Circuit Laws and Theorems

3.0 Methods for Circuit Analysis

3.1 Fundamental Laws of Electricity
3.1.1 Ohm’s law
 Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow
of electric charge.
 This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented
by the symbol R.
 The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and its
length ℓ as shown in figure 1.3(a). In mathematical form,

where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters.

 The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is the resistor.
 The circuit symbol for the resistor is shown in Fig. 1.3 (b), where R stands for the resistance
of the resistor.
 The relationship between current and voltage for a resistor is known as Ohm’s law.
 Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor. That is,
v α i ………………………………………….. (2.3)
 Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R. Thus, Eq.
(2.3) becomes
v = iR…………………………………………. (3.3)
which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law. R in Eq. (3.3) is measured in the unit of ohms,
designated Ω.

3.1.2 Nodes, branches, and, loops

 A network is an interconnection of elements or devices, while a circuit is a network
providing one or more closed paths.
 In network topology, there are properties relating to the placement of elements in the network
and the geometric configuration of the network. Such elements include branches, nodes, and
loops.
 Branches
- A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
- In other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element. The circuit in Fig. 2.3 has
five branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A current source, and the three
resistors.

 Nodes
- A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
- A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (a connecting wire)
connects two nodes, the two nodes constitute a single node. The circuit in Fig. 2.3 has
three nodes a, b, and c. Notice that the three points that form node b are connected by
perfectly conducting wires and therefore constitute a single point. The same is true of the
four points forming node c. We demonstrate that the circuit in Fig. 2.3 has only three
nodes by redrawing the circuit in Fig. 3.3. The two circuits in Figs. 2.3 and 3.3 are
identical. However, for the sake of clarity, nodes b and c are spread out with perfect
conductors as in Fig. 2.3.

 Loops
- A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
- A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes, and
returning to the starting node without passing through any node more than once.
- A loop is said to be independent if it contains a branch which is not in any other loop.
 - Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of equations.
- For example, the closed path abca containing the 2-Ω resistor in Fig. 3.3 is a loop.
Another loop is the closed path bcb containing the 3-Ω resistor and the current source.
Although one can identify six loops in Fig. 2.11, only three of them are independent.
- A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the
fundamental theorem of network topology:
b = l + n – 1…………..………………………….….. (4.3)
 Two definition of great value to the study of voltages and currents in an electric circuit
1. Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially and
consequently carry the same current.
2. Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.
- Elements are in series when they are chain-connected or connected sequentially, end to
end. For example, two elements are in series if they share one common node and no other
element is connected to that common node.
- Elements in parallel are connected to the same pair of terminals.
- Elements may be connected in a way that they are neither in series nor in parallel. In the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.3, the voltage source and the 5-Ω resistor are in series because the
same current will flow through them. The 2-Ω resistor, the 3-Ω resistor, and the current
source are in parallel because they are connected to the same two nodes (b and c) and
consequently have the same voltage across them. The 5-Ω and 2-Ω resistors are neither in
series nor in parallel with each other.

- Example 1
Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown in Fig. (a). Identify
which elements are in series and which are in parallel.

Solution:
Since there are four elements in the circuit, the circuit has four branches: 10 V, 5Ω, 6Ω,
and 2 A. The circuit has three nodes as identified in Fig. (b).The 5-Ω resistor is in series
with the 10-V voltage source because the same current would flow in both. The 6-Ω
resistor is in parallel with the 2-A current source because both are connected to the same
nodes 2 and 3.

- Example 2
How many branches and nodes does the circuit in Fig. (c) have? Identify the elements
that are in series and in parallel.
 Answer:
Five branches and three nodes are identified in Fig. (d). The 1-Ω and 2-Ω resistors are in
parallel. The 4-Ω resistor and 10-V source are also in parallel.

3.1.3 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

 Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety
of electric circuits.
 Regarding current and voltage, there are two Kirchhoff’s laws known as Kirchhoff’s current
law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
- Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node
(or a closed boundary) is zero. Mathematically, KCL implies that

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current
entering (or leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as
positive, while currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.
- Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a
closed path (or loop) is zero. Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

Where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches
in the loop) and vm is the mth voltage.

To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 4.3. The sign on each voltage is the polarity
of the terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with any
branch and go around the loop either clockwise or counterclockwise. Suppose we start
with the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as shown; then voltages would
be −v1,+ v2,+ v3,−v4, and +v5, in that order. For example, as we reach branch 3, the
positive terminal is met first; hence we have+v3. For branch 4, we reach the negative
terminal first; hence, −v4. Thus, KVL yields
−v1 + v2 + v3 − v4 + v5 = 0 ………...…......…………….… (7.3)
Rearranging terms gives
v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 + v4 …..…………………………………(8.3)
 - Example 3
For the circuit in Fig. 5.3 (a), find voltages v1 and v2.

Solution:
To find v1 and v2, we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Assume that current
i flow through the loop as shown in Fig. 5.3 (b). From Ohm’s law,
v1 = 2i, v2 = −3i …………..………………………………. (9.3)
Applying KVL around the loop gives
−20 + v1 − v2 = 0 ………….………...…………………… (10.3)
Substituting Eqn. (9.3) into Eqn. (10.3), we obtain
−20 + 2i + 3i =0 or 5i = 20 ⇒ i = 4 A
Substituting i in Eqn. (9.3) finally gives v1 = 8 V, v2 = −12 V

3.2 Circuit Theorems

 A major advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws as we did in part 3.12 above
is that we can analyze a circuit without tampering with its original configuration. A major
disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large, complex circuit, tedious computation is
involved.
 To handle the complexity, some theorems have been developed to simplify circuit analysis.
Such theorems include Superposition, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
 Superposition Theorem
- The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element
in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting alone.
- Three steps to apply Superposition theorem
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or
current) due to that active source.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.

- Example 4
Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit in Fig. 6.3.

Fig. 6.3

Solution:
Since there are two sources, let v = v1 + v2 where v1 and v2 are the contributions due to the
6-V voltage source and the 3-A current source, respectively. To obtain v1, we set the
current source to zero, as shown in Fig. 6.3(b). Applying KVL to the loop in Fig. 6.3(b)
gives 12i1 − 6 = 0V, then i1 = 0.5 A. Thus, v1 = 4i1 = 2 V. We may also use voltage
division to get v1. To get v2, we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. 6.3(c). Using
current division, i3 = 2 A. Hence, v2 = 4i3 = 8 V. And we find v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10 V.

 Thevenin’s Theorem
- Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where
VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
- A summary of steps for applying Thevenin’s theