PASSAGE 1: WHAT DESTROYED THE CIVILISATION OF EASTER ISLAND?

A
Easter Island, or Rapu Nui as it is known locally, is home to several hundred ancient human
statues - the moai. After this remote Pacific island was settled by the Polynesians, it remained
isolated for centuries. All the energy and resources that went into the moai - some of which are
ten metres tall and weigh over 7,000 kilos - came from the island itself. Yet when Dutch
explorers landed in 1722, they met a Stone Age culture. The moai were carved with stone tools,
then transported for many kilometres, without the use of animals or wheels, to massive stone
platforms. The identity of the moai builders was in doubt until well into the twentieth century.
Thor Heyerdahl, the Norwegian ethnographer and adventurer, thought the statues had been
created by pre-Inca peoples from Peru. Bestselling Swiss author Erich von Daniken believed they
were built by stranded extraterrestrials. Modern science - linguistic, archaeological and genetic
evidence - has definitively proved the moai builders were Polynesians, but not how they moved
their creations. Local folklore maintains that the statues walked, while researchers have tended
to assume the ancestors dragged the statues somehow, using ropes and logs.

B
When the Europeans arrived, Rapa Nui was grassland, with only a few scrawny trees. In the
1970s and 1980s, though, researchers found pollen preserved in lake sediments, which proved
the island had been covered in lush palm forests for thousands of years. Only after the
Polynesians arrived did those forests disappear. US scientist Jared Diamond believes that the
Rapanui people - descendants of Polynesian settlers - wrecked their own environment. They had
unfortunately settled on an extremely fragile island - dry, cool, and too remote to be properly
fertilised by windblown volcanic ash. When the islanders cleared the forests for firewood and
farming, the forests didn’t grow back. As trees became scarce and they could no longer
construct wooden canoes for fishing, they ate birds. Soil erosion decreased their crop yields.
Before Europeans arrived, the Rapanui had descended into civil war and cannibalism, he
maintains. The collapse of their isolated civilisation, Diamond writes, is a ’worst-case scenario
for what may lie ahead of us in our own future’.

C
The moai, he thinks, accelerated the self-destruction. Diamond interprets them as power
displays by rival chieftains who, trapped on a remote little island, lacked other ways of asserting
their dominance. They competed by building ever bigger figures. Diamond thinks they laid the
moai on wooden sledges, hauled over log rails, but that required both a lot of wood and a lot of
people. To feed the people, even more land had to be cleared. When the wood was gone and
civil war began, the islanders began toppling the moai. By the nineteenth century none were
standing.

D
Archaeologists Terry Hunt of the University of Hawaii and Carl Lipo of California State University
agree that Easter Island lost its lush forests and that it was an ‘ecological catastrophe' - but they
believe the islanders themselves weren’t to blame. And the moai certainly weren’t.
Archaeological excavations indicate that the Rapanui went to heroic efforts to protect the
resources of their wind-lashed, infertile fields. They built thousands of circular stone windbreaks
and gardened inside them, and used broken volcanic rocks to keep the soil moist. In short, Hunt
and Lipo argue, the prehistoric Rapanui were pioneers of sustainable farming.

E
Hunt and Lipo contend that moai-building was an activity that helped keep the peace between
islanders. They also believe that moving the moai required few people and no wood, because
they were walked upright. On that issue, Hunt and Lipo say, archaeological evidence backs up
Rapanui folklore. Recent experiments indicate that as few as 18 people could, with three strong
ropes and a bit of practice, easily manoeuvre a 1,000 kg moai replica a few hundred metres. The
figures’ fat bellies tilted them forward, and a D-shaped base allowed handlers to roll and rock
them side to side.

