AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY

Automation drivers:
• comfort (humanisation)
• quality increase
• rationalisation
• real time
• possible malfunctions

The task of automation is the independent (autonomous) execution of processes according to previously defined algorithms without human
intervention. The intervention by human is replaced by controllers.

Definition of Automation (DIN 19 233)

Automation means using artificial means so that a process runs automatically. In a system this means equipping them with automats so that
it works automatically.

Automation is the result of automating.

Automatically means working like a automat. An automat is an artificial system that automatically follows a program Based on the program
the system makes decisions by combining inputs with the respective states of the system with outputs as consequence.

Automation fields
1. Automation of technical processes in devices, machines, units, and plants
• Measuring
• Controlling
• Regulating
• Monitoring and recording
• Guiding and directing
• Operating and supervising
2. Automation of technical activities in construction, control engineering, development, and production
• Designing and calculating
• Drawing circuit diagrams
• Software design
• Project planning
• Production preparation
• Testing i.a.

Automation tasks are defined in the requirements specification. The automation tasks include:
− the energetic process impact through actuators
− the process state detection by sensors
− process control through technical devices
➔ As an example, the following tasks can be cited: closed loop control, measuring, monitoring, coordinating, keeping process
sequences, etc.

The automation tasks are solved through abstract automation functions and automation equipment.

The automation functions describe how the automation tasks are solved, such as the task of controlling the filling level can be achieved by
defining the dependence of the valve position on the filling level in the form of a mathematical function or algorithm.

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Automation components:
1. Sensors: detects the state of our model: temperature, pressure, etc. They are sensing and provide the information to the
automation controller.
2. Automation controller: taking the decision to move the box, telling the robot to move or not. and tells the decision to the actuator.
3. Communication systems:
• Point-to-point connections:
A point-to-point controller involves a direct, one-to-one connection between the controller and each individual device or
component in the system. Each device is connected directly to the controller with its own set of wires or cables.
This approach is relatively simple and straightforward. It's commonly used when the number of devices is limited, and
each device's functionality can be controlled independently without much interaction with other devices.
Point-to-point wiring can become complex and messy when the number of devices increases, as it often results in many
wires and cables, making installation, maintenance, and troubleshooting more challenging.
• Bus systems:
It is a networked approach to automation where devices are connected to a common communication bus. This bus acts
as a shared communication medium through which devices can exchange data and commands.
Devices in a bus system are typically assigned unique addresses, and the controller communicates with them using these
addresses. This allows for a more organized and streamlined control of various devices.
Bus systems are advantageous in scenarios where there are many devices that need to interact with each other or where
the system's architecture is more complex. They reduce the amount of wiring required, simplify installation, and make it
easier to add or remove devices from the system without major rewiring.

4. Actuators: they are part of a device or machine that helps it to achieve physical movements by converting energy, into mechanical
force.
5. Devices for operation/supervision
6. Installation technology: control cabinets, cable train.

Automation Pyramid

Demands on the automation system:

Real time capability: it’s available if the requirements are met by concurrency and timeliness.
• Timeliness (real time tasking): The entire signal acquisition, transmission, processing, and output takes place within a
maximum response time that is less than the shortest process time.

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 • Concurrency (time sharing): by nested and shifted execution of all tasks a quasi-simultaneous processing is achieved.

Real-time capability means being fast enough, not be fast. If you crash with your car, your airbag must deploy on time.

The meaning of being fast enough depends on the process that you want to automate or control.

Realisation of the real-time capability:

• A real-time system consists of a real time operating system and the application program.
• An application program consists of several computation processes (tasks).
• Each task carries out a complete algorithm.
• The operating system controls the chronological sequence of the tasks.

Basic functions of a real-time operating system: time services, task management, priority driven processor allocation, synchronisation and
inter task communication, event handling.

Environmental conditions in the factory

Protection classes according to DIN

Reliability: probability that an automation system fulfils the planned task flawlessly (senza difetti).
Measures to guarantee reliability:
• are directed against the occurrence of errors and failures.
• take place for economic considerations.
• based on cost benefit considerations, reliability calculations, etc.

Safety: it’s a binary measure. A plant can be safe or not safe. (yes/no)
Measures to guarantee safety:
• are directed against dangerous effects of errors and failures.
• occur to protect body and life as well as the environment.
• result from legal regulations, specification of the supervising authorities (e.g., TÜV), etc.

