Lecture 6 GR Log

Formation Evaluation
Lecture 6
Gamma Ray Logs
Acknowledgements: Several of the figures were created by Pete Kane of Reservoir Management Limited (RML), Aberdeen.
Thanks to Peter Griffiths (Director, Geoscience) for permission to use RML’s training and teaching material.
R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University
1
Figure 6.1
A typical NGR log used to differentiate
Gamma Ray Log sand and shale in a deepwater
Natural Gamma Ray Log turbidite environment.
Gamma ray logs
• Gamma rays are the only radioactive particles that can penetrate a API
rock formation and be measured. 0 200
• The gamma ray log measures the radioactivity of a rock formation.

SHALE
• The natural gamma ray log measures the total count of the
formation.
• Units of measurement are the API units (typically 0-200 API). SAND
• Radioactivity increases towards the right, with higher API units.
• Shales have a higher radioactivity than sandstone and limestones.
Can you differentiate sand

and shale from the GR?

2
Figure 6.2
Typical responses for the GR log (After
Gamma Ray Log Rider, 1996)
Natural Gamma Ray Log
Gamma ray logs
• Gamma rays logs can sometimes

be used to differentiate both
lithology and grain-size.
Lithology API
Limestone 5-10
Dolomite 10-20
Sandstone 10-30
Siltstone 30-80
Shale 80-140

3
Figure 6.3
Schematic illustration
Gamma Ray Log of gamma ray logging
GR
Gamma ray logs Logging
Rock
• Gamma radiation is recorded from the rock formation Formation
by the GR tool.
• Two main types of gamma ray tools:

LST
•(a) Natural Gamma Ray tool (NGR)
•(b) Spectral gamma ray tool (SGR).
Both tools passively record the radiation of a rock.
• Higher counts are recorded from formations such as

Gamma
shale, and generally lower in sands and limestones. SST
Radiation
• Several factors (covered later) influence the reliability
of the GR data, e.g.
•Borehole condition
•Logging speed SHALE
•Drilling mud
Borehole GR Tool
4
Gamma Ray Log
• Some common log names
Radiation and Gamma Rays •GR (gamma ray)
•SGR (Spectral Gamma) K, Th, U
• The natural gamma ray log measures •NGT (natural gamma ray tool)
all the radioactive elements together. •NGR (natural gamma ray)
•CGR (compensated gamma ray)
• The three main individual radioactive
elements can be differentiated on the • Note the main uses are:
spectral log. •base reference log
•sand and shales
• The two main types of gamma ray tools •reservoir vs non-reservoir
(NGT, SGR) both passively record the •zonation
radiation of a rock. •geological
•reservoir engineering
• This contrasts with the density log, •geophysics
which induces a response from the
reservoir . •The three main radioactive
elements are Potassium (K40),
Uranium (U238) and Thorium
(Th232)

5
Figure 6.4
Schematic representation of
Gamma Ray Log gamma radiation and detection
Radiation and Gamma Rays
• Rocks contain radioactive minerals...
• Potassium
• Uranium
• Thorium
• That emit short bursts of high energy radiation (gamma

rays
• Gamma rays penetrate a few inches…then they either

• Lose energy
• Absorbed
• The detector...
• scintillation or geiger-muller
• records counts per unit time

6
Figure 6.5
Gamma Ray Emission Spectra of
Gamma Ray Log Radioactive Minerals. This
Natural Gamma Ray Log demonstrates the energy emitted by
gamma rays from different
Theory radioactive minerals
• Radiation from Potassium (40K) has a single

energy value of 1.46 MeV.
• Mega electron volts (1[MeV] = 1.6 x 10-13 [J])
• Thorium and Uranium emit radiation with a

range of energies, but with certain peaks.
• Distinct peaks are

• 2.62 MeV for Th
• 1.76 MeV for U
• These elements can be identified from one

another by these energy peaks.

