or: You can go or wait a little longer.
○ either…or: I like working either at night or in the late evening.
41
➢ Expressing contrast:
○ but: It’s late, but I will wait a little longer.
○ however: It’s late. However, I will wait a little longer.
○ although (formal): Although it’s late, I’ll wait a little longer.
○ even though (informal): Even though it’s late, I’ll wait a little longer.
○ on one hand… on the other hand: On one hand it is raining. On the other hand, it is
very cold.
○ on the other hand: I was very satisfied with my work. On the other hand, I was exhausted.
○ in spite of: We all had a great time in spite of the bad weather.
➢ Explaining ideas:
○ in other words: It’s very clear. In other words, it is crystal clear.
○ that is: It’s crystal clear. That is, very clear.
➢ Making exceptions:
○ except for: I finished everything except for a few details.
○ apart from: Apart from Peter Lansgtrom, nobody else came to the meeting.
➢ Giving examples:
○ for example: There are many things to do. For example, bring water and take out the
chairs.
○ as for example: There are many things to do, as for example bring water and take out the
chairs.
○ like: There are many things to do like bringing water and taking out the chairs.
○ such as: There are many things to do such as bringing water and taking out the chairs.
➢ Listing ideas in chronological order:
○ first of all…; secondly…: First of all, bring water; secondly, take out the chairs.
○ to begin with: To begin with, don’t get nervous.
○ in the first place: In the first place, don’t get nervous.
○ then : Bring water. Then take out the chairs.
○ next: Bring water. Next, take out the chairs.
○ finally: Bring water, take out the chairs and finally check the computer.
➢ Expressing purpose:
○ to: Use a dictionary to look up the meaning of a word.
○ in order to: Use a dictionary in order to look up the meaning of a word.
➢ Expressing the reason:
○ because: I study English because it is very important in my job.
○ because of: I study English because of its great importance in my job.
○ as: I study English, as it is very important in my job.
○ since (formal): I study English since it is very important in my job.
○ as a result: There’s a severe economic crisis. As a result, the companies are losing a lot of
money.
○ as a result of: As a result of the severe economic crisis, the companies are losing a lot of
money.
42
➢ Expressing the result:
○ so (informal): I need money so I work extra hours.
○ therefore (formal): I need money. Therefore I work extra hours.
○ for this reason: The test is quite difficult. For this reason, you should study very hard.
➢ Summarizing ideas:
○ in conclusion: We have no money and we do not work. In conclusion, we cannot give you
anything.
○ summing up: We have no money and we do not work. Summing up, we cannot give you
anything.
○ to sum up: We have no money and we do not work. To sum up, we cannot give you
anything.
○ in short: We spent all the money. In short, we can’t lend you any.
4.2.2. Spelling
However, there are a few basic spelling rules:
1. Changing y to ies: when we add -s to a word ending in vowel+y, we just add -s (play > plays,
delay > delays); when the word ends in consonant+y, the ending is -ies (company > companies,
baby > babies).
2. Adding -es to words ending in -s, -ss, -z, -ch, -sh, -x (wish > wishes, box > boxes, business >
business).
3. Doubling up: when we add an ending to words in vowel + final consonant, we double the
consonant (big > bigger, begin > beginning).
4. Drop the ‘e’: we drop the final '-e’ when we add suffixes starting with a vowel (write > writing,
hope > hoped, sense > sensible); we keep the '-e’ if the word ends in '-ce’ or '-ge’ and the suffix is
'-able’ or '-ous’ (courage > courageous, notice > noticeable).
5. Changing ‘y’ to ‘i’: if a word ends in a consonant + ‘y’, the ‘y’ changes to ‘i’ (beauty + ful >
beautiful, happy + ness > happiness).
6. Changing '-f ’ to '-ves’ or '-s’: most words ending in '-f ’ or '-fe’ change their plurals to '-ves’
(half > halves, life > lives, yourself > yourselves).
Capitalization
In English, capital letters are used:
➢ with the pronoun ‘I’.
➢ with adjectives derived from proper names: English, Spanish, Londoner, etc.
➢ with days of the week and months of the year: Monday, Tuesday, February, April, etc.
➢ with names of personal and job titles: Mr, Miss, Sales Manager, Director, etc.
➢ at the beginning of a sentence.
➢ with proper names: Barcelona, England, John, the Sheraton Hotel, etc.
➢ with names of festivals and holidays: Thanksgiving, Christmas, Easter, etc.
43
4.2.3. Punctuation
Here are the most common uses of the punctuation marks:
➢ Do not write a comma (,) between the subject and the verb.
➢ Write a full stop (.) at the end of a sentence.
➢ The adverbials and connectors are usually separated from the sentence by a comma. For example: in
the mornings , I usually check my mail.
➢ Write a colon (:) to introduce a list of items or an explanation. For example: the continents are:
Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Oceania.
➢ Write a comma to separate the elements in a list. For example: I visit customers on Monday ,
Wednesday , Thursday and Friday.
➢ Use a semi-colon (;) to separate the groups of items in a list. For example: in computing, we must
distinguish between hardware and software. Hardware refers to the material parts of a computer ;
software refers to programming and includes operating systems, compilers, editors, etc.
➢ Use brackets () to add extra information. For example: in writing, we must use connectors (also
called ‘linking words’).
➢ Write a question mark (?) at the end of a sentence. For example: what’s your name ?.
➢ Write an exclamation mark (!) at the end of a sentence with the imperative form. For example:
Come in !.
The Oxford comma

The Oxford comma is a comma that is added right before the conjunction and in a list of more than two
items. We can write:
1. We visited London, Glasgow and Edinburgh (without the Oxford comma)
2. We visited London, Glasgow, and Edinburgh (with the Oxford comma)
The punctuation of both sentences is correct, but there’s still a lot of controversy about the use (or no
use) of the Oxford comma. Those in favour say that the Oxford comma serves to prevent
misunderstandings. The detractors think that the Oxford comma shouldn’t be used because there are
other ways of avoiding confusions.
4.3. Formal and informal language

In speech, formal language is used when you speak to a superior or to unknown people, or when you
give a speech or a presentation to an unknown audience. In contrast, you should use the informal
language in written messages to your work colleagues or when you discuss a business matter with
them. There is a gradation in the degree of formality, from the very formal to the very informal. You must
always choose the form that best suits a specific situation. You must also consider the type of relationship
with the other person.
44
Function Formal language Informal language
Opening -Dear Mr Smith -Dear John
-Hello, John
Previous contact -Thank you for your email. -Thanks for your email.
-I apologise for not getting in contact with you -Sorry I haven’t written before.
before.
Reason for writing -I am writing in connection with… -I’m writing about…
-In reply to your letter, here is the information… -Here’s the information you
wanted
Giving information -I am writing to let you know that… -Just a word to tell you that…
-I am delighted to inform you that… -Good news! I can tell you that…
-We regret to inform you that… -I’m sorry to tell you that…
Attachments -Please find attached my report. -I’ve attached my report.
-I am sending you my report. -Here’s my report
Asking for -I would be grateful if you could give me some -Can you give me information
information information about… . about…?
-I would like to receive information about… -Please send me information
about…
Making requests -I would appreciate it if you could send me… -Can you send me…?
-I wonder whether you could send me… -Please send me…
Promising action -I will… -I’ll…
-I will contact you again soon. -I’ll get back to you soon.
Offering help -Let me know if you would like my help in this -Please tell me if I can help you in
matter. this.
-Would you like my help in this matter? -Do you want my help in this
matter?
Final comments -Do not hesitate to contact us again if you need -Please let me know if you need
anything else. anything else.
-Thank you for your help. -Thanks for your help.
Closing -I am looking forward to… -Looking forward to…
-Yours sincerely. -Best wishes
-Yours faithfully -Regards
Signature -John Smith -John
Formal language:
1. Does not use colloquial words (say: hello, goodbye, television, father…).
2. Does not use contractions (write: I am, he is, we are…).
3. Does not use the imperative form in requests (say: could you tell me please?).
4. Uses longer and more complex sentences (say: I wonder whether you could help me).
Informal language:
1. Uses colloquial words (you can say: hi, bye, TV, dad…).
2. Uses contractions (you can write: I’m, he’s, we’re…).
3. You may use the imperative form in requests (you can say: Please tell me!)
4. You may use a short and simple sentence (you can say: can you help me?).
45
4.4. Business letters and emails
4.4.1. Business letters
The most common layout is the following:
1. The writer’s address: in the top right corner of the page. Do not include your name in the
address.
2. Date: below your address (but the date may also go below the receiver’s address). Be aware of the
correct date format (in the example, it is in the American format).
3. The receiver’s name and address: a line below the writer’s address, on the left-hand side of the
paper.
4. Opening: two lines below the date. Begin with Dear + the receiver’s title and surname“ (for
example, Dear Mr Anderson). If you don’t know the receiver’s name, say: Dear Sir or Madam.
Don’t write any punctuation marks at the end of the opening phrase.
5. Body of the letter: two lines below the opening. Separate the text clearly into paragraphs and use
the appropriate language. Pay attention to the punctuation.
6. Ending formula: we can use the standard phrase I look forward to hearing from you.
7. Closing phrase: two lines below the body of the letter, always on the left-hand side. The standard
closing expression is: Yours faithfully (if we don’t know the receiver’s name) or Yours sincerely (if
you know the receiver’s name). Write a comma at the end.
8. Signature: sign your letter after the closing phrase and type your name and surname below.
9. Enclosure: if you enclose a document with the letter, write it down after your signature (for
example, Enc: Curriculum vitae).
The language of business letters
We can use different degrees of formality in a business letter, depending on our relationship with the
receiver. The style can be:
1. Very formal: when you don’t know the person you are writing to.
2. Formal: when you know the name, but don’t know the person.
3. Semi-formal: when you know the person.
The difference in formality is especially evident in the conventional opening and closing phrases:
Opening phrases:
➢ Very formal: Dear Sir or Madam, Dear Sirs
➢ Formal: Dear Mr/Mrs Jones
➢ Semi-formal: Dear Michael Jones
Closing phrases:
➢ Very formal: Yours faithfully (BrE), Yours truly (AmE)
➢ Formal: Yours sincerely (BrE), Sincerely (AmE)
➢ Semi-formal: Best regards, Best wishes
Explaining the purpose of your letter:
➔ I am interested in (applying for the post of personal assistant) …
➔ I am writing about (the meeting) …
46
Referring to a previous contact with the receiver:
➔ With reference to your letter of (28th October), …
➔ Following our phone conversation (yesterday), …
➔ Thank you for your letter of last (28th October), …
Referring to the subject of the letter:
➔ Regarding the question of (your complaint), …
➔ Regarding your advertisement for (the post of personal assistant), …
Referring to enclosures (if any):
➔ I am enclosing (my CV)
➔ Enclosed is a copy of (my CV)
Making requests:
➢ I would be grateful if you would (send me
a copy of your complaint)
➢ I would appreciate it if you would (send
me a copy of your complaint)
Ending the letter (before the closing phrase):
➢ I look forward to hearing from you
➢ Many thanks for your help in this matter
Finally, remember:
1. A business letter should never be
handwritten.
2. Don’t use contractions
3. Don’t add postscripts. Give all the
information in the body of the letter.
4.4.2.Business emails
However, you should try to follow these rules:
1. Write your email as short as possible.
2. Don’t write in capital letters. The use of capital letters in emails implies that you are shouting
and it is considered very rude.
3. Write formal emails to people that you don’t know (the language style is the same as that of
business letters).
4. Write semi-formal emails to people that you know.
5. Emails to colleagues and friends can be informal.
6. Always sign your email.
As for the contents of the email:
1. Start with the most important information.
2. Write the less important information in a separate paragraph.
3. If the other person doesn’t know about the situation you are writing about, explain it
carefully at the beginning.
47
If you are responding to a previous mail:
1. Avoid replying only “yes” or “no”. Refer back to the question and then give your answer. A “No”
answer normally requires an explanation.
2. Use the “Reply” tool to send your message. In this way, the original message will be revealed and it
will be easier to refer to the previous message.
3. Don’t forget to write the subject of your email. The subject should summarize the purpose of the
message in as few words as possible.
Two other elements that are common in
emails are:
1. “Carbon copy” (abbreviated to
CC), which you can use to include the
names of other people who will also
receive the message.
2. “Blind carbon copy” (abbreviated
to BCC), which also includes other people
who will receive a copy of the message,
but their names will be invisible to the
main receiver.
UNIT 5: Speeches and presentations