Methods and techniques:

➔ Reliability technology (reduce failure probability):
− Improved components (HW and SW)
− Improved system structure (HW and SW)
− Improved redundancy structure (HW and SW)
➔ Safety technology (excluding dangers):

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 − Error exclusion (HW and SW)
− Fail safe fail safe only via HW)
− Error detection (HW and SW) and transition to safe state
➔ Reliability and safety technology (combination of the above-mentioned methods and techniques):
− Safety not at the expense of availability and vice versa (Sicurezza senza compromettere la disponibilità e viceversa)
− Solve high safety and availability requirements conceptually.

Safe state
Safe state (VDI VDE 3542): state of a considered unit in which the risk is justifiably low.

Safe state of the operation:

• Specified normal operating conditions (normal operation)
• Operating conditions that are taken as consequence of interferences (reduced performance, reduced speed, emergency operation).
• Switch off, or stop states that can occur as consequence of interferences (out of order).

Examples for safe states:

− Train ride at allowed speed except forbidden situations (such as stops in the tunnel)
− Aircraft in flight and after landing

Redundancy
Redundancy designates the additional existence of functionally equal or comparable resources of a technical system.

Levels of redundancy:
1. Component redundancy
2. Module redundancy
3. Partial system redundancy
4. System redundancy
5. Hardware/software
6. Hardware redundancy
7. Software redundancy software redundancy

Further forms:
− Code redundancy
− Time redundant

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EQUIPMENT TECHNOLOGY

Technical process

Definitions according to DIN 66201

• Process: Reforming / transport of material / energy / information
• Technical process: Process whose state variables can be measured / controlled with technical means.
• State variables = process variables = input / output variables that characterise the process (tell us something about the process)
• Analog state variables: for example temperature, pressure, position (continuous value range)
• Binary state variables: for example, valve position open / closed, switch position on / off -> variables that only have two states.

1) SENSORS

Sensors convert the process variable in an analogy electric signal. Inside a sensor the first thing is to turn physical quantitative in an electric
signal and to do this there are some physical laws.

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Development stage of sensors
Basic sensors: turns measure temperature in to voltage.

Initiators
➔ Task: Deliver a binary information about, whether a certain position is approached, a workpiece inserted, a certain filling level is
reached etc.
➔ Designs: Inductive proximity switch, Capacitive proximity switch, mechanical limit switch, light barrier.
➔ Features:
o Mode of operation: contactless or non-contactless, with or without shifting force achievable.
o Switching frequency: highly or low.
o Design: cubic or cylindrical, with or without thread, one piece or multiple parts
o Applicability: all materials or only electronic conducting materials

Identification systems
➔ Task: Identification of a workpiece a tool, a container, a position etc.; possibly handling of additional information
(for example tool correction values).
➔ Components:
o Data carriers: plaintext label, barcode, programmable data, carriers (chips), oscillating circuit (RFID) etc.
o Write/read device: light pen, laser scanner, camera, coil…
➔ Features:
o Possibilities: read-only or read &write
o Reading modes: only static, static and dynamic

Criteria for technical use:

1. Accuracy
2. Reliability
3. Reaction speed
4. Response sensitivity
5. Switching cycles per unit of time
6. Resolution (resolution of temperature in terms of 2, 3, 4, degrees or for example 2,1; 2,2; 3,1; 3,1)

Signal processing chain of sensors

Starting from the process you have

process variables that you want to
measure.

Sensor are responsible to turn the

physical value in electric values.

sensors need calibration because the

sensor element can have some
changes during the time. And also
need the linearisation because linear
values are easier to read.

The output from a sensor is provided

to the controller.

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We can distinguish sensors based on their 4 criteria and based on their forms.

2) ACTUATORS
Actuators control the mass and energy flows in a physical process. (energy to move something, energy for feet).

Classification of actuators
Generation movement:
• Linear movement
− Pneumatic cylinder hydraulic cylinder
− Electrical linear motor
− Piezoelectric actuators: to provide very small linear movement.
− Magneto strictive actuators
• Rotation:
− DC motor: if you create mechanical rotation, you can then convert it in a linear movement
− AC motor
Generation of power:
• Electric
• Mechanical
• Thermal

Signal processing chain of actuators

-> Controller (that has received the output from the
sensor) gives the command of what to do to the Actuator
through a digital electric signal.

-> The digital electrical signals has to be turned in a analog

electrical signal.

-> The analog electric signal has to be amplified through

the Amplifier.

-> Finally, the energy that is coming out the amplifier has
to be changed: for example, from an electric energy to a
mechanical energy.