7
Gamma Ray Log
Theory
• To obtain a quantitative evaluation of thorium, uranium and
potassium from an analysis of the total energy distribution, it
is helpful to divide the spectrum into two regions:
• High-energy region, with three main peaks:
• Thallium208 at 2.62 MeV (from the Th232 family)
• Bismuth114 at 1.76 MeV (from the U232 family)
• Potassium40 at 1.46 MeV
• Low-energy region, covering the energy range of the gamma

rays resulting from pair production and Compton scattering in
the formation, plus lower-energy emissions from the thorium
and uranium series.

8
Gamma Ray Log
Theory
• The relative amplitudes of the three spectra will depend on the

proportions of the radioactive components present.
• A quantitative evaluation of the presence of thorium, uranium

and potassium can be obtained by breaking down the total
spectrum into the three characteristic spectra.
• This analysis will only be valid if we can assume that the spectra
of the three radioactive series always have the same energy
distribution.
• As thorium and uranium series are normally in a state of secular

equilibrium, each series has the characteristic spectrum with the
different elements occurring in fairly well defined proportions.

9
Figure 6.7
Potassium, Thorium and Uranium Response
Gamma Ray Log Curves (Nal Crystal Detector)
Theory
dN K 40
dE
• The observed spectrum takes a
continuous rather than a discrete K + U + Th
form.
Bi 214
• The result is a very large X 10
background in the spectrum. Scale Tl 208
• In addition the detector has an
intrinsic resolution broadening the
peaks.
• The spectrum fine structure, given
by about 50 peaks, is then barely K U Th
detectable.
• NGR uses 5 windows to increase
accuracy of count rate W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
measurement for elements.
Energy
(Mv)
10
Figure 6.6
The process of gamma ray scattering and
Gamma Ray Log absorption
Theory •Gamma rays start out with a given energy,
which is either lost through pair production,
• High Energy GR (>3 MeV) interact with or undergoes Compton scattering until the
nucleus and are converted to an electron and energy is sufficiently low to be absorbed by
positron (pair production).
photo-electric absorption.
• Low efficiency, small contribution
• Medium Energy GR (0.5 to 3 MeV) undergo

Compton scattering, where GR interacts with
electrons of the atoms, ejecting the electron
and losing energy.
• several collisions reducing its energy to
less than 0.5 MeV in a stepwise fashion.
• Low Energy GR (<0.5 MeV) collide with

electrons, and are absorbed. GR energy is
either used to promote the electron to a higher
energy level or to eject it from the atom. This
process is called photo-electric absorption,
and is important in the Litho-Density tool.

11
Gamma Ray Log
Detection
Scintillation crystals
• The heart of the downhole tool is a scintillation detector composed of a crystal
(traditionally sodium iodide, Nal) optically coupled to a photomultiplier.
• Scintillation detectors have this name because when struck by gamma rays,
they generate flashes of light, which are then converted to electric pulses by the
photomultiplier tube.
• The photomultiplier consists of a photocathode, a focusing electrode, and

several dynodes that multiply the number of electrons striking at each dynode.
• Thallium (Tl) doped sodium iodide (Nal) crystals have been used as detectors
for over 50 years, and despite recent advances in crystal design, they still have
the greatest relative light flash intensity.

12
Gamma Ray Log
Tool Calibration
Gamma ray units (API / GAPI)

•Essentially GAPI is defined
•GR units = API (American Petroleum as 1/200 of the deflection
Institute)... measured between the high-
and low-activity zones in the
•artificial formation (Houston, USA)
calibration pit.
•6 ppm uranium
•12 ppm thorium = 200 API
•2% (20,000 ppm) potassium
•Limestones 15 to 20 GAPI
• ‘average’ shale = 100 API
• calibration normalised •Shales 75 to 150 GAPI
•8” hole •Maximum readings about 300 GAPI
•10 lb/gal mud for very radioactive shales (Dewan,
•eccentered 3 5/8” wireline tool 1983).