5.1. Public speaking
We suggest following these tips to make sure that you deliver a good speech:
➢ Be prepared
➢ Start strong: Begin your speech with a powerful opening to catch your audience’s attention,
such as a curious fact, an interesting story or a funny joke.
➢ Be conversational: Avoid reading your speech word for word. Instead, refer to notes or points
from an outline to help your speech have a more free-flowing, conversational tone.
➢ Speak with passion
➢ Be patient: It is easy to get frustrated if you make a mistake. Public speaking is not easy and it takes
time to improve your skills. Keep practising and you will reach your goals.
Here is some advice for speaking in some common situations:
Delivering technical information
Technical information should be presented in a way that allows an audience to understand and apply critical
information. Technical information can range from an engineer briefing a group of managers on a current
project, to a retail supervisor explaining a new company policy to the store employees. Follow the steps
below to ensure your technical briefings are as effective as they can be:
➢ Know your audience. Avoid using too much industry jargon or material that is too technical for
your colleagues to easily understand.
➢ State the purpose of the technical briefing in one or two sentences and use this summary as the
focal point for the entire presentation.
➢ Arrange the material into an outline containing an introduction, main points and a conclusion.
➢ Summarize the main points of the technical briefing during the conclusion.
48
Giving sales pitches
➢ Use the “inverted pyramid” approach, which gives an audience the most important information
in the first few sentences (how much money might be saved). Support claims with logic and
evidence, and end every sales speech or proposal with a call to action. If an audience agrees with
the initial message or point, the supporting material that follows will reinforce that
agreement. If an audience disagrees, logic and evidence may win them over.
➢ Use high-quality yet simple visual aids, such as charts or slides, to help clarify any sales pitch or
proposal. Make sure the visual aids can be seen by every person in the audience, and limit each chart
or slide to a single main point.
➢ Offer a question-and-answer period following a sales pitch or proposal. This gives an audience
the opportunity to further clarify specific points or data that was presented. Below are a few ways to
effectively answer questions from an audience:
1. Anticipate possible questions by rehearsing with colleagues or friends.
2. Provide answers that support the sales pitch or proposal.
3. Disarm loaded questions (those based on false premises or irrelevant assumptions)
by being polite and asking the questioner to further explain his or her question.
4. Divide complicated questions into several parts before answering them.
Introducing speakers
If you host a special event, you may be required to introduce speakers. Try these quick tips for delivering
good speaker introductions:
➢ Don’t steal the show by making the introduction too long (60 seconds or less is sufficient), or by
speaking on a topic that is not related to the speaker.
➢ Briefly mention the topic that the speaker is addressing, but don’t reveal too much about his
or her speech.
➢ Establish the speaker’s authority and expertise. This information will help solidify with the
audience the speaker’s credibility as a subject-matter expert.
➢ State the speaker’s name and speech title. Make sure the audience is formally introduced to the
speaker and their speech.
Accepting awards
If you need to accept a company recognition, these tips will help you deliver a powerful acceptance speech
for any type of award :
➢ Show your personality.
➢ Be gracious. Acknowledge the good work done by your competitors and thank the
organization that selected you for the award.
➢ Show excitement.
➢ Be modest.
➢ Practice, practice, practice.
49
Speaking to diverse audiences
Giving a speech to an audience of people who speak various languages or have differing cultural
backgrounds requires special tact on the part of the speaker. Here are some tips and techniques on how to
effectively engage a diverse audience:
➢ Enunciate clearly.
➢ Don’t speak too fast. Remember that the normal pace of speech in one language might become
incomprehensible for people relatively new to that language.
➢ Be careful with metaphors. Some metaphors that are appropriate in one culture can be offensive
to another.
➢ Know the meanings of words outside your native language. Unless you are absolutely sure of
the meaning and pronunciation of a word you are using in a given language, do not use it. In some
languages, slight variations of a vowel will completely alter the meaning of a word.
➢ Avoid slang, jargon and idiomatic expressions. Diverse audiences may not understand slang or
idiomatic expressions from a given country.
➢ Be mindful of body language, eye contact and personal space. Posture, mannerisms and eye
contact are very important and what is taken for granted in one culture might be considered
offensive in another.
audience públic sales pitch xerrada promocional
award premi, reconeixement slide diapositiva
briefing sessió informativa speech discurs
chart gràfica to be gracious ser amable, ser elegant
conversational familiar, col·loquial to brief informar, donar instruccions
free-flowing speech discurs fluïd to deliver a speech fer un discurs
jargon argot to host fer d’amfitrió
outline esquema, guió to persuade persuadir, convèncer
public speaking discurs públic to rehearse assajar, practicar
5.2. Making a presentation
main worries when preparing a presentation
1. Fear of public speaking. For many people, speaking in public, especially in a foreign language,
causes stress and physical discomfort. Experience is the best cure for this. The more you speak,
the more comfortable you will feel.
2. Keeping the audience’s attention. Sometimes you may have the impression that people are not
interested in what you have to say, but if you really care about the topic of your speech, others
will also care.
3. The contents of the slides. Think that you will lose the audience’s attention if you overload the
slides, but if you make it too brief, you may lose important information. We suggest watching other
people’s presentations and noting the most effective ones to find the right balance between the
contents of the slide and what you want to say.
4. Use of nonverbal communication. You may feel uncomfortable incorporating nonverbal
communication into your speech. As this type of communication is mostly done unconsciously,
you will need to make an effort to use the right amount. Standing still will bore your audience, but
they will be distracted if you move too much. It is important to find the right balance.
50
how to prepare an effective presentation
1. Check your material before the presentation. Make sure that everything works properly. There
is nothing more frustrating for the audience than watching the speaker connect and reconnect the
cables because the presentation does not appear on the screen.
2. Keep it simple. Simplicity is very important to reach a wide and diverse audience. Ask yourself:
what are the key points you want people to remember? Place the important ideas in bullet points so
the audience can identify them easily.
3. Create an attractive structure. Things should be cohesive and logical. Give a narrative to your
presentation. You could start by expressing a problem, explain what steps you took to reach
the solution and finally say what you propose to find a solution
4. Use visual aids. Try to incorporate meaningful photos or videos in your slides, and use
props to illustrate your points.
5. Be aware of design techniques and trends. Some standard techniques to make a presentation
more attractive are: don’t put long and dense blocks of text on a single slide, use a
minimalistic background, don’t read everything off the slide (write only the main points and
then explain them to the audience in detail), maintain the same font style and size throughout
the presentation.
6. Follow the 10-20-30 rule. According to Guy Kawasaki, a marketing specialist for Apple, the best
presentations should be less than 10 slides, last no longer than 20 minutes and use a font
size of 30.
brief breu the right balance l’equilibri just
bullet points llista de punts to be aware of tenir en compte, ser conscient de
contents contingut to be distracted distreure’s, estar distret
desktop computer ordinador de sobretaula to be materialized concretar-se
fear of por de, temor a to bore avorrir
laptop ordinador portàtil to care about preocupar-se per
meaningful significatiu to overcome superar
minimalistic background fons minimalista to overload sobrecarregar
on a single slide en una sola diapositiva to stand still quedar-se quiet
overhead projector projector to work properly funcionar correctament
prop suport material trend tendència, moda
screen pantalla visual aids suport visual
slide diapositiva worry preocupació
the right amount la quantitat justa
5.3. Taking notes
Here are some tips for writing good notes:
1. Write your notes with a pen on a notebook or a piece of paper rather than writing them
digitally on the computer.
2. Don’t write everything the person says, but focus on the main points of the speech.
3. Write separate words instead of writing complete sentences. You can also use abbreviations
and symbols.
51
4. To decide what is important. Also, be attentive to the final remarks because they usually
include a summary of the main points. You can also pay attention to non-verbal signs, like vocal
emphasis on certain words.
UNIT 1: User manuals

A manual is a book that explains how something works or something is done. Nowadays, most manuals are
in digital form, but their function has not changed. The majority of manuals you will find on the Internet
are in English, so you will need to apply your reading skills to understand them and use them to your
advantage. Since a manual gives instructions to do something, you should understand, first of all, how to
give instructions in English. Apart from that, you may also need to translate a specialized article for the
benefit of people who don’t speak English.
6.1. Types and characteristics of manuals
There are several types of manuals, each with a different function:
➢ Instruction manual: it provides basic instructions for how to use a product.
➢ Training manual: it is a set of instructions to do a specific task or job.
➢ Service manual: it explains how to care or maintain a piece of equipment or machinery.
➢ User manual: it explains the proper use or operation of a product.
➢ Operation manual: it outlines the roles, responsibilities and processes of a company.
➢ Organizational Policy Manual: it outlines specific instructions for completing established
procedures.
○ Plain language. A manual should avoid unnecessary technical words as much as possible
and other type of inaccessible language, such as jargon, acronyms or slang. The language
style must be formal.
○ Simplicity. Both the content and the support elements (like graphics or illustrations)
should be as simple as possible. Manuals should also avoid long and dense blocks of text.
○ Visuals. Images, videos, annotated screenshots and graphics are very good to help
users to understand a concept or a process. Apart from this, visuals also break up the
blocks of text and make reading much easier.
○ Focus on the problem. Manuals serve to solve a specific problem (for example, how
something is done) so it’s crucial to maintain the focus on this problem. A good user
manual should not explain each characteristic of a product or include irrelevant
information.
○ Logical hierarchy. A good user manual should include a clear hierarchical structure with
headings and subheadings. The hierarchy should follow a logical flow, developing the
instructions from the basic operations to the more advanced features of the
product.
○ Table of contents. A manual should start with a table of contents. In a digital format (like
most manuals nowadays), each item should be linked to the corresponding heading to
allow the user to go directly to the required feature.
52
annotated comentat, anotat proper apropiat, correcte
content contingut saving estalvi
decrease reducció, descens screenshot captura de pantalla
feature característica set of instructions conjunt d’instruccions
flow fluxe table of contents taula de contingut
heading encapçalament to be linked estar enllaçat
hierarchical jeràrquic to care cuidar, fer el manteniment
hierarchy jerarquia to develop desenvolupar
jargon argot to outline resumir
liability responsabilitat to solve resoldre, solucionar
procedure procediment
6.2. Giving instructions