The trend
Sensors become cheaper more is their functionality because less
equipment and knowledge are needed.

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CONTROL SYSTEMS

Control area: how to program automation control and how it can control the production process.

Control hierarchies:

Continuous process: you can measure what is going through but there is a continuous flow of products that
are then combine in a process to produce some output. you cannot separate that flow.

You can’t can stop the process or if you stop it, you need rent down your facility for few days and it could have
different consequences on your production and costs.

Discrete process happens when the manufacturing process can separate in specific steps that are performed
one after other.

Discrete work pieces and discrete process are very common in automation.

They can be easily stopped, and then restart without any problems.

Mix: packaging machines for example of orange juice.

It's a continuous flow but then you can count about how many packs you have done.

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 ➔ Influencing process through open loop control

Open loop control: the process is controlled without feedback according to a given algorithm.

But we don’t measure the result: if we have a disturbance it can change the output but there isn't a feedback.

➔ Influencing process through regulation

Closed loop control: the characteristic process variables are measured and compared with given set point values. Controller signals are
calculated (measure compare actuate) from the variance according to a stored control strategy. -> minimize error value

We want to compensate the disturbance and so we

measure the output, and we give the result.

Basic terms of closed loop control:

Time behaviour of the controlled system

If we change our correcting value, for example if we open the valve from
2 to 10 it doesn't means that the temperature goes up in the same
immediately time, there is a delay that you can see in the graphic below.

The slope of the curve tells us how fast the system is responding.

Control functions

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Cell level

Control components:
• IPC Industry Personal Computer
• PLC Programmable Logic Control: the PLC checks the value from the sensors and based on that conditions we can decide the
actions to do.
• CNC Computerised Numerical Control
• RC Robot Control: robot control and CNC are more about the control of motion.

Typical control tasks

Realisation possibilities

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Structure of a PLC

Equipment Technology
The minimum configuration of a PLC comprises:
• a central processing unit with memory and processor (CPU)
• an input and output unit for binary signals
• a power supply unit

There is the possibility of expansion by:

• additional input and output units (analog I/O, bus interface)
• supplementary units special tasks

Compact devices:
• Small dimensions
• Small number of inputs/outputs
• Manageable size and easier to protect from the environment.

IPC with integrated PLC

Industrial PC -> computer technologies become more and more used to perform control tasks.

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Cyclic program execution: how PLC works

Cycle time and reaction time

EXERCISE

Logic circuits
➔ Combinatorial circuit -> combinatorial networks:
− No memory functions
➔ Sequential circuit -> sequential networks:
− Memory functions
− Time days functions

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 − Pulse generation

Logic control: the input signals are continuously updated; at all times they are bound to a unique state of output signals.
For example: bell rings when button at the door is pressed and supply voltage is available.

Sequence control:
• Sequential process: the step n+1 can be performed only after the n-th step is completed and the transition conditions are met.
• Time triggered sequence control: transition conditions only depend on time sequences (e.g. traffic lights)
• Process-dependent sequence control: transition conditions depend on process signals (e.g. position dependent sequence control
of multiple pneumatic cylinders)

Programming languages according to IEC 61131-3

Programming devices
Programmable logic controller:
• Programs don‘t need to be changed continuously
• Therefore no monitor, no keyboard
• Instead, use of external programming device

-> Portable programming device:

− Integrated screen
− EPROM programming device
− Robust design (cf. IPC)

-> Simple handheld programming device:

− LCD display
− Function keys

-> Standard Personal Computers:

− Standard PC
− PLC programming software

EXERCISE:
An aggregate is cooled by two fans. Their operation is monitored by one sensor each. The following monitoring and signalling functions are
required:
− If one of the two fans fails an optical signal shall be output
− If both fans in fail an additional acoustic signal shall be output
Both functions are effective only when the unit is turned on.

Allocation map

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 Function block diagram (FBD) Ladder Diagram (LD) Instruction List (IL)

Structured Text (ST)

EXERCISE:
A bottle should be transported on a conveyor to a filling device.
− Once the bottle is under the filler neck, the belt shall stop and the filling process starts.
− When the bottle is full , the filling process is stopped then the belt is turned on again , and the bottle is transported away.