13
Gamma Ray Log
Radius of Investigation Resolution
• Radius varies between 5 and 25 cm. V 40 cm
D 10 cm
• As a rough guide, the volume of investigation is approximately 20 cm
vertically above and below the detector, and 10 cm laterally. Formation
10 20 cm
Controlling factors: cm GR
Detector
• Hole size, mud density and formation bulk density. 20 cm
• GR energy (Higher energy radiation recorded on detector from deeper

in the formation).
•Measurement reflects concentration of Th, U and K in the formation
Notes:
• Interfering peaks close to the principal in each window (two escape
peaks with each principal high energy peak), which result in Th
interference in the U window, and Th and U interference in the K
window.

14
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues
There are several issues to consider when quality controlling gamma ray measurements /
tool readings.
• These include:
•Filtering
•Statistical Variations
•Dead time
•Borehole condition
•Tool Position
•Casing
•Mud Type

15
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues
Filtering
• Th, U, K computation results are affected by statistical variations (5 windows),
•Especially important in the three high-energy windows
•Less important in the two low energy ones
• Exhibited by anti-correlation, especially between Th and U, and negative
readings.
• To decrease these effects and to improve the log appearance a filtering
technique is used.
• In the field a simple three gain adaptive filter is implemented and a more
sophisticated technique is used in the processing centre.

16
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues
Statistical Variations
• As gamma ray emission is random in nature, the count-rates vary when measured
in a formation over time (tool records a mean value).
• These counts must be accumulated over a period of time and averaged in order to
obtain three reasonable estimates of the mean (the accumulation period is the time
constant).
• The estimation of the mean will be more precise the higher the count-rate and the
longer the time-constant.
• The count-rate statistics can be described by Poisson's distribution which is similar

to a Normal distribution at high count-rate but differs at lower count rate.

17
Gamma Ray Log
Illustration of count-rate,
time constant, and counts
Measurement Issues per second
TIME
10 5 0 (Seconds)
High Low (5.2 Secs) 3

High (11.8 Secs) 3
Low (5.2 Secs) 1

Low
High (11.8 Secs) 1
Time Constant CPS
Count-Rate (Relative)
(Relative)
Note: Dead Time!

18
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues-
Logging Speed
• Log shape and radioactivity readings will be influenced by logging speed because the
radioactivity caused by gamma rays is discrete events, which are usually measured by
counting the number of events over a specified time.
• The tool should ideally be stationary, or moving as slowly as possible.
• The general rule is that the tool should not move more than 30 cm in the time required to
measure individual emissions, which is often termed the time constant.
• If the tool is moving too rapidly, the data is smeared and the resolution necessary to identify
bed boundaries is lost.
• Because of the way the tool works, and the nature of random radioactive events, the
repeatability of this tool in measuring small scale variations is quite poor.

19
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues
Dead Time
• The dead-time of a detector system is the short period following the detection of a count or
pulse, during which no other counts can be detected.
• It is a recovery period for the crystal or tube, and the measuring circuitry.
• This leads to a lower count-rate than the true one.
• The dead time effect decreases when the count rate decreases.
• Errors can be estimated from a graph as a function of the count-rate, and correction charts
can be used for dead time.

20
Figure 6.10
Probable error as a function of
Gamma Ray Log count-rate.
Measurement Issues
Dead Time
• This figure
permits the
definition of
the probable
error as a
function of the
count-rate.

21
Figure 6.11
Correction chart for Dead Time
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues
Dead Time
• The dead time effect

decreases when the
count rate decreases.

22
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues-
The Borehole
• The borehole influence is essentially due to absorption and Compton scattering, which are
functions of several factors:
• The energy of the gamma rays emitted (Absorption is higher when the gamma energy is
lower).
• The volume of the bore-hole fluid around the tool (depends on hole and tool diameters).
• Nature of the bore-hole fluid:

•Density (air, gas, water, oil):
•the Compton scattering is higher when the density is higher.
•Effective atomic number Z;
•absorption is higher if the content of strong gamma absorbers (e.g. barite) is
higher.
•Content of radioactive materials:
•bentonite, potassium salts (e.g. KCl mud), depth of invasion, etc.