In both cases, the easiest way of giving instructions is by using the imperative form of the verb.
The main characteristics of the imperative forms are:
➢ It has the same form as the infinitive: work!.
➢ The negative is formed by adding do not (don’t) before the verb: don’t work!.
➢ The sentence has no explicit subject (the implicit subject is you).
In written instructions, it is very important to make a good use of connectors. You will generally need
time connectors to link the different steps in the process.
In oral speech, the use of the imperative form may be too ‘imperative’, almost like a command. This depends
on your intonation. You can soften the instructions by using the modal verbs should, can or must.
Commands
There’s a thin line between instructions and commands (Cat. ordres) because both use the imperative
form. The tone of your voice usually marks the difference, so you must be very careful to avoid sounding
too abrupt or rude. When you give instructions, make sure that you don’t sound as if you were giving
orders.
Examples of commands are:
➢ Come here!
➢ Sit down!
➢ Take off your cap!
➢ Go!
➢ Leave me alone!
➢ Don’t shout!
➢ Don’t talk to me like that!
➢ Shut up!
A command often implies a certain degree of impatience. We give commands in informal situations.
In formal situations, we make a request instead (could you come here?, will you sit down?,
would you take off your cap?, etc.).We can add please to soften the command: come here please!,
don’t shout please!, please shut up!, etc.
With should you are in fact giving advice or recommending something. Can is rather neutral; it
indicates what you can possibly do to reach the desired result. With must, you are implying an
obligation; you can use this modal verb when you think that the instructions are very important.
53
If you want to make your instructions very clear, you can also write them in a numbered list.
6.3. Writing a summary
To write a summary, follow these steps:
1. First of all, read the text and identify the main ideas: in the text above, they are highlighted in bold.
The main ideas are those that give the basic information that you need to remember.
2. Don’t include secondary ideas or irrelevant information: these are mostly formed by sentences that
serve to introduce, support, clarify or explain the main ideas. The first sentence, for example, is used
to introduce the topic: it’s not necessary to include it in the summary; the second paragraph is
devoted to show the importance of Slack in order to reinforce the message: you shouldn’t include it
in the summary either.
3. Next, take the sentences with the main ideas and organize them to write the summary. Here you
should try to use your own words. For example, where the text says: Each time you open Slack, you
can update your status to show you’re online. You can set your status during the workday to
indicate when you’re in a meeting, out to lunch, on holiday, working remotely, out sick and other
scenarios (paragraph [7]), you can say this: It’s also possible to update your status to indicate if you
are in a meeting, at lunch, on holiday, working remotely or sick at home.
4. When you finish, revise the spelling, grammar and vocabulary of your summary. Make sure that you
haven’t changed the information of the original text.
Please note: there are no fixed rules to determine which are the main ideas. The choice often depends on
your own interest.
54