Allocation map

Advantages of IEC compliant programming:

1. Experience and technology sharing between the software and hardware manufacturers
2. Interchangeability of the application programs between different PLC systems
3. Less familiarization and training requirements for PLC programmer
4. PLC vendor independent development of additional packages such as operating and monitoring
5. Testing and verification of the systems by independent, internationally recognized institutions

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EXERCISE: Drink vending machine

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Graphical representation: it’s another way to minimize the function
− Combination of arguments determine the field
− Function value determines the contents of the field

It’s possible to add an additional argument: neighbouring fields differ in only one argument

Design principle of larger diagrams:

1. Adding an argument has a doubling of the number of fields as consequence
2. Neighbouring fields differ in only one argument
3. This is also true at the edges of the KV diagram , so that it spatially forms a cylinder

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EXERCIZE: Seven-segment display

Other type of symbol for assignment:

➔ Symbol for “equal”

➔ Symbol for “and”

➔ Symvol for “or”

➔ Symbol for “and before or”

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 ➔ Symbol for “or before and”

➔ Symbol for “query for signal state 0 (negation)”

➔ Symbol for “exclusive-or (XOR)”

EXERCIZE: Basement garage ventilation monitoring

4 ventilation fans (Fan1, Fan2, Fan3, Fan4) are installed in a basement garage. Lights at the entrance indicate the status of the ventilation:
• Green -> 3 or all fans are in operation
• Yellow -> 2 fans are in operation
• Red -> 1 or no fan is in operation
Task: develop an optimized (minimum logical functions) PLC program using an IEC 61131-3 programming language.

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EXERCISE: Connection diagram
An actuator Y of a facility is controlled via switches S1 to S3 (connection diagram). The facility shall be controlled via a PLC in future. The 3
switches are replaced by 3 sensors connected to the inputs E1, E2 and E3.

Task: Develop an optimized (minimum logical functions) PLC program using an IEC 61131-3 programming language.

Memory function (Flip Flop)

If the output of the pure logical function depends only on the input situation and not on what was happened
in the past, it’s different for the memory function.

The output of the memory function depends on what was happened in the past, so it has not only a
correlation with the input situation.

Symbol for the memory function:

➔ Memory with priority reset:

➔ Memory with priority set:

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EXERCISE: AC motor 1
An AC motor is started via a pushbutton switch S1 (make contact) and stopped via A push button switch S0 (break contact).
The signal lights H1 and H2 indicate the switching status.
Task: Develop the necessary PLC program in FBD.

EXERCISE: AC motor 2
An AC motor is started via a push button switch S1 (make contact) in clockwise rotation. The push button switch S2 (make contact) starts
counterclockwise rotation.
The push button switch S0 (break contact) stops the motor.
Rotation can be changed directly without the need to stop the motor.
The signal lights H1, H2 and H3 indicate the switching status.
Task: Develop the necessary PLC program in FBD.

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PLC TIME FUNCTIONS

TP (pulse)

TON (switch on delay)

TOF (switch off delay)

TONR (accumulated time)

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Pulse generator

EXERCISE: Monitoring of 3 pumps

The operation of 3 pumps shall be monitored. A signal light H1 shall display continuous light (C) if at least 2 out of 3 pumps are in operation.
The signal light shall blink slowly (S) if only 1 out of 3 pumps is in operation and it shall blink fast (F) in case no pump is in operation.

Task: Develop the necessary PLC program in FBD.

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PLC COUNTING FUNCTIONS

CTU counter up CTD counter down CTUD counter up down

EXERCISE: Parking deck

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Edge detection

Rising Edge (Positive Edge)

EXERCISE: edge analysis

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EXERCISE: Parking deck 2

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EXERCISE: Railroad crossing

To ensure the safety of the railroad crossing, a traffic light for the car traffic shall be installed. The red light shall be switched on in case a
train approaches the crossing. It turns to green if the train is moving away from the crossing.

4 inductive proximity sensors S1, S2, S3 and S4 are installed to determine the direction of trains figure.

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SEQUENTIAL FUNCTION CHART
Step: a step represents a certain state in which predetermined actions are performed

Transition: a transition contains the condition which controls the transition from one step to the next

It’s a continuous cycle of step, transition, step, transition. You can’t have two sets in sequence or two transitions in
sequence.

Inside a step you can do actions:

D = delay, to stay more time in the current

step

N = set as long as the step is active

S = set on true (1)

R = set on false (0)

L = set for a limited time period

Sequential functional charts:

Alternative branches Simultaneous branches Jump

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EXERCISE: Traffic light control

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EXERCISE: 3 conveyors

EXERCISE: Pill dispenser

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EXERCISE: Pick & Place Basic

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EXERCISE: Sorting station

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