23
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues-
Casing
• In cased holes the nature of the casing will influence absorption and Compton scattering,
preferentially attenuating the low energy gamma rays.
• Thickness
• Position in the hole
• Volume and shape of cement between the casing and the formation
• The measured spectrum is thus unfairly weighted towards the high energies.
• These three effects have to be evaluated and corrected before interpreting the data
(which is done at the Field Log Interpretation Centre).

24
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues-
Influence of Muds- KCL
• KCI is often used In drilling fluids to prevent clay swelling.
• It is obvious that in such cases the log readings obtained with the NGS will be affected
by an unwanted background of potassium gamma rays.
• However, the influence of KCI in the mud during logging is not merely a shift In the K
curve. The U and Th curves are also affected and it is frequently observed that the U
curve is even negative.
• This is caused by the five window fit technique used to derive the K, U and Th
concentrations from the observed spectrum.
• As the spectrum produced by KCI in the mud differs from that originating from potassium
in the formation, all three readings will be affected and in a complicated manner. The
effects (and thus the subsequent corrections) depend not only on the KCI content in the
mud, but also on the K, U and Th concentrations in the formation.
25
Gamma Ray Log
Measurement Issues-
Influence of Muds- Barite BaSO4
• Drilling-grade barite should have an SG of at least 4.20 g/cm3 for API specifications (pure
BaSO4 = 4.50 g/cm3).
• Heavy mud (barite) interferes with the five-window fit procedure owing to its high
absorption cross-section for low-energy gamma-rays. As a result of the fitting method
used, this reduction depresses the U estimate and increases the Th and K estimates.
• Wellbore diameter also has an effect. Larger holes reduce all count rates because of the
removal of radiating material close to the tool. New correction algorithms claim to
account for KCI content in the mud and the low-energy absorption of the mud from the
NGS measurements.
• Contaminants in barite, such as cement, siderite, gypsum and anhydrite, can cause
problems in certain mud systems and should be evaluated in any quality assurance
program for drilling-mud additives.

26
Corrections for the gamma ray
Gamma Ray Log curve
Measurement Issues-

27
Corrections for percentage K of
Gamma Ray Log spectral gamma ray curve
Measurement Issues-

28
Gamma Ray Log
Interpretation-
Gamma Ray Log Interpretation
• The GR log is used in many geoscience disciplines in a quantitative and
qualitative sense.
• For example, stratigraphic successions are defined and correlated on the basis
of the GR log, and grain size can be estimated from the GR log.
• The discipline that we are most interested in for this course is in petrophysics.
• The GR is used mostly in petrophysics for determining shale content or clay

content in a rock formation.

29
Gamma Ray Log
DISCIPLINE USED FOR KNOWING
Quantitative
Petrophysics Shale volume (Vsh) gamma ray (max / Min)

Geology Shale (shaliness) gamma ray (Max / Min)
Lithology typical radioactivity values
Mineral Identification Mineral radioactivity
Qualitative
Sedimentology Facies Clay / grain size relationships

Sequence Stratigraphy Parasequence and condensed Clay / grain size and organic
sequence identification matter / radioactivity relationships
Stratigraphy Correlation ____
Unconformity identification ____
Principal uses of the gamma ray log (after Rider, 1996).

30
Gamma Ray Log
Applications
Clay typing
Potassium and thorium are the primary radioactive elements present in clays.
Because the result is sometimes ambiguous, it can help combining these curves or
the ratios of the radioactive elements with the photoelectric effect from the
lithodensity tool.
Mineralogy
Carbonates usually display a low gamma ray signature. An increase of potassium
can be related to an algal origin or to the presence of glauconite, while uranium is
often associated with organic matter.
Ash layer detection

Thorium is frequently found in volcanic ash or bentonite layers. The ratio of Th/U can
also help detect these ash layers.