Resumen U1 (A1... A6) + Gramatica

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Resumen U1 (A1... A6) + Gramatica

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Resumen U1 (A1... A6) + Gramatica

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THE VERB TENSES

1.1. The present simple

I work do not work do I work?

you work do not work do you work?

he/she/it works does not work does he/she/it work?

we work do not work do we work?

you work do not work do you work?

they work do not work do they work?

* The negative forms are often contracted to: don't, doesn't.

I am working am not working am I working?

you are working are not working are you working?

he/she/it is working is not working is he/she/it working?

we are working are not working are we working?

you are working are not working are you working?

they are working are not working are they working?

With the present continuous, we commonly use time expressions like:

Affirmative Negative* Interrogative

I worked did not work did I work?

you worked did not work did you work?

he/she/it worked did not work did he/she/it work?

we worked did not work did we work?

you worked did not work did you work?

they worked did not work did they work?

Conjugation of the past simple (irregular verb to go ):

Affirmative Negative* Interrogative

I went did not go did I go?

you went did not go did you go?

he/she/it went did not go did he/she/it go?

we went did not go did we go?

you went did not go did you go?

they went did not go did they go?

* The negative forms are often contracted to: didn't.

1.4. The past continuous

Affirmative Negative* Interrogative

I was working was not working was I working?

you were working were not working were you working?

he/she/it was working was not working was he/she/it working?

we were working were not working were we working?

you were working were not working were you working?

they were working were not working were they working?

* The negative forms are often contracted to: weren't, wasn't

Affirmative* Negative* Interrogative

I have worked have not worked have I worked?

you have worked have not worked have you worked?

he/she/it has worked has not worked has he/she/it worked?

we have worked have not worked have we worked?

you have worked have not worked have you worked?

they have worked have not worked have they worked?

Conjugation of the present perfect simple (irregular verb to go ):

Affirmative* Negative* Interrogative

I have gone have not gone have I gone?

you have gone have not gone have you gone?

he/she/it has gone has not gone has he/she/it gone?

we have gone have not gone have we gone?

you have gone have not gone have you gone?

they have gone have not gone have they gone?

* We often make these contractions:

Difference between for and since:

To speak about an unspecified past, we often use the following adverbs: