I.

Components of a Piston and Their Functions

The piston is a crucial component of an engine, responsible for transferring the force of expanding gases to
the crankshaft. Here's a breakdown of the main parts of a piston and their functions:

1. Piston Rings: These are split rings mounted on a recess area of the piston, typically there are three
rings in an engine. They seal the combustion chamber, control lubricating oil use, and help transfer heat
away from the cylinder bore.
2. Piston Pin (Wrist Pin): Connects the piston to the connecting rod, allowing the piston to move up and
down in the cylinder. It's made from alloy steel for strength and durability.
3. Piston Skirt: The lower part of the piston that fits into the cylinder bore, providing stability and helping to
maintain alignment within the cylinder.
4. Piston Head (Crown): The top surface of the piston that comes into contact with the combustion gases.
5. Connecting Rod: Connects the piston to the crankshaft, converting the reciprocating motion of the piston
into rotational motion. It's made from cast aluminum alloy or forged steel.
6. Piston Bearings: Located at the points where the pivotal rotation occurs, they reduce friction and allow
smoother rotation, reducing energy consumption.
7. Connecting Rod Bolt: Holds the connecting rod to the crankshaft, ensuring the transfer of motion and
withstanding the mechanical stress of the rod movements.

These components work together to ensure the engine operates efficiently, withstanding the high forces and
temperatures encountered during operation.

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 II. Piston Diagnosis and Inspection
Piston failures in late-model engines are relatively uncommon thanks to computerized engine controls that
keep a close watch on the air/fuel mixture, and knock sensors that back off spark timing advance if detonation
is detected. Pistons are also lasting longer because many engines now come factory-equipped with stronger
hypereutectic alloy pistons that can withstand higher operating temperatures, or even forged pistons. Some
pistons also have a factory anti-scuff coating on the skirt to prevent damage if the engine overheats or runs low
on oil.

Yet in spite of these things, pistons do sometimes fail. The symptoms of a piston failure can include engine
noise (rattling or knocking noises while the engine is idling), oil burning, misfiring and loss of power.

If the Check Engine light is on and you find a misfire code for a specific cylinder, and the engine is suffering
any or all of the above symptoms, it may be a clue that you’re dealing with a mechanical problem rather than a
fuel or ignition problem. Misfires can be caused by a variety of problems, including a dirty or dead fuel injector,
a bad spark plug or plug wire, or a bad ignition coil on a coil-on-plug or multi-coil distributorless ignition system.
But a fuel or ignition problem won’t cause engine noise or blue smoke in the exhaust.

Loss of compression also can cause a misfire and a loss of power. A compression loss can occur if the engine
has a burned exhaust valve, a bent valve, weak or broken valve springs, a blown head gasket, a rounded cam
lobe — or a bad piston. If a compression test shows little or no compression in a cylinder, and a leakdown test
reveals compression is being lost into the crankcase and not out the intake or exhaust ports, chances are the
piston has a hole in it or is badly cracked. Unless you have a bore scope (a fiber-optic tool that lets you peer
inside the cylinder with a small probe inserted through the spark plug hole), the cylinder head will have to come
off the engine so you can inspect the piston.

If the engine is burning oil and there is blue smoke in the exhaust, the problem could be worn valve guides
and valve guide seals, worn or broken piston rings, or even a cracked piston.

1. Diagnosing a Burned Piston

If the top of the piston has a melted appearance, or it has a hole burned through
the top, the piston has been running way too hot. Preignition and/or detonation
have destroyed the piston. Aluminum melts when combustion temperatures get
too high, so don’t blame the piston. The fault is whatever created too much heat
in the combustion chamber.

One of the most likely causes of a burned piston is a dirty fuel injector that is
running way too lean. If you found any trouble codes such as a P0171 or P0174
that indicate a lean fuel condition on the same cylinder bank as the bad piston,
bingo, the engine likely has a dirty injector on that cylinder, and possibly dirty
injectors on the other cylinders, too. The only way to know for sure would be to pull all the injectors, clean them
on a fuel injector cleaning machine, then flow-test all the injectors and compare the results. Replace any injector
that doesn’t flow within 5 to 8% of the rest.

If you don’t have a fuel injector cleaning machine with a flow tester, the next best thing to do would be to
replace the injector on the cylinder with the burned piston, then clean the rest of the injectors once the engine is
back together and running again.

Other conditions that can cause a burned piston include the wrong heat range spark plug (too hot for the
application), over-advanced ignition timing (unlikely with today’s electronic spark controls), possibly a bad knock
sensor that failed to detect detonation, low octane gasoline (bad gas that doesn’t meet a minimum octane rating
of 87, or someone using 87 octane gas in a high compression engine that requires premium fuel), or anything
Page | 2
that would cause the engine to run hotter than normal (low coolant level, bad thermostat, weak water pump,
cooling fan that isn’t working, or a clogged catalytic converter that is creating a restriction and backing up heat
in the engine).

On engines that are turbocharged or supercharged, too much boost pressure and/or not enough fuel can
burn a piston very quickly. Check the operation of the wastegate and boost control system. If the turbo system
has been tweaked to deliver higher-than-stock boost pressure for more power, the turbo may be pushing more
air into the engine than the stock injectors can handle, causing the fuel mixture to lean out and burn the piston.

Just remember, if an engine burned a piston, it did so for a reason. So until that reason has been diagnosed
and repaired, it’s pointless to replace the piston.

2. Cracked Piston

Detonation is the most likely cause of a cracked or broken

piston. The hammer-like blows of detonation can literally beat a
piston to death. The causes are similar to those that can burn a
piston: a lean fuel mixture, over-advanced spark timing, a bad
knock sensor, low octane fuel or anything that causes the engine
to run hotter than normal.

Loss of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a common cause of

detonation (spark knock) because EGR has a cooling effect on
combustion temperatures. Consequently, if the EGR system isn’t working, combustion temperatures may exceed
the octane rating of the fuel causing the air/fuel mixture to ignite spontaneously before the spark plug fires. The
knock sensor should detect the rattling noises produced by detonation and signal the PCM to back off spark
timing. But if the knock sensor isn’t working, or the PCM fails to retard timing, detonation may continue unchecked
and eventually damage the engine. Possible causes for loss of EGR include a bad EGR valve, loss of vacuum
to the EGR valve (due to a leaky hose or EGR vacuum solenoid) or carbon buildup under the EGR that restricts
exhaust flow back into the intake manifold. If you suspect an EGR problem, check the operation of the system
and remove the EGR valve to inspect the intake manifold passageways for carbon buildup (clean as needed).

3. Scuffed Piston

Scuffed pistons can be caused by too much heat in the combustion

chamber, the engine overheating or inadequate lubrication. The piston-to-
cylinder clearances in most late-model engines are much less than they used
to be to reduce piston rock and noise. So if the piston or cylinder gets too
hot, the clearance goes away and you get metal-to-metal contact. That’s
where the anti-scuff skirt coatings on some late-model pistons come into play.
The coating provides a layer of protection that can reduce scuffing under
adverse operating conditions. It can’t protect the piston indefinitely, but it can
provide a degree of protection that is nonexistent with a standard uncoated piston.

In cases where piston scuffing is lubrication related, the cause may be a low oil level (due to a lack of
maintenance or oil leaks), low oil pressure (the pistons and rings rely on splash lubrication, so reduced oil flow
due to a worn oil pump is a possibility) or poor oil quality.

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 When diagnosing a scuffed piston, note where the piston is scuffed. If the cause is overheating, the scuffing
will mostly be on the upper ring lands and on the sides near the wrist pins. There also may be oil carbon and
lacquer burned onto the underside of the piston indicating it got too hot. Scuff marks on the lower skirt area often
indicate a lack of lubrication (check the oil pump and pickup screen). Scuff marks on the edges or corners of the
thrust sides of the piston may be the result of bore distortion. Scuffing on both thrust sides would indicate binding
in the wrist pin.

As before, it’s a waste of time to replace a scuffed piston until the cause has been determined and corrected.

4. Scored Piston

Grooves or scratches down the side of a piston and/or dents, dings and marks on
the top of a piston are the result of dirt or debris getting into the cylinder. Chances are
more than one piston will be affected. The cause could be a missing or ill-fitting air
filter. On a turbocharged engine, check the turbo compressor wheel for damage that
may have thrown shrapnel into the engine.

Vertical scratches on the piston rings would also tell you that dirt and debris have
been getting into the engine. If the damage is mostly on the top ring, check the engine’s
air filter and intake system. If the scratches are on the oil ring, the contamination is in the crankcase. Check the
PCV system and crankcase breather for leaks.

5. Damaged Piston Ring Lands or Grooves

Too much heat is the most likely cause of ring land or groove damage. This problem most often occurs in the
top ring groove because it is exposed to the most heat from the combustion chamber. Anything that causes the
fuel mixture to run lean or the engine to run hot can be a contributing factor.

On many late-model pistons, the top ring groove is very close to the piston crown to reduce emissions. The
crevice between the top ring and the piston crown can trap unburned fuel, increasing hydrocarbon emissions.
Also, many pistons are shorter to reduce weight, so the ring pack is positioned further up on the piston body.

The top ring on many engines today runs at close to 600° F, while the second ring is seeing temperatures of
300° F or less. Ordinary cast iron compression rings that work great in a stock 350 Chevy V8 can’t take this kind
of heat. That’s why many late-model engines have steel or ductile iron top rings. Steel is more durable than plain
cast iron or even ductile iron, and is required for high output, high load applications including turbocharged and
supercharged engines as well as diesels and performance engines. Some piston manufacturers also anodize or
coat the ring grooves to improve piston and ring durability.

6. Destroyed Piston

If a piston has shattered and self-destructed, it likely hit a valve. On interference engines, there’s not enough
clearance between the piston and valves to avoid direct contact if the timing belt breaks. In most instances, the
pistons will survive a timing belt failure but bend the valves. But, in some instances, the sudden impact of a valve
against a piston is more than the casting can handle, causing the piston to shatter like a hand grenade. The
debris goes into the crankcase and may cause additional damage to the bearings or other pistons.

This kind of piston failure is really bad news because the engine must be torn down and thoroughly cleaned
to flush out all the debris before it can be rebuilt. A piston can also shatter if an engine sucks a valve or the head
breaks off of a valve. A dropped valve can occur if the valve spring keeper fails or pulls through (sometimes as
a result of over-revving the engine), or the valve spring fails and allows the keeper to pop loose.

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 If the head of a valve has broken off, the cause is often a lack of concentricity between the valve guide and
seat. This causes the valve to flex slightly as it closes, and eventually forms fatigue cracks that lead to valve
breakage and failure.

Forged pistons are much more ductile than cast pistons, and are much less likely to shatter if they hit
something in the cylinder. But no piston can survive a valve or valve head dropping into a cylinder.

7. Piston Wrist Pin Damage

Wrist pins can wear out prematurely if the pistons are not receiving enough splash lubrication, but they can
also fail as a result of over-revving the engine or too much rod flex. A worn crankshaft thrust bearing that allows
too much back-and-forth movement of the crankshaft can flex and twist the rods as the engine runs. Over time
this can damage the wrist pins, and cause fatigue cracks to form in the rods, which may lead to rod breakage
and failure.

Sometimes a wrist pin will work loose and chew into the cylinder with each stroke of the piston. The underlying
cause here may have been improper installation of the retaining lock rings on a full floating wrist pin, improper
fit or installation of a pressed-in wrist pin, a twisted or bent connecting rod, excessive thrust end play in the
crankshaft or taper wear or misalignment in the crankshaft rod journal.

8. Piston Noise

Piston slap is a classic symptom of too much clearance between the pistons and cylinder bores. Piston slap
is most audible when a cold engine is first started because clearances are greatest then. This doesn’t necessarily
mean the pistons are worn, because some new engines will slap a bit when first started. But if the slap doesn’t
go away as the engine warms up, it usually means the pistons and/or cylinders are worn. A compression test
and/or leakdown test can be used to confirm the diagnosis.

The wrist pins on many pistons are offset slightly so as to load the piston slightly to one side. This reduces
piston noise as the piston approaches top dead center (TDC) on its compression stroke, then passes over TDC
and starts down on its power stroke.

III. Piston Crown Diagosis

The piston crown is the top surface of the piston that contacts the combustion gases, experiencing high
temperatures and pressures.

The piston crown is a critical component of an engine's combustion chamber, playing a vital role in the
engine's performance. It is the top surface of the piston that comes into contact with the combustion gases, which
are subjected to high temperatures and pressures during the engine's operation. The piston crown is typically
flat but may be shaped to suit the combustion chamber's needs. It can be dished or domed to control the
combustion space, and recesses can be machined into the crown for valve heads. The piston crown's design
and material are crucial for its ability to withstand the high forces and temperatures encountered during engine
operation.

The piston crown's temperature is a key factor in engine performance, as it significantly impacts the engine's
efficiency and durability. Accurate measurement and control of the piston crown temperature are essential for
optimal engine performance and to prevent potential damage. Factors such as engine operating conditions, load,
speed, fuel type, combustion characteristics, ignition timing, air-fuel ratio, combustion chamber design, and
cooling system efficiency all influence the piston crown temperature.

Inspect for damage, perform a compression test, and check for oil consumption.

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 Diagnosing issues with the piston crown involves a combination of visual inspection, performance tests, and
checks for oil consumption. Here are some key steps to consider:

1. Visual Inspection: Look for signs of damage such as scuffing, erosion, or cracks on the piston crown.
These can indicate overheating or wear.
2. Compression Test: A low compression reading in a cylinder can suggest worn piston rings or a
damaged piston crown.
3. Oil Consumption: Excessive oil consumption, especially when the engine is running, can be a sign
of piston ring damage or a cracked piston crown.
4. Exhaust Smoke: Blue or grey smoke from the exhaust can indicate burning oil due to a damaged
piston crown.
5. Piston Slap Noise: A slapping noise when the engine is accelerated can be caused by a damaged
piston skirt or a cracked piston crown.

If you suspect a piston crown issue, it's crucial to address the problem promptly to prevent further damage
to the engine. Consult with a professional mechanic for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate repairs.

IV. Scavenging Space

The scavenging space is a critical component of marine diesel engines,

responsible for removing exhaust gases and introducing fresh air for combustion.

The scavenging space, also known as the scavenging chamber, is an integral

part of two-stroke marine diesel engines. It plays a crucial role in the efficient
removal of exhaust gases from the combustion chamber and the subsequent
intake of fresh air for the next cycle. The scavenging process is essential for
achieving complete combustion and ensuring engine power output.

The scavenging space is formed by the geometry of the cylinder liner and the piston crown, and it acts as a
cooling medium for the engine components. As fresh air enters the space, it absorbs heat from the cylinder walls,
piston crown, and other parts, helping to maintain optimum operating temperatures.

Troubleshooting potential issues such as scavenge fires, air leakage, deposits, and pressure irregularities is
vital to ensure the efficient operation of the engine. Regular inspection, maintenance, and adherence to
manufacturer guidelines are key to maximizing the lifespan and performance of marine diesel engines by
addressing scavenging space-related concerns.

The scavenging space inspection is a vital maintenance procedure for marine engines, ensuring the engine
operates efficiently and reliably. This inspection involves examining critical components like pistons, piston rings,
and cylinder liners through scavenge ports, which provides valuable insight into the condition of the engine. By
thoroughly inspecting these parts, engineers can detect early signs of leakage from pistons or cylinder covers
and identify wear issues, such as frictional damage or corrosion on the liner surface. Early detection of these
issues helps prevent costly repairs, maintains engine performance, and ensures the longevity of the vessel’s
main engine.

Scavenge space inspection is a crucial process for maintaining the health of marine engines. It involves a
series of steps to inspect the piston, piston rings, cylinder liner, and other components through scavenge ports.
Here's a summary of the key steps involved in the scavenge space inspection procedure:

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 1. Obtain Necessary Permissions: Ensure the vessel has permission from port authorities or the bridge
for main engine immobilization.

2. Engage Turning Gear: Turn the engine to bring the piston under inspection to BDC (Bottom Dead
Center).

3. Ventilate and Clean: Ventilate the area and clean the scavenge port inspection covers and scavenge air
receiver covers.

4. Inspect Piston and Cylinder Liner: Check for water or fuel on top of the piston, which indicates
leakages, and inspect the condition of the cylinder liner wall through scavenge ports using a mirror.

5. Check Piston Rings: Move the piston up and down to ensure that rings are freely moving in the piston
grooves. Use a wooden stick to press the rings and check for any broken rings.

6. Measure Clearance: Measure the clearance between the ring groove and rings.

7. Inspect Piston Rod: Move the piston further upwards to check the condition of the piston rod.

8. Visually Inspect Stuffing Box: Check the condition of the stuffing box.

It's important to note that scavenge inspection should be carried out with the scavenge space "dirty" before
cleaning and with the main lube oil pumps running. Additionally, the inspection should be done by experienced
personnel, and all pockets should be emptied of contents to ensure no tools are lost. Protective clothing and
safety lamps should be worn during the inspection.

For a detailed inspection, it's recommended to use a feeler gauge to measure the clearance of piston rings
from grooves, a Vernier gauge for measuring CL grooves, and a small camera to fit inside the liner scavenge
ports. Close-up photos should be taken for each unit, and the inspection should be reported with forms provided
in the manual.

Regular scavenge space inspections are essential for early detection of wear mechanisms and to prevent
costly and catastrophic damages that may compromise the safety of the vessel

V. Scavenger Receiver

The scavenging receiver is a large, pressurized storage tank that holds

and delivers scavenge air, which is essential for the two-stroke engine
cycle.

The scavenging receiver is a critical component in marine engines,

playing a key role in the two-stroke engine cycle. It acts as a reservoir,
storing clean, cool air under pressure and releasing it at the right moment to ensure proper combustion of fuel/air
ratio during the compression stage. The receiver is bolted to the cylinder frame and collects scavenge air after it
has passed through the cooler, water mist catcher, and non-return valves. It communicates with the cylinder
frame through circular openings and is equipped with auxiliary blowers and a safety valve to maintain proper
operation.

The scavenging process is vital for expelling combustion products and replacing them with fresh air from the
scavenging receiver. The scavenging ports are angled to the radial direction, usually at 20°, to facilitate the swirl
motion and centrifugal force that push fresh air toward the liner walls while expelling hot gases. The scavenging
efficiency decreases with engine load but remains high enough for efficient combustion.

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 Maintaining the scavenging receiver in top condition is crucial for the smooth operation of the engine. Regular
inspections are necessary to ensure there are no leaks or internal damage that could compromise the pressure
or cleanliness of the air. Non-return valves must be checked for integrity, and the receiver's safety valve should
be periodically tested for proper functioning.

Scavenge inspection is a critical process for detecting leakages and ensuring the condition of the main propulsion
engine's components.

Scavenging receiver inspection is a crucial part of maintaining the health of a marine engine's main propulsion
system. The inspection involves checking for leakages from the piston and cylinder cover, inspecting the piston,
piston rings, and cylinder liner through scavenge ports, and ensuring the proper functioning of the scavenge air
receiver. Here's a summary of the key steps and checks involved in scavenging receiver inspection:

1. Preparation: Ensure the vessel has permission from port authorities or bridge for main engine
immobilization. Engage turning gear to the main engine and remove scavenge port inspection covers
and scavenge air receiver covers.
2. Ventilation and Cleaning: Ventilate and clean the area around the scavenge ports.
3. Piston Inspection: Turn the engine to bring the piston under inspection to BDC (Bottom Dead Center).
Check for water or fuel on top of the piston, which indicates leakages.
4. Cylinder Liner Wall: Use a mirror to inspect the condition of the cylinder liner wall through scavenge
ports.
5. Piston Rings: Move the piston up and down to ensure that rings are freely moving in the piston grooves.
Use a wooden stick to press the rings and check for any broken rings.
6. Clearance Measurement: Measure the clearance between the ring groove and rings.
7. Piston Rod Inspection: Move the piston further upwards to check the condition of the piston rod.
8. Stuffing Box: Visually inspect the condition of the stuffing box.

It's important to note that scavenge inspection should be carried out with the engine running and the
scavenge air receiver in operation. The inspection should be thorough, checking for any signs of wear, damage,
or leakage that could compromise the engine's performance. Regular inspections can help prevent costly repairs
and ensure the safety of the vessel.

VI. Main Engine Performance Diagnosis

In order to get the best out of marine engines, it is very important to monitor their performances and take
measures to achieve an efficient combustion. Ensuring this will not only reduce generation of pollution from
engines but also the overall operating cost of the ship.

To check the performance of a marine main engine, several methods can be employed to monitor and
measure the engine's efficiency and combustion. Here are some key methods:

1. Mechanical Peak Pressure Gauge: This method is used in 4-stroke generator engines to measure the
peak pressure generated during combustion and the compression pressure of the cylinder when not
firing. Variations in peak pressures can indicate faulty units or the need for adjustments.
2. Indicator Card Measurement: Utilizing indicator drum and plotting graphs on cards, this method helps
determine the compression pressure, peak pressure, and engine power.
3. Digital Pressure Monitoring (DPI): DPI provides a graphical representation of the variation in cylinder
performance, allowing for real-time monitoring and interpretation.
4. Intelligent Combustion Monitoring (ICM): ICM measures real-time in-cylinder pressure in all engine
cylinders, offering data processing tools for evaluating performance and identifying malfunctions.

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 5. Monitoring of Engine Control Parameters: Keeping track of fuel injection timing, exhaust valve timing,
and other parameters helps maintain efficient combustion.
6. Log Book Monitoring: Comparing log book records for engine room machinery can reveal variations in
engine parameters over time.
7. Engine Emission: The color and nature of the exhaust smoke can indicate issues in the combustion
chamber.

These methods provide a comprehensive approach to monitoring marine main engine performance,
ensuring efficient operation and reducing pollution and operating costs.

VII. Crankshaft Deflection

Crankshaft deflections marine Change in distance between crank

webs, measured during one rotation of the crankshaft. Crankshaft
deflections are an indirect indication of the crankshaft loading condition.
Crankshaft deflections are measured to detect the misalignment of main
bearings. The misalignment occurs due to bearing wear or deflection of
the crankshaft. The horizontal and the vertical misalignment are checked.

•Indications:
1. Bearing temperature increases
2. Damaged bearings
• Conditions under which crankshaft deflection to be taken:
1. Ship should be afloat (i.e. not in dry dock)
2. Calm weather
3. Comparison should be made under same temperature and loaded condition
• Procedure:
The crankcase alignment is checked using a dial gauge. The gauge is fitted between the adjacent webs,
opposite the crankpin at half of the diameter from the shaft centre. The dial gauge measures the crank web
spread at different angular position of the shaft.

• The Need to Measure Deflection

If you remember about the construction of the crankshaft from the previous article, you will recall that apart
from other parts, it consists of crank-webs, crank-pins and journals along its length. The weight of the crankshaft
is supported by the main bearings at the journals. Over a period of time as the engine keeps running, the wear
in the bearings may not be uniform across the entire length of the crankshaft. This means that the crankshaft will
not remain in the initial straight line but will get bent either upward or downwards to a slight degree which may
not be visible with the naked eye but could be sufficient to cause dangerous levels of fatigue in the crank-webs.
Hence there is the requirement of measuring crankshaft deflections at regular intervals to ensure that the
alignment of the shaft is within permitted limits and these deflections can be measured as described in the next
section.

• How to take Crankshaft Deflections? [https://youtu.be/maiZqJppBz4]

The figure shown below gives an idea of which measurement is taken to find
the deflections of the crankshaft. As you can see from the picture a dial gauge is
inserted between the crank-webs to find out the distance between them. If the
deflection is measured after the specified interval, it is necessary that it is taken at the
same point otherwise the reading will not give a real reflection about the degree of
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deflection. Normally a center punch is used to make markings so that each time the deflection is taken at the
same point.

Apart from using the same point on the crank-web for measuring deflection there are other factors which
need to be kept in mind and these include load on the ship, trim, hog, sag etc. Ideally the deflection needs to be
taken at four points of the crank namely top, bottom and the two sides. In actual practice however the bottom
reading is not taken due to chances of fouling by the connecting rod and instead reading is taken on both sides
of the bottom position, thereby in total 5 readings are taken from each crank-web at the positions shown by the
following figure.

• Importance of Crankshaft Deflection Measurements

1. Early Problem Detection: Monitoring crankshaft deflection allows for early detection of mechanical
issues or misalignments in the engine, preventing them from escalating into major problems that could
lead to engine failure.
2. Safety Assurance: A properly aligned crankshaft is essential for the safety of the vessel and its crew.
Correct alignment reduces the risk of catastrophic engine failures that could result in accidents at sea.
3. Enhanced Engine Efficiency: Correcting misalignments revealed by deflection measurements can
significantly improve engine efficiency, reducing fuel consumption and environmental impact.
4. Cost Savings: Identifying and rectifying issues early on can save substantial repair and replacement
costs in the long run, making crankshaft deflection measurements a cost-effective maintenance practice.

• How to Interpret Marine Engine Crankshaft Deflection Measurements

Crankshaft deflection measurements are usually expressed as a table or a graph showing the values of
deflection at different angular positions of the crankshaft for each unit.

The values are compared with the manufacturer’s specifications and limits to assess the condition of the
crankshaft.

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 1. Establish Baseline Measurements: Before
interpreting any measurements, it’s essential to
establish baseline readings for the engine when it’s in
perfect condition. These baseline measurements act as
a reference for identifying deviations and can be found
in the engine Technical File, under Shop Trial
Measurements.

2. Examine Measurement Patterns: Crankshaft

deflection measurements are usually taken at multiple
points along the crankshaft’s length. Analyze these
measurements to identify any recurring patterns or
trends. Irregularities may indicate misalignments or
mechanical issues.
a) Uniformity: This is when all units show similar
values of deflection within acceptable limits. This
indicates that the crankshaft is in good condition and
aligned properly.
b) Sagging: This is when one or more units show
higher values of deflection at either top or bottom
positions, indicating that the crankshaft is bending
downwards due to gravity or load.
c) Hogging: This is when one or more units show
higher values of deflection at either top or bottom
positions, indicating that the crankshaft is bending
upwards due to gravity or load.
d) Twisting: This is when one or more units show
higher values of deflection at either fuel pump side or
exhaust side positions, indicating that the crankshaft is
twisting along its axis due to torsional forces.
e) Ovality: This is when one or more units show
higher values of deflection at all positions, indicating
that the crankpin or journal has become oval-
shaped due to excessive wear or damage.
3. Consider Operational Conditions: It’s vital to take into account the engine’s operational conditions
during measurements. Factors like load, temperature, and RPM can influence deflection readings.
Comparing measurements under different conditions can provide valuable insights.

For example, the crankshaft expands and contracts with changes in temperature, which can affect the
deflection values. Therefore, it is recommended to measure the deflection at a consistent temperature,
preferably when the engine is cold or after a short warm-up period.

Moreover, the draught of the vessel can cause bending or twisting of the hull, which can affect the alignment of
the engine and the crankshaft. Therefore, it is recommended to measure the deflection at a consistent draught,
preferably when the vessel is fully loaded or unloaded.

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 4. Consult Manufacturer Guidelines: Manufacturers of marine engines often provide guidelines for
interpreting crankshaft deflection measurements specific to their engine models. These guidelines
should be consulted and followed diligently.
a) If they are within tolerance, then no action is required.
b) If they are out of tolerance, then corrective action is needed.

VIII. Oil Mist Detector

An Oil Mist Detector (OMD) is a
safety device used to detect the
presence of oil mist in the
crankcase of an engine, which can
be a hazard for crankcase
explosions.

An Oil Mist Detector (OMD) is a

critical safety device installed in
marine engines and industrial
applications to detect the presence
of oil mist within the crankcase. This
device is essential for preventing
crankcase explosions by monitoring
the environment inside the crankcase space of an internal combustion engine. The OMD works by continuously
sampling the air and measuring the density of oil mist using a high-sensitivity light scatter optical sensing system.
If the oil mist concentration exceeds the lower explosion limit, an alarm is triggered, and the engine may be
slowed down or shut down to prevent accidents.
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 The OMD typically consists of a sensor unit that detects oil mist and an alarm unit that alerts the crew. The
sensor unit uses a photoelectric measuring principle to detect oil mist, which contains a light source that emits a
beam of light and a detector that measures the amount of light scattered by oil droplets in the air. When oil mist
is present, it passes through the sensor unit and scatters the light beam, which is detected by the detector. The
detector transmits a signal to the alarm unit, which then sounds an alarm to notify the crew of the presence of
an oil mist.

Regular maintenance, proper installation, and the effectiveness of OMDs are crucial for keeping marine
engines safe and running smoothly. OMDs are a key component in enhancing safety and reducing the risk of
engine room fires and explosions.

Page | 13
IX. Boilers

A boiler is a type of closed vessel which converts fluid

into high pressure vapor by heating to generate power. The
boiler converts the energy taken from fuel such as coal, nuclear
fuel and natural gas to convert water into steam.

Boilers are closed vessel which is used for heating

water or other liquid and then vapour or steam are generated,
steam are super heated or may be of any combination under
vacuum or pressure for using them by the application of their energy from combustion of fuel from nuclear or
electrical energy.The vaporised or heated fluid in the boiler are used for various of applications or process like
water heating, boiler based power generation, sanitation cooking etc.

Boilers are pressure vessel which is generally made up of steel. Due to corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking, stainless steel of austenitic types is not uses in the wetted part of the boilers. Generally ferritic stainless
steel is used for superheated sections which are not exposed to the boiling water.

• Working Principle of a Boiler

The working principle of a boiler is same as the water is in a closed vessel due to which it converts into
the steam. The converted steam possesses high pressure kinetic energy. The water contained in a boiler is
converted into steam due to the heat which is generated by burning of fuels like coal, nuclear fuel, etc. The high
pressure steam passes through the tubes and exits from the boiler into the turbine which rotates the turbine
along with the generator to produce electricity.

• Parts of Boilers

Following are the main parts of boiler:

1. Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger are that components which are used for transferring the heat which is produced by
burners in combustion chamber to the boiler. Heat exchangers are made up of several of elements like bundles
of steel tubes, copper lines or cast iron. The heat exchanger element should be such that they can withstand
with high temperatures, efficiently transfer heat and last a long time.

2. Controls

System controls enable user to set the temperature of water, fuel and air supply mixtures, ignition and
internal pressure. They can regulate the frequency of burner fires, rate at which fuel used quality of mixture of
oxygen and fuel. They plays an important role in safety system of boiler. They reduce the risk of damage to a
higher extent.

High pressure, uncontrolled steam are highly dangerous and they need to be maintained well by the
system control for keeping the boiler safe by ensuring that the internal pressure should be in limits, water should
be within safe temperature range.Pressure control device: Pressure control device are used to control the boiler
pressure without which an operator is required for manually adjust boiler firing rate for maintaining system
pressure and without lifting the safety valve or tripping the boiler.

Page | 14
 High temperature or high pressure cut out switch: It is a simple temperature switch or pressure switch
(temperature switch for hot water boilers and pressure switch for steam boilers) which is used to put the boiler
out of commission.

3. Burner

The burner are that part of a boiler where fuel source mixes with air and combusts, then hot combustion
gases enter the boiler and serves as heat exchanger. The correct amount of combustion air is necessary for
efficient and clean combustion therefore burner should be kept in good working condition. Less amount of air do
not allow complete combustion while huge amount of air will results in loss of exhaust gases.

4. Combustion Chamber

In combustion chamber fuel is burned for heating the water. The combustion chamber has burners and
is designed for providing safe area for high temperature combustion of volatile fuel. Combustion chamber is
generally made up of cast iron or steel or metal which can cope with high temperatures. Combustion chamber
need to be serviced on regular basis because older units can crack or corroded which is unsafe for use.

5. Exhaust Stack

Exhaust stack are also known as flue or chimney and are designed for safely expel spent fuel away from
the exterior of building. They look like a brick built chimney or may be series of metal pipes. They must be
constructed such that harmful gases like carbon monoxide divert away and do not expel near doors and windows.

6. Supply Lines & Return Lines

They lead from boiler and they deliver steam or heated water at the distribution points like radiators or
heaters. When steams and waters cools then return lines brought water back to boiler and there water is again
heated before sent out again.

7. Circulator Pump

Circulator pumps are that component of boilers which pushes hot water out via supply lines to the
distribution lines or the radiators. Circulator pumps are responsible for bring it back via return lines. Circulator
pumps are very essential component for the boiler therefore they should be well maintained.

8. Backflow Valve

Backflow valve are used as a safety unit and they allow the fluid flow only in single direction.

9. Expansion Tank

It is a small tank which protect boiler from excess pressure and checks its safety with the process.

10. Aquastats

Aquastats in boiler are used for sending correct signal to burner about when to start or stop the process.
According to the temperature of fluid present in boiler they know when to start or stop the process.

11. Auxiliary & Primary Low Water Cut off Switches

These devices are used to determine the low water conditions in boiler whenever these condition arises
they used to initiate master fuel trip for shutting the burner off. If they are cleaned thoroughly on annual basis
then they have 10 years of expected life but if the maintenance is neglected then they need to be replaced very
quickly.

Page | 15
12. Firebox

Firebox are that part of boiler where fuel meets the air and create flame.

13. Refractory

Refractory are those materials which are used for filling any openings or gaps around the fire box which
helps the fire to stay in fire box.

14. Condenser/ Deaerators

Condenser and deaerators tanks are generally used in steam boiler systems only instead of hot oil and
hot water boiler because the fluids are always in the liquid state.

15. Low and High Gas Pressure Switches

These pressure switches are essential for ensuring the gas pressure in the boiler. These switches in the
boiler prevent the boiler to go lean or rich with the gases which can result in explosion or major damage.

16. Water Level Device

Various boilers feed water control system uses different devices for controlling the level of water in the
boiler. From simple on off setup which is run by a switch, level sensing devices are connected with the loop
controller. When a boiler is run without feed water controls then it requires a operator for full time to adjust the
manual valve.

• Different Types of Boilers

A) Based on the Contents in the Tubes B) Based on the Number of Tubes

Fire Tube Boiler Single Tube Boilers

Water Tube Boiler Multi tubular Boiler

C) Based on the Position of the Furnace D) Based on the Axis of the Shell

Internally Fired Boilers Vertical Boilers

Externally Fired Boilers Horizontal Boilers

E) Based on the Methods of Circulation of Water and Steam F) Based on features.

Natural Circulation Boilers Cochran boiler

Forced Circulation Boilers Lamont boiler

Loeffler boiler

Babcock and Wilcox boiler

Lancashire boiler

Locomotive boiler

Page | 16
 A. Based on the Contents in the Tube
1) Fire Tube Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

The fire tube boilers are the types of boilers in which hit gases produced from heat source flows through
pipes with water filled drum. In this type of boiler, the amount of water present in the boiler is much higher than
the hot gases presented in the tubes. The heat transfers from the hot gas tubes into the water present around
the hot gas tubes and converts it into steam. The fire tube boilers are used for steam locomotive boiler. They are
easy to operate and simple in construction. Types of fire tube boilers-

o Cornish fire tube boiler o Cochran fire tube boiler

o Lancashire fire tube boiler o Scotch marine fire tube boiler
o Locomotive fire tube boiler o Immersion fire tube boiler
o Vertical fire tube boiler
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ They have low maintenance cost. ✓ The limit of operating pressure in fire tube
✓ They are simple in design. boiler is up to 20 bars.
✓ Less skilled operators are required to perform ✓ The efficiency is up to 70%.
operations. ✓ More area is required for a given output.
✓ Feed water treatment is not necessary for fire ✓ The quality of steam is not better in
tube boiler. comparison of water tub e boiler.
✓ Pure feed water is not required to operate fire ✓ Used in small plants.
tube boiler which reduces the cost.
✓ To produce same power output, fire tube boiler
is less costly than water tube

2) Water Tube Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

A water tube boiler is a high-pressure boiler in which water circulates in the tube heated by the fire or hot
gases present in the drum surrounds these tubes. In this type of boiler, fuel burns inside the furnace, creating
the hot gases which convert water into high pressure steam. The steam exits from the steam drum in which
steam water mixture accumulates. In some cases, the steam passes through the tubes becomes superheated
which means water tube boiler can produce both saturated or superheated steam. These types of boilers used
in chemical, process, refining, paper manufacturing and pulp industries. Types of water tube boiler-

o Simple vertical boiler o Babcock and Wilcox boilers

o Stirling boiler
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ The water tube boiler can operate at maximum ✓ It has ahigh maintenance cost and complex
working pressure of 250 bar. design.
✓ It has an overall efficiency is up to 90% with an ✓ A skilled operator is needed for operation.
economizer. ✓ Used in large power plants because it is
✓ Less area is required for a given output. uneconomical in small industries.
✓ Fluctuation of load can be easily handled. ✓ Treatment of feed water is very necessary in a
✓ It has higher steam generation and the quality water tube boiler as small-scale deposits
of steam which is suitable for efficient power present inside the tube can become the cause
generation. of overheating and bursting.
✓ Used in large plants.
✓ Water circulation is in well-defined direction.

Page | 17
 B. Based on the Number of Tubes
1) Single Tube Boiler

This type of boiler contains only one fire tubes or water tubes. Types of single tube boilers-

• Cornish boiler

• Simple vertical boiler

2) Multi Tubular Boiler

This type of boiler contains only one fire tubes or water tubes. Types of single tube boilers-

• Cornish boiler
• Simple vertical boiler

C. Based on the Position of the Furnace

1. Internally Fired Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

In this type of boiler furnace is located inside the boiler drum which means furnace is a part of boiler
structures. Types of internally fired boilers-

• Lancashire boiler • Locomotive boiler

• Cochran boiler

2. Externally Fired Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

In this type of boiler, the furnace is located outside the boiler drum which means furnace is not a part of boiler
structure. Types of externally fired boilers-

• Stirling boiler • Babcock and Wilcox boiler

D. Based on the Axis of the Shell

1. Vertical Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

These are a type of fire tube or water tube boiler in which the axis of the boiler barrel is oriented vertically.
They are used in railway locomotives, road vehicles, steam tractor, etc. Types of vertical boiler

▪ Cochran boiler.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ It has low initial cost because of fewer parts. ✓ Its vertical design limits its work in many
✓ It has low maintenance cost. cases.
✓ Simple in working ✓ It produces limited steam due to limited area.
✓ Easy to install and replace. ✓ The impurities present in this type of boiler
✓ It requires small area on the ground. settle at the bottom and prevents heating.
✓ They have water level tolerance. ✓ The boiler tubes are small.
2. Horizontal Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

These are a type of fire tube or water tube boiler in which the axis of the boiler barrel is oriented horizontally.
Types of horizontal boilers-

• Lancashire boiler • Babcock boiler and Wilcox boiler

• Locomotive boiler
Page | 18
 E. Based on the Method of Circulation of Water and Steam
1. Natural Circulation Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

In this type of boiler, the water circulation takes place naturally by convection currents which develops during
the heating of water. The convection current develops due to difference in density caused by temperature of
water. Types of natural circulation boilers-

• Babcock and Wilcox boiler • Lancashire boiler

2. Forced Circulation Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

In this type of boiler, the circulation is done with the help of boiler driven by the external power. Types of
forced circulation boiler-

• Velox boiler • Loffler boiler

• Lamont boiler

F. Based on the Construction

1. Cochran Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

Cochran Boiler is a type of multi tubular vertical fire tube boiler which has a number of horizontal tubes.
It is the modified form of a simple vertical boiler where the heating surface is increased by means of a number
of fire tubes. The efficiency of this boiler is much better in comparison of the simple vertical boiler.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ Installation cost is low ✓ It has low rate of steam generation.
✓ Less floor area is required. ✓ It is difficult to inspect and maintain.
✓ Easy to operate and handle. ✓ Pressure range is limited.
✓ It is easy to transport Cochran boiler.
✓ All types of fuels are usable.
2. Lamont Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

It is a type of high-pressure water tube which is based on forced circulation in which water circulation
takes place through an external pump through long closely spaced small diameter tubes. In this, the pump is
employed in order to have adequate and positive circulation in steam and hot water boilers.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ High pressure boiler. ✓ Bubble formation takes place at surfaces of
✓ Flexible in design. the tubes which reduces the heat transfer rate
✓ It can be reassembled into natural circulation to the steam.
boiler.
✓ Easy to start.
✓ It has high steam generation capacity near
about 50 tons per hour.
✓ Higher heat transfer rate.

Page | 19
 3. Loeffler Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

It is a type of water tube boiler which has a high-pressure steam generation capacity.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ It has a compact size ✓ Evaporating drum id bulky and costly.
✓ It does not produce much sound. ✓ Bubble formation takes place which creates a
✓ Salt sediment does not deposit at surfaces. problem of heat transfer.

4. Babcock and Wilcox Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

It is a type of horizontal water tube boiler which is also known as longitudinal boiler.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ Higher steam generation capacity. ✓ High maintenance cost.
✓ Easy to repair defects. ✓ Small scale impurities of water may deposit at
✓ It occupies less area. the surface which leads to overheating and
✓ Minimum draught loss inside the furnace. bursting of tubes.
✓ Easy to inspect during operating condition.

5. Lancashire Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

It is a horizontal and stationary type of fire tube boiler which is internally fired. It works on the basis of the
natural circulation.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ High thermal efficiency. ✓ Produces low pressure steam.
✓ Easy to operate. ✓ Grate are aid limited.
✓ Easily meets the load requirement. ✓ Low steam production rate.
✓ Easy to maintain. ✓ It requires more floor space.
✓ Consumption of electricity is low due to natural
circulation.

6. Locomotive Boiler: ( Types of Boilers )

A locomotive boiler is used to create steam from water by with the help of heat energy. It is a multi-tubular,
horizontal drum axis, natural circulation, forced circulation, artificial draft, medium pressure, solid fuel fired fire
tube boiler which has an internal fire furnace.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
✓ It is a portable boiler. ✓ Corrosion and scale formation takes place.
✓ It can handle sudden and demand of ✓ Unable to handle heavy load conditions.
fluctuating loads.
✓ Cost effective.
✓ High steam generation rate.
✓ Compact in size.

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X. International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code)
The International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code) is a comprehensive set of measures
to enhance the security of ships and port facilities, developed in response to the perceived threats to ships and
port facilities in the wake of the 9/11 attacks in the United States.

The ISPS Code is a comprehensive set of measures to enhance the security of ships and port facilities,
developed in response to the perceived threats to ships and port facilities in the wake of the 9/11 attacks.

The International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code is a critical component of maritime security,
designed to enhance the safety of ships and port facilities used in international trade. It was introduced under
SOLAS chapter XI-2 and has been in force since 1 July 2004. The ISPS Code is divided into two parts: Part A,
which outlines mandatory maritime and port security-related requirements, and Part B, which provides
recommendatory guidelines to meet these requirements.

• The main objectives of the ISPS Code are:

1. To establish an international framework for cooperation between governments, agencies, and the
shipping and port industries in assessing and detecting potential security threats.
2. To determine the roles and responsibilities of all parties concerned with safeguarding maritime security
at national, regional, and international levels.
3. To ensure early and efficient exchange of maritime security-related information.
4. To provide a methodology for ship and port security assessments, which facilitates the development of
security plans and procedures.
5. To ensure that adequate and proportionate maritime security measures are in place on board ships and
in ports.

The ISPS Code requires the designation of security officers and personnel on each ship, port facility, and
shipping company. These officers are responsible for assessing and implementing effective security plans to
manage potential security threats.

• Implementation and Compliance

The implementation and compliance of the ISPS Code are critical for the safety and security of maritime
operations. Here are the key aspects of how the ISPS Code is implemented and enforced:

1. Mandatory Requirements: Ships and port facilities must conduct periodic security assessments, develop
security plans, and appoint security officers.
2. Security Levels: Ships and port facilities are assigned security levels based on the risk level they face,
which dictate the security measures to be implemented.
3. Training and Drills: Personnel involved in ship or port operations must undergo training and conduct drills
to ensure preparedness for security incidents.
4. Security Inspections: Ships and port facilities are subject to security inspections and audits to verify
compliance with the ISPS Code.
5. International Cooperation: The ISPS Code requires cooperation between governments, local
administrations, and the shipping and port industries to detect and prevent security threats.
6. Security Certificates: Ships must be issued with a Ship Security Certificate (SSC) indicating compliance
with the ISPS Code.
7. Port Facility Security Plans (PFSP): Port facilities must have an approved PFSP in place.

The ISPS Code is a dynamic and evolving framework that adapts to changing security threats and challenges.
It is a testament to the global commitment to maritime security and the protection of international trade.
Page | 21
XI. Fresh Water Generator
As you all are aware of the fact that freshwater having a lot of uses on board ; it is used on board for
drinking, cooking ,washing ,cooling medium, boilers, tank cleaning etc .And because of all these reasons there
is no wonder why freshwater consumption is very high on board ship. Generally 100 litres are considered as
per day consumption of a man on ship.

It is not recommended to use portable water for boilers from port due to poor quality, so distilled water
generation is unavoidable in ship. The equipment used to generate freshwater on board ship is called fresh water
generator also known as evaporator.

• Principle of fresh water generator

1. Reverse osmosis is normally used in passenger ships where large quantities of water is consumed
.Here I am trying to explain about the working principle of fresh water generator that works under the
principle of distillation which is very common in cargo ships.
2. Distillation is the process of separating freshwater from sea water by boiling sea water in evaporator
and the evaporated vapor gets condensated in the condenser. In ship, boiling of sea water is done by the
use of jacket water which will increase the overall efficiency. But as you know that jacket water with 80
degree cannot boil the sea water at atmospheric pressure; in order to boil sea water at 80 degrees we
need to reduce the atmospheric pressure, which is done by creating a vacuum inside the chamber where
the evaporation is taking place.

Basic principle of all low pressure freshwater generator is that, boiling point of water can be reduced by
reducing the pressure of the atmosphere surrounding it. By maintaining a low pressure, water can be boiled at
low temperatures say 50 degree Celsius. The source of heat for the fresh water generator could be waste heat
rejected by main engine jacket cooling water.

Hence using energy from a heating coil, and by reducing pressure in the evaporator shell, boiling can
takes place at about 40 to 60 degree Celsius. This type of single effect plant is designed to give better economy
than obsolete Boiling Evaporators.

The submerged tube type fresh water generator explained below uses the heat from main engine jacket
cooling water to produce drinkable water by evaporating seawater due to the high vacuum, which enables the
feed water to evaporate at a comparative low temperature. Steam can also be used as a heat source instead of
main engine jacket cooling water.

This type of fresh water generator is based on two sets of shell and tube heat exchangers, one acting as
evaporator or heater and other as condenser.

The combined air/brine ejector creates evaporator chamber vacuum condition by driving sea water pass
through air/brine ejector, and sea water supplied by the ejector pump to be delivered to ejector for taking out the
brine (concentrated seawater) and air. A simple fresh water generator diagram is shown below.

While entering to the evaporator chamber temperature of feed water will be around 50 degree Celsius.
Feed water supply rate to the evaporator is fixed by an orifice fitted at the feed inlet. Because of the vacuum
condition inside evaporator feed water evaporates at this temperature. The water spray and droplets are partly
removed from the vapour by the deflector mounted on top of the evaporator and partly by a build in demister.
The separated water droplets fall back into the brine, which is extracted by the water ejector.

The desalted vapour, which passes through the demister, will come in contact with the condenser, where
it will be condensed by means of incoming cold seawater.

Page | 22
 The distilled water is then taken out by integral freshwater pump (distillate pump) and controlled by
salinometer and solenoid valve. If the salt content of produced water is high, solenoid valve diverts the freshwater
to the shell side of freshwater generator, and issues an alarm signal. In order to get better suction head, distillate
pump is placed at the lowest possible location in the fresh water generator plant. This is because the fresh water
generator shell is at a lower pressure. Distillate pump get maximum net positive suction head with the height of
liquid column in the suction line.

Thermometers are installed for control of seawater to the condenser and jacket cooling water to the
evaporator. These thermometers permit control of both heating and cooling of these units. The salinometer or
salinity indicator is connected to remote alarm so that very high salinity is immediately registered at the engine
control room of the ship.

A detailed line diagram of a tube type fresh water generator on board ship is shown below. Click on the
diagram to enlarge.

Page | 23
 • Types Of Fresh Water Generators

As we have discussed above fresh water generators are

classified based on working principles ie, reverse osmosis type
and Distillate type. Distillate type is again classified based on
the evaporator and condenser structure, ie Plate type and Tube
type fresh water generator.

1. Plate Type Fresh Water Generator

If the condenser and evaporator Heat exchangers of a fresh water generator is composed of plates then
that type of freshwater generator is called Plate type freshwater generator. Main components are condenser and
evaporator heatexchangers, brain air ejectors, sea water pump, Distillate pump, salinometer, Demister, Water
flow meter etc. Below You can see the line diagram.

a) Heat Exchangers: Condenser and evaporators are

corrugated titanium plates. The plates are corrugated
with horizontal or chevron pattern corrugations which
will help to increase the heat exchange surface .
b) Brain Air Ejectors: It is used to remove air and brain from
the chamber which helps in maintaining the vacuum.
c) Sea water and distillate pump: Both are centrifugal pumps. Distillate pump help to pump out the
freshwater from condenser and seawater pump supply sea water to condenser and evaporator.
d) Demister: Demister help to remove the carry over of sea water droplets and water spray. It is made of
layered knitted wire of monel metal.
e) Salinometer: Check the salinity of the water. Three way valve is controlled by the salinometer as shown
in fig. If the salinity is high, water goes back to the evaporator inlet.(Salinity usually max 10ppm)

Page | 24
 Main Engine jacket water passes through the evaporator at 80 degree. Feed sea water enters the
evaporator through the orifice at the feed inlet. Due to low pressure in the chamber, sea water boils and get
converted to steam. The carry over water droplet and water spray is removed by Demister. The
separated water droplets gets collected as brain which is extracted by brain ejector. The steam then enters into
the condenser, where it gets cooled down to form fresh water. Distillate pump help to pump out this fresh water
from the condenser.

2. Tube Type Fresh Water Generator

Working and principle of tube type fresh water generator is same as plate type. Only difference in instead of
plates, condenser and evaporators are tubes. A typical line diagram of tube type freshwater generator is given
below.

• Materials for Fresh Water Generators

The shell is usually fabricated steel (or non-ferrous metal like cupro-nickels) which has been shot
blasted then coated with some form of protective. One type of coating is sheet rubber which is rolled and
bonded to the plate then hardened afterwards by heat treatment. The important points about protective coatings
are:

• They must be inert and prevent corrosion.

• They must resist the effect of acid cleaning and water treatment chemicals
• They must have a good bond with the metal
Heat exchangers use aluminium brass tubes and muntz netal tube plate in the case of tube type fresh
water generator. For plate type, titanium plates are used for condenser and evaporator. Demister is made of
layered knitted wire of monel metal.

• Operation

Extreme care must be taken during the operation of fresh water generator onboard ships. Operate all the
valves gradually. Sudden opening and closing of valves may result in thermal shock to the main engine. Also
make sure that distillate pump never runs dry.

Page | 25
 • Fresh water Generator Starting Procedure

1. Make sure seawater ejector pump suction, discharge and overboard valves are open. Start the ejector
pump. Seawater pressure at the air ejector must be 3 bar or more.
2. Wait for vacuum to build up inside fresh water generator shell. (About 92 % vacuum).
3. Open the feed water valve to feed seawater to the evaporator. Adjust the feed water pressure. Normally
marking is provided on the pressure gauge for desired feed water pressure.
4. Open main engine jacket cooling water inlet and outlet to the evaporator gradually.
5. Open the air vent clock at the top of the evaporator to make sure the evaporator is filled with jacket
cooling water. Air must be purged out if any.
6. Switch on the salinity alarm panel for measuring purity of the freshwater produced.
7. There will be a sight glass provided at the suction line for the distillate pump. Make sure condensed water
is coming to the suction line. Now start the distillate pump and open discharge valve to lead generated
water to specified storage tanks.
8. Do checks While Running Fresh water Generator
9. Through the sight glass provided in the evaporator shell, observe flashing of water.
10. Also check for the brine level inside. It should not be too high or too low.
11. Shell temperature must be around 50 deg cel.
12. Make sure shell vacuum is more than 90% from the vacuum gauge.
13. Check seawater inlet and outlet temperature to the condenser.
14. Ensure seawater pressure at air ejector inlet more than 3 bars.
15. Check for distillate pump pressure and water flow meter.
16. Check salinity of fresh water produced.
17. Check level and flow of dosing chemical.
18. Check ampere of ejector pump and distillate pump motor.

• Regulating the Capacity of Fresh water Generator

Capacity of a fresh water generator means the quantity of fresh water produced by it per day. The capacity
of fresh water generator can be varied by reducing or increasing the amount of jacket cooling water to the
evaporator. The quantity of jacket cooling water to the evaporator can be adjusted by adjusting the bypass valve
provided. When the temperature of jacket cooling water is comparatively low, the quantity to the evaporator to
be increased a bit. At the same time cooling seawater pressure to the condenser also to be regulated accordingly.

During very low seawater temperatures, evaporation temperature can falls to a lower value. In that case,
adjust vacuum adjusting valve to control vacuum inside the shell. Cooling seawater quantity to the condenser
also can be reduced to increase the evaporator temperature. During high seawater temperatures, evaporation
temperature can go up. In that case, increase the quantity of seawater to the condenser for reducing evaporation
temperature.

Too high evaporation temperature causes scale formation in the heat exchanger. On the other hand, too
low evaporation temperature results in seawater carry over which increases salinity of fresh water produced.

The distillate pump discharge to be throttled so that pump should not run dry. The rate of distillate pump
discharge and rate fresh water produced in the condenser should match. When distillate pump is not able to
extract the freshwater at the rate of production, level of freshwater increases in the condenser and effective
cooling area of the condenser reduces. This finally results in reduced evaporation quantity.

Page | 26
 • Fresh water Generator Stopping Procedure

When ship approaches port, shallow water, etc. it is desirable to stop the fresh water generator. This is
because the seawater may contain harmful bacteria which can enter the freshwater produced. Operation of
freshwater should be carried out in consultation with bridge watch keeper. Following procedure may be adopted
for stopping fresh water generator.

1. Slowly open bypass valve for main engine jacket cooling water.

2. Ensure that main engine jacket cooling water temperature is within normal limits.

3. Close jacket cooling water inlet and outlet valves for the freshwater generator respectively.

4. Close the feed water chemical dosing valve.

5. Stop the distillate pump and shut discharge valve.

6. Switch off salinity meter.

7. Close filling valve to freshwater tanks.

8. Wait for evaporator shell temperature to drop below 50 deg cel.

9. Close the feed water valve to evaporator.

10. Stop ejector pump. Shut fresh water generator overboard valve.

11. Open the vacuum breaker valve to make shell side pressure equal to atmospheric pressure.

12. Open the drain valve of the evaporator to drain all the seawater from the fresh water generator.

• Precautions for Operation of Fresh water Generator

1. Seawater pressure at the inlet of air ejector must be 3 bar or more.

2. The pressure at ejector outlet should not exceed 0.8 bar.

3. Never start fresh water generator distillate pump in dry condition.

4. Operate jacket cooling water valves to the fresh water generator gradually to avoid thermal shock to the
main engine.

5. Feed water to be supplied for a few minutes to cool down the evaporator before stopping.

6. Never open the drain valve of evaporator before opening vacuum breaker. Otherwise atmospheric
pressure causes seawater inside to hit the deflector.

• How to Minimize Scale Formation

Scale formation in fresh water generator can be controlled and minimized by continuous chemical
treatment. Polysulphate compounds (like sodium polysulphate) with anti foam is preferred by marine
engineers and is extensively used on ships. Their trade name is different, like:

o Vaptreat (by “UNITOR”)

o Ameroyal (by “DREW CHEMICALS”)

These chemicals minimize calcium carbonate scale formation and possibility of foaming. the compound
is non toxic, no-acidic, and can be used in fresh water generator producing water for drinking purposes. If would
be continuously fed into the feed line using a metering pump or by gravity. Amount of chemical to be dosed

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depends on the capacity of fresh water produced. Important thing is that this chemical is effective only on low
pressure fresh water generators. The sea water temperature to be less than 90 degrees. Fresh water generator
chemical treatment to be religiously carried out to maintain its performance.

• Faults in fresh water generator

Faults in fresh water generator reduces performance of the system, thereby reducing quality and quantity
of freshwater produced on ships. These irregularities must be identified and rectified immediately to ensure that
the optimum performance of the fresh water generator is achieved.

1. Loss of Vacuum or Over-pressure of Shell

The shell pressure of the fresh water generator rises and rate of freshwater produced reduces. The reasons are:

✓ Air leaks into the evaporator shell in large quantities and air ejector cannot cope.
✓ The cooling water flow through the condenser is reduced or cooling water temperature is high. This cause
saturation temperature and hence saturation pressure within the condenser to rise.
✓ Malfunctioning of the air ejector.
✓ Flow rate of the heating medium increased and excess water vapour produced. Since this excess vapours
cannot be condensed, shell pressure increases or vacuum falls.
2. Salt Water Carry Over

Salt water may be carried over in large quantities during operation of the freshwater generator. This is called
priming. General reasons of the priming are:

✓ Level of salt water inside the shell is high. When water level is high agitation due to boiling occurs and
salt water may carry over along with the vapours.
✓ When the salt water brine density is too high, agitation of salt water occurs which results in priming.
✓ Increased evaporation rate.
3. Gradual Increase in Level of Brine

For the satisfactory operation of the freshwater generator, a constant level of brine to be maintained in
the shell. Brine is the concentrated sea water after liberation of water vapours. This brine is gradually extracted
from the shell. Usually this is achieved by the combined air-brine ejector. It extracts air as well as brine from the
shell. Any fault in the ejector or brine extraction pump (in some models) cause increase in the brine level.

4. Increase in Salinity of Freshwater

Possible causes are:

✓ Brine level inside shell too high.

✓ Leaking condenser tubes or plates.
✓ Operation of evaporator near shore with contaminated feed water.
✓ Shell temperature and pressure too low.
✓ Increased solubility of CO2 generated from the salt water due to reduced sea water temperature. This
dissolved CO2 makes water acidic and conductivity of water increases. Hence salinometer shows
increased salinity, which is a measure of conductivity and not presence of salt.

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STARTING THE FRESH WATER GENERATOR

1. Before starting the fresh water generator we have to check that the ship is not in congested water, canals
and is 20 nautical miles away from the shore. This is done because near the shore the effluents from
factories and sewage are discharged into the sea can get into the fresh water generator.
2. Check whether engine is running above 50 rpm, the reason for this is that at low rpm the temperature of
jacket water which is around 60 degrees and not sufficient for evaporation of water.
3. Check the drain valve present at the bottom of the generator is in close position.
4. Now open suction and discharge valves of the sea water pump which will provide water for evaporation,
cooling and to the eductor for creating vacuum.
5. Open the sea water discharge valve from where the water is sent back to the sea after circulating inside
the fresh water generator.
6. Close the vacuum valve situated on top of the generator.
7. Now start the sea water pump and check the pressure of the pump. The pressure is generally 3-4 bars.
8. Wait for the vacuum to build up. Vacuum should be at least 90% which can be seen on the gauge present
on the generator. Generally the time taken for the generation of vacuum is about 10 minutes.
9. When vacuum is achieved open the valve for feed water treatment, this is to prevent scale formation
inside the plates.
10. Now open hot water (jacket water) inlet and outlet valves slowly to about half. Always open the outlet
valve first and then inlet valve. Slowly start to increase the opening of the valves to full open.
11. Now we can see that the boiling temperature starts increasing and the vacuum starts dropping.
12. The vacuum drop to about 85% which is an indication that evaporation is started.
13. Open the valve from fresh water pump to drain.
14. Switch on the salinometer if it has to be started manually. Generally it is on auto start.
15. Now start fresh water pump and taste the water coming out of the drain.
16. When fresh water starts producing it is seen that the boiling temperature drops again slightly and vacuum
comes back to the normal value.
17. Check the water coming out of the salinometer is not salty and also check the reading of the salinometer.
This is done to see if the salinometer is working properly or not and to prevent the whole fresh water from
getting contaminated with salt water. The value of salinometer is kept below 10ppm.
18. After checking the taste of the water coming out of the salinometer, open valve for tank from the pump
and close drain valve.

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STOPPING THE FRESH WATER GENERATOR

1. Close the jacket water inlet valves. Generally inlet is closed first and then the outlet valve.
2. Close the valve for feed water treatment.
3. Stop fresh water pump.
4. Switch off the salinometer.
5. Stop sea water pump (also known as ejector pump).
6. Open vacuum valve.
7. Close sea water suction valve and overboard valve. This is generally not required as they are non- return
valves. However, in case of valve leaking or damage, these valves are to be closed without fail.

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