31
Illustration of Table 6.1
Gamma Ray Log

32
Table 6.1 Gamma radiation from common
minerals and lithologies (after Pirson, 1963)
Gamma Ray Log

33
Figure 6.12
Sand and shale line defined on
Gamma Ray Log GR log (After Rider, 1996)
GR log Interpretation
Lithology & Sand / Shale Line

• GR log has traditionally been used to
differentiate shales from reservoir rocks
(e.g. sandstones/ limestones).
• One common practice is to define a sand
and a shale line, on the left and right
hand side of the log respectively.
• This technique is used to define the
volume of shale and to calculate the net
to gross ratio, and net thickness of a
particular formation.

34
Gamma Ray Log
Volume of clay / Volume of shale
• GR values can be used to calculate the shaliness or shale volume Vsh of the
rock, also termed Vclay (volume of clay).
• The volume of clay can be estimated from a NGR log by defining the sand and
shale lines.
• These are assumed to represent the 100% sand and 100% shale lines. These
lines can be defined by 2 basic methods,
•Gut feel method- usually defined by eye, by drawing a line that
approximates the minimum sand line, and then a line that approximates the
shale line.
•Histogram method- done by using a histogram of the GR log for the
formation in question. The sand and shale lines are then picked off as values
on the histogram.
35
Figure 6.13
Histogram method for defining 100%
Gamma Ray Log sand and shale lines
• Define SAND and SHALE
GR log Interpretation lines
• Histogram method-
• Either picked by eye from
histogram, or by using
statistics (percentiles).
GR frequency plot
• GRSand (5th Percentile)

• GRShale (95th Percentile)

36
Gamma Ray Log
• Assuming a linear relationship, the volume of shale can therefore be calculated
for a formation with the following equation.
• Volume of shale (%) = GR value (log) – GR (min)

GR (max) – GR (min)
• This is also known as the GR index equation (IGR). The log value from this
equation is taken from the GR reading on the log. The min and max values are
those values estimated to be the value of the sand and shale lines respectively.

37
Figure 6.14(a)
Histogram method for defining 100%
Gamma Ray Log sand and shale lines
1.0
GR log Interpretation 0.09
0.9
0.08
Volume of clay / Volume of shale 0.8
0.07
• How do I estimate the GR 0.7
0.06
Vclay for the following 95th
0.6
reservoir interval? API API 0.05

6.9 79 percentile
0.5
0.04
0.4
0.03
5th percentile 0.3
0.02 0.2
Reservoir 0.01 0.1
Interval 0.00 0 0.0
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
GRsand = 6.9 GRshale = 79.0
100 % 100 %
100 % Sand Line Shale Line
Sand Line 100 %
Shale Line
38
Figure 6.14(b)
Calculation of Vclay using the
Gamma Ray Log histogram method for defining cut
Natural Gamma Ray Log offs
1.0
GR log Interpretation 0.09
0.9
0.08
Volume of shale 0.8
0.07
• Calculation of Vclay GR 0.7
0.06
/ Vshale example. 95th
0.6
API 0.05
• The red line is the 10 percentile
0.5
0.04
estimated GR 0.4
average for the 0.03

5th percentile 0.3
reservoir interval. 0.02 0.2
• Using the GR 0.01 0.1
index, the Vshale 0.00 0.0
can now be
0
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
estimated.
GRsand = 6.9 GRshale = 79.0
Vclay = (GRlog - 6.9) / (79 - 6.9)

100 %
Sand Line 100 %
Shale Line = (10 - 6.9) / 72.1 = 0.04 v/v = 4%
39
Figure 6.15
Correction of Vshale for the non-
Gamma Ray Log linear effect
Volume of shale
• Many petrophysicists assume
that Vsh = IGR
• This assumes a linear

relationship between GR Index
and Vshale.
• But this may not be true!
• IGR should really be corrected

by using the chart shown from
which the corresponding value
of Vsh may be read.

