Optical Fiber Communication

• Fiber optics uses visible and infrared light. Infrared light covers a fairly wide range of
wavelengths and is generally used for all fiber optic communications. Visible light is
normally used for very short range transmission using a plastic fiber.

Ray Transmission Theory

• Before studying how the light actually propagates through the fiber, laws governing the
nature of light m ust be studied. These was called as laws of optics (Ray theory). There is
conception that light always travels at the same speed. This fact is simply not true. The
speed of light depends upon the material or medium through which it is moving. In free
space light travels at its maximum possible speed i.e. 3 x 108 m/s or 186 x 103 miles/sec.
When light travels through a material it exhibits certain behavior explained by laws of
reflection, refraction.

Reflection

• The law of reflection states that, when a light ray is incident upon a reflective surface at
some incident angle 1 from imaginary perpendicular normal, the ray will be reflected from
the surface at some angle 2 from normal which is equal to the angle of incidence.

Fig. 1.6.2 shows law of relection.

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Refraction

• Refraction occurs when light ray passes from one medium to another i.e. the light ray
changes its direction at interface. Refractio occurs whenever density of medium changes.
E.g. refraction occurs at air and water interface, the straw in a glass of water will appear
as it is bent.

The refraction can also observed at air and glass interface.

• When wave passes through less dense medium to more dense medium, the wave is
refracted (bent) towards the normal. Fig. 1.6.3 shows the refraction phenomena.

• The refraction (bending) takes place because light travels at different spped in different
mediums. The speed of light in free space is higher than in water or glass.

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Refractive Index

• The amount of refraction or bending that occurs at the interface of two materials of different
densities is usually expressed as refractive index of two materials. Refractive index is also
known as index of refraction and is denoted by n.

• Based on material density, the refractive index is expressed as the ratio of the velocity of
light in free space to the velocity of light of the dielectric material (substance).

The refractive index for vacuum and air os 1.0 for water it is 1.3 and for glass refractive
index is 1.5.

Snell’s Law

• Snell’s law states how light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two media having
different indexes of refraction.

• Let the two medias have refractive indexes n1 and n2 where n1 >n2.

1 and 2 be the angles of incidence and angle of refraction respectively. Then according
to Snell’s law, a relationship exists between the refractive index of both materials given by,

… (1.6.1)

• A refractive index model for Snell’s law is shown in Fig. 1.6.4.

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• The refracted wave will be towards the normal when n1 < n2 and will away from it when
n1 > n2.

Equation (1.6.1) can be written as,

• This equation shows that the ratio of refractive index of two mediums is inversely
proportional to the refractive and incident angles.

As refractive index and substituting these values in equation (1.6.2)

Critical Angle

• When the angle of incidence (1) is profressively increased, there will be progressive
increase of refractive angle (2). At some condition (1) the refractive angle (2) becomes
90o to the normal. When this happens the refracted light ray travels along the interface.
The angle of incidence (1) at the point at which the refractive angle (1) becomes 90o is
called the critical angle. It is denoted by c.

• The critical angle is defined as the minimum angle of incidence (1) at which the ray
strikes the interface of two media and causes an agnle of refraction (2) equal to 90o. Fig
1.6.5 shows critical angle refraction.

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Hence at critical angle 1 = c and 2 = 90o

Using Snell’s law : n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2

Therefore,

… (1.6.3)

• The actual value of critical angle is dependent upon combination of materials present on
each side of boundary.

Total Internal Refleciton (TIR)

• When the incident angle is increase dbeyond the critical angle, the light ray does not pass
through the interface into the other medium. This gives the effect of mirror exist at the
interface with no possibility of light escaping outside the medium. In this condition angle
of reflection (2) is equal to angle of incidence (1). This action is called as Total Internal
Reflection (TIR) of the beam. It is TIR that leads to the propagation of waves within fiber-
cable medium. TIR can be observed only in materials in which the velocity of light is less
than in air.

• The two conditions necessary for TIR to occur are :

1. The refractive index of first medium must be greater than the refractive index of
second one.
2. The angle of incidence must be greater than (or equal to) the critical angle.

Example 1.6.1 : A light ray is incident from medium-1 to medium-2. If the refractive indices of
medium-1 and medium-2 are 1.5 and 1.36 respectively then determine the angle of refraction for
an angle of incidence of 30o.

Solution : Medium-1 n1 = 1.5

Medium-2 n2 = 1.36

Angle of incidence 1 = 30o.

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Angle of incident 2 = ?

Angle of refraction 33.46o from normal. … Ans.

Example 1.6.2 : A light ray is incident from glass to air. Calculate the critical angle (c).

Solution : Refractive index of glass n1 = 1.50

Refrative indes of air n2 = 1.00

From definition of critical angle, 2 = 90o and 1 = c.

… Ans.

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Example 1.6.3 : Calculate the NA, acceptance angle and critical angle of the fiber having n1
(Core refractive index) = 1.50 and refractive index of cladding = 1.45.

Soluiton : n1 = 1.50, n2 = 1.45

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Optical Fiver as Waveguide

• An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide capable of conveying electromagnetic

waves at optical frequencies. The electromagnetic energy is in the form of the light and
propagates along the axis of the fiber. The structural of the fiver determines the
transmission characteristics.
• The propagation of light along the waveguide is decided by the modes of the waveguides,
here mode means path. Each mode has distict pattern of electric and magnetic field
distributions along the fiber length. Only few modes can satisfy the homogeneous wave
equation in the fiver also the boundary condition a waveguide surfaces. When there is only
one path for light to follow then it is called as single mode propagation. When there is more
than one path then it is called as multimode propagation.

Single fiber structure

• A single fiber structure is shown in Fig. 1.6.6. It consists of a solid dielectric cylinder with
radius ‘a’. This cylinder is called as core of fiber. The core is surrounded by dielectric,
called cladding. The index of refraction of core (glass fiber) is slightly greater than the
index of refraction of cladding.

If refractive index of core (glass fiver) = n1

and refractive index of cladding = n2

then n1 > n2.

Propagation in Optical Fiber

• To understand the general nature of light wave propagation in optical fiber. We first
consider the construction of optical fiber. The innermost is the glass core of very thin
diameter with a slight lower refractive index n2. The light wave can propagate along such
a optical fiber. A single mode propagation is illustrated in Fig. 1.6.7 along with standard
size of fiber.

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• Single mode fibers are capable of carrying only one signal of a specific wavelength.
• In multimode propagation the light propagates along the fiber in zigzag fashion, provided
it can undergo total internal reflection (TIR) at the core cladding boundaries.
• Total internal reflection at the fiber wall can occur only if two conditions are satisfied.

Condition 1:

The index of refraction of glass fiber must be slightly greater than the index of refraction of
material surrounding the fiber (cladding).

If refractive index of glass fiber = n1

and refractive index of cladding = n2

then n1 > n2.

Condition 2 :

The angle of incidence (1) of light ray must be greater than critical angle (c).

• A light beam is focused at one end of cable. The light enters the fibers at different angles.
Fig. 1.6.8 shows the conditions exist at the launching end of optic fiber. The light source is
surrounded by air and the refractive index of air is n0 = 1. Let the incident ray makes an
angle 0 with fiber axis. The ray enters into glass fiber at point P making refracted angle
1 to the fiber axis, the ray is then propagated diagonally down the core and reflect from
the core wall at point Q. When the light ray reflects off the inner surface, the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, which is greater than critical angle.
• In order for a ray of light to propagate down the cable, it must strike the core cladding
interface at an angle that is greater than critical angle (c).

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Acceptance Angle

Applying Snell’s law to external incidence angle.

n0 sin 0 = n1 sin 1

But 1 = (90 - c)

sin 1 = sing (90 - c) = cos c

Substituting sin 1 in above equation.

n0 sin 0 = n1 cos c

Applying Pythagorean theorem to ΔPQR.

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The maximum value of external incidence angle for which light will propagate in the
fiber.

When the light rays enters the fivers from an air medium n0 = 1. Then above equation
reduces to,

The angle 0 is called as acceptance angle and defines the maximum angle in
which the light ray may incident on fiber to propagate down the fiber.

Acceptance Cone

• Rotating the acceptance angle around the fiber axis, a cone shaped pattern is
obtained, it is called as acceptance cone of the fiber input. Fig 1.6.10 shows formation of
acceptance cone of a fiber cable.

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• The Cone of acceptance is the angle within which the light is accepted into the core and is
able to travel along the fiber. The launching of light wave becomes easier for large
acceptance come.
• The angle is measured from the axis of the positive cone so the total angle of convergence
is actually twice the stated value.

Numerical Aperture (NA)

• The numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is a figure of merit which represents its light
gathering capability. Larger the numerical aperture, the greater the amount of light accepted
by fiber. The acceptance angle also determines how much light is able to be enter the fiber
and hence there is relation between the numerical aperture and the cone of acceptance.

Numerical aperture (NA) = sin

For air no = 1

… (1.6.4)

Hence acceptance angle = sin-1 NA

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By the formula of NA note that the numerical aperture is effectively dependent only on
refractive indices of core and cladding material. NA is not a function of fiber dimension.

• The index difference (Δ) and the numerical aperture (NA) are related to the core and
cladding indices:

(1.6.5 (a))

... (1.6.5 (b))

Also

Example 1.6.5 : Calculate the numerical aperture and acceptance angle for a fiber cable of which
ncore = 1.5 and ncladding = 1.48. The launching takes place from air.

Solution :

NA = 0.244 …Ans.

Acceptance angle -

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