F
Moreover, Hunt and Lipo are convinced that the settlers were not wholly responsible for the
loss of the island’s trees. Archaeological finds of nuts from the extinct Easter Island palm show
tiny grooves, made by the teeth of Polynesian rats. The rats arrived along with the settlers, and
in just a few years, Hunt and Lipo calculate, they would have overrun the island. They would
have prevented the reseeding of the slow-growing palm trees and thereby doomed Rapa Nui’s
forest, even without the settlers’ campaign of deforestation. No doubt the rats ate birds’ eggs
too. Hunt and Lipo also see no evidence that Rapanui civilisation collapsed when the palm
forest did. They think its population grew rapidly and then remained more or less stable until
the arrival of the Europeans, who introduced deadly diseases to which islanders had no
immunity. Then in the nineteenth century slave traders decimated the population, which
shrivelled to 111 people by 1877.

G
Hunt and Lipo’s vision, therefore, is one of an island populated by peaceful and ingenious moai
builders and careful stewards of the land, rather than by reckless destroyers ruining their own
environment and society. ‘Rather than a case of abject failure, Rapu Nui is an unlikely story of
success’, they claim. Whichever is the case, there are surely some valuable lessons which the
world at large can learn from the story of Rapa Nui.

Questions 21-24
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 21-24 on your answer sheet.

Jared Diamond’s View

Diamond believes that the Polynesian settlers on Rapa Nui destroyed its forests, cutting down
its trees for fuel and clearing land for 21 .................... Twentieth-century discoveries of pollen
prove that Rapu Nui had once been covered in palm forests, which had turned into grassland by
the time the Europeans arrived on the island. When the islanders were no longer able to build
the 22 .................... they needed to go fishing, they began using the island’s 23 .................... as a
food source, according to Diamond. Diamond also claims that the moai were built to show the
power of the island’s chieftains, and that the methods of transporting the statues needed not
only a great number of people, but also a great deal of 24 .................... .
 PASSAGE 2: CORK
Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough,
elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been
used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed then sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while
the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals.

And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness,
insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at
a constant 20°C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the
bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic
centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The cells are filled with air,
which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch
it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure.

Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece
and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400
millimetres of rain per year, and no more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive
in poor soil, putting down deep root in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugal’s
Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century,
this region had become the world’s largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for
roughly half of all cork production around the world.

Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the
trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in
patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of
approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top- quality
cork, it’s necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of
summer’s day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when it’s too cold - or when the
air is damp - the tree will be damaged.

Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has
been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical
cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can
manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of
the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for
about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that
might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle
stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade, Corkboard and cork
tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the
manufacture of concrete.

Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle
stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is
caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the
interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or
four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has
been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium
screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more
convenient for the user.

The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is
more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been
associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled
without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and
prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns
about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising.

Question 1 - 5
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 The cork oak has the thickest bark of any living tree.
2 Scientists have developed a synthetic cork with the same cellular structure as natural cork.
3 Individual cork oak trees must be left for 25 years between the first and second harvest.
4 Cork bark should be stripped in dry atmospheric conditions
5 The only way to remove the bark from cork oak trees is by hand.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 6-13 on your answer sheet.

Comparison of aluminium screw caps and cork bottle stoppers

Advantages of aluminium screw caps

• do not affect the 6.......................... of the bottle contents

• are 7.......................... to produce
• are 8.......................... to use

Advantages of cork bottle stoppers

• suit the 9.......................... of quality products

• made from a 10.......................... material
• easily 11..........................
• cork forests aid 12..........................
• cork forests stop 13.......................... happening
 PASSAGE 3: THE HISTORY OF GLASS
From our earliest origins, man has been making use of glass. Historians have discovered that a
type of natural glass – obsidian – formed in places such as the mouth of a volcano as a result of
the intense heat of an eruption melting sand – was first used as tips for spears. Archaeologists
have even found evidence of man-made glass which dates back to 4000 BC; this took the form
of glazes used for coating stone beads. It was not until 1500 BC, however, that the first hollow
glass container was made by covering a sand core with a layer of molten glass.