40
Figure 6.15
Correction of Vshale for the non-
Gamma Ray Log linear effect
Volume of shale
Or, corrections can be carried out by
using the following Equations:
Vshc = 0.083 * (2 ^ (3.7 * Vsh) - 1)

Dresser Tertiary equation
Vshc = 0.33 * (2 ^ (2 * Vsh) - 1)
Dresser older rock equation
WHERE:
Vsh = shale content from GR
Vshc = shale content corrected for
non-linear effects (fractional)

41
Gamma Ray Log
Volume of shale
• Once the shale volume has been calculated, a threshold shale volume may be
defined which will divide the well into a number of reservoir and non-reservoir
zones.
• This zonation is combined with the zonation that will also take place on the basis
of porosity, permeability and hydrocarbon saturation.

42
Figure 6.16
Idealised gamma ray log shape compared
Gamma Ray Log with depositional environments
Interpretation-
Depositional Environment
• Different depositional
environments can
often be recognised by
the shape of the curve,
which is usually
described as box-car,
cylinder, bell, funnel or
serrated in shape, for
the definition of facies.

43
Figure 6.17
GR characteristics of coal (low) and organic rich shale
Gamma Ray Log (very high) in a deltaic sequence (After Rider, 1996)
Interpretation-
• Deltaic deposits contain reservoir
sandstones, often in the form of river
channels, and overbank sandstones.
• The reservoir geometries are extremely

complex in these environments.
• Coal (swamp/lacustrine) and shales

(overbank / lacustrine) used to establish
the fundamental stratigraphic framework.
• Pure coals have a low GR and should

not be confused with sands (check
density logs and caliper).
• Shales are radioactive.

44
Figure 6.18
Intertidal sandstones and marine shales can be
Gamma Ray Log differentiated based on log shape and API value (After
Natural Gamma Ray Log Rider, 1996)
Interpretation-
• The subenvironments of a
delta system can be
differentiated on the GR
log based on log shape
and API value.
• However, note that in this

case, the sands contain
heavy minerals making
lithology interpretation
more complicated based
solely on the GR log.

45
Figure 6.19
Hot shales (a potential source rock) are identified from
Gamma Ray Log GR logs (>300 API)
Interpretation- After Pollastro, 2003
(U.S. Geological Survey
Depositional Environment Bulletin 2202-H)
Source Rocks •(Modified

from Jones
• Are known as hot and Stump,
shales, and can be 1999)
identified from gamma
ray logs.
• High GR reflects the
high total organic
content (TOC).
• This example is the
Qusaiba Member
source rock, Qalibah
Formation.

46
Figure 6.20
Typical response of the spectral gamma ray log (after
Gamma Ray Log Rider, 1996)
Spectral Gamma
Ray Log
• The spectral gamma-

ray log (SGR) splits
the total gamma ray
count into the three
main minerals K, U,
and Th.
• The most important

use for the SGR log
in petrophysics is in
the evaluation of
reservoir quality,
which is affected by
mineralogy.

47
Gamma Ray Log
Spectral Gamma Ray Log
DISCIPLINE USED FOR KNOWING
Semi- Quantitative & Qualitative Quantitative
Petrophysics Shale volume (Vsh) Th (max / min) for pure shale

Radioactive mineral volume Vsh (th), K (max/min) for shale
Geology Dominant clay material Th, K, U content of individual clay
Detrital clay mineral suite minerals
Radioactive content of individual
clay minerals
Sedimentology and Condensed section (high U) Normal U and Th content or Th/U

ratio of shales
Sequence Stratigraphy Climatic changes?
Th/K ratio changes in shale
Reservoir Geology Fracture detection Uranium Contribution to radioactivity

Marine source rock U content of organic matter
Geochemistry identification
Principal uses of the spectral gamma ray log (after Rider, 1996)
48
Figure 6.21
Identification of clay minerals
Gamma Ray Log based upon Thorium and
Spectral Gamma Ray Log Potassium Ratios
Gamma Ray Emission Spectra of Radioactive Minerals

49
Figure 6.22
Gamma ray logs used to aid in
Gamma Ray Log sequence stratigraphic interpretations
Spectral Gamma Ray Log (After George, 2000)
• SGR data has also been used to

identify maximum flooding
surfaces (U concentration) and
for the categorisation of systems
tracts in sequence stratigraphic
interpretations.
• This example is from a

Carboniferous deltaic succession
in Wales (outcrop).
• The sands have low GR readings.
• The U and total GR peaks occur

together and are interpreted as a
maximum flooding surface.

50
Figure 6.23
Example of spectral gamma-ray
Gamma Ray Log data showing high K values due to
Spectral Gamma Ray Log the presence of glauconite
Glauconite
• In sandstones, high K
values may be caused by
the presence of potassium
feldspars or micas
(Humphreys & Lott 1990,
Hurst 1990).
• Glauconite usually causes

a very distinctive, almost
diagnostic spike in the K
log.
• Glauconite is found in
marine environments. Hole 1171D
/www.ldeo.columbia.edu/BRG/ODP/LOGGING/TOOLS/ngt.html
51
Figure 6.24
Th / K ratios interpreted in terms of
Gamma Ray Log palaeoclimate (From Rider, 1996)
Spectral Gamma Ray Log
Palaeoclimate
• Th/K ratio changes in
shales, associated with
climatic variation.
• High ratios associated
with a humid climate
(Westphalian, UK).
• Low values with an arid
climate (Permian, UK).

52
Figure 6.25
Example of a pitfall of using the GR log based
Gamma Ray Log solely on API value and log shape (After Rider,
Natural Gamma Ray Log 1996)
Pitfalls of interpretation
This figure demonstrates the cylindrical

shaped, low gamma ray count measured in
a basic igneous sill.
The shape of the log curve is easily

confused with a blocky channel sandstone,
demonstrating the need to use more
information than simply the GR log by itself
(e.g. use cuttings, core data, and other logs).

53

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Formation Evaluation

Gamma Ray Logs

• The gamma ray log measures the radioactivity of a rock formation.

• Radioactivity increases towards the right, with higher API units.

• Shales have a higher radioactivity than sandstone and limestones.

Can you differentiate sand

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

Gamma ray logs

• Gamma rays logs can sometimes

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• Two main types of gamma ray tools:

Both tools passively record the radiation of a rock.

• Higher counts are recorded from formations such as

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• That emit short bursts of high energy radiation (gamma

• Gamma rays penetrate a few inches…then they either

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• Radiation from Potassium (40K) has a single

• Mega electron volts (1[MeV] = 1.6 x 10-13 [J])

• Thorium and Uranium emit radiation with a

• Distinct peaks are

• These elements can be identified from one

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• High-energy region, with three main peaks:

• Thallium208 at 2.62 MeV (from the Th232 family)

• Bismuth114 at 1.76 MeV (from the U232 family)

• Potassium40 at 1.46 MeV

• Low-energy region, covering the energy range of the gamma

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• The relative amplitudes of the three spectra will depend on the

• A quantitative evaluation of the presence of thorium, uranium

• As thorium and uranium series are normally in a state of secular

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• Medium Energy GR (0.5 to 3 MeV) undergo

• Low Energy GR (<0.5 MeV) collide with

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• The photomultiplier consists of a photocathode, a focusing electrode, and

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

Gamma ray units (API / GAPI)

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• GR energy (Higher energy radiation recorded on detector from deeper

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• The count-rate statistics can be described by Poisson's distribution which is similar

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

High Low (5.2 Secs) 3

Low (5.2 Secs) 1

Note: Dead Time!

• The tool should ideally be stationary, or moving as slowly as possible.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• This leads to a lower count-rate than the true one.

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• The dead time effect

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• Nature of the bore-hole fluid:

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University

• Position in the hole

R.Evans, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Curtin University