Glass blowing became the most common way to make glass containers from the first century
BC. The glass made during this time was highly coloured due to the impurities of the raw
material. In the first century AD, methods of creating colourless glass were developed, which
was then tinted by the addition of colouring materials. The secret of glass making was taken
across Europe by the Romans during this century. However, they guarded the skills and
technology required to make glass very closely, and it was not until their empire collapsed in
476 AD that glass-making knowledge became widespread throughout Europe and the Middle
East. From the 10th century onwards, the Venetians gained a reputation for technical skill and
artistic ability in the making of glass bottles, and many of the city’s craftsmen left Italy to set up
glassworks throughout Europe.

A major milestone in the history of glass occurred with the invention of lead crystal glass by the
English glass manufacturer George Ravenscroft (1632-1683). He attempted to counter the effect
of clouding that sometimes occurred in blown glass by introducing lead to the raw materials
used in the process. The new glass he created was softer and easier to decorate, and had a
higher refractive index, adding to its brilliance and beauty, and it proved invaluable to the
optical industry. It is thanks to Ravenscroft’s invention that optical lenses, astronomical
telescopes, microscopes and the like became possible.

In Britain, the modern glass industry only really started to develop after the repeal of the Excise
Act in 1845. Before that time, heavy taxes had been placed on the amount of glass melted in a
glasshouse, and were levied continuously from 1745 to 1845. Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace at
London’s Great Exhibition of 1851 marked the beginning of glass as a material used in the
building industry. This revolutionary new building encouraged the use of glass in public,
domestic and horticultural architecture. Glass manufacturing techniques also improved with the
advancement of science and the development of better technology.

From 1887 onwards, glass making developed from traditional mouth-blowing to a semi-
automatic process, after factory-owner HM Ashley introduced a machine capable of producing
200 bottles per hour in Castleford, Yorkshire, England – more than three times quicker than any
previous production method. Then in 1907, the first fully automated machine was developed in
the USA by Michael Owens – founder of the Owens Bottle Machine Company (later the major
manufacturers Owens-Illinois) – and installed in its factory. Owens’ invention could produce an
impressive 2,500 bottles per hour. Other developments followed rapidly, but it was not until the
First World War, when Britain became out off from essential glass suppliers, that glass became
part of the scientific sector. Previous to this, glass had been as a craft rather than a precise
science.

Today, glass making is big business. It has become a modern, hi-tech industry operating in a
fiercely competitive global market where quality, design and service levels are critical to
maintaining market share. Modern glass plants are capable of making millions of glass
containers a day in many different colours, with green, brown and clear remaining the most
popular. Few of us can imagine modern life without glass. It features in almost every aspect of
our lives – in our homes, our cars and whenever we sit down to eat or drink. Glass packaging is
used for many products, many beverages are sold in glass, as are numerous foodstuffs, as well
as medicines and cosmetics.

Glass is an ideal material for recycling, and with growing consumer concern for green issues,
glass bottles and jars are becoming ever more popular. Glass recycling is good news for the
environment. It saves used glass containers being sent to landfill. As less energy is needed to
melt recycled glass than to melt down raw materials, this also saves fuel and production costs.
Recycling also reduces the need for raw materials to be quarried, thus saving precious
resources.

Questions 1-8
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet.

The History of Glass

• Early humans used a material called 1……………………….. to make the sharp points of their
2…………………….

• 4000 BC: 3………………………… made of stone were covered in a coating of man-made glass.

• First century BC: glass was coloured because of the 4………………………. in the material.

• Until 476 AD: Only the 5………………………… knew how to make glass.

• From 10th century: Venetians became famous for making bottles out of glass.

• 17th century: George Ravenscroft developed a process using 6……………………….. to avoid the
occurrence of 7………………………. in blown glass.

• Mid-19th century: British glass production developed after changes to laws concerning
8……………………..
Questions 9-13
In boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

9 In 1887, HM Ashley had the fastest bottle-producing machine that existed at the time.

10 Michael Owens was hired by a large US company to design a fully-automated bottle

manufacturing machine for them.

11 Nowadays, most glass is produced by large international manufacturers.

12 Concern for the environment is leading to an increased demand for glass containers.

13 It is more expensive to produce recycled glass than to manufacture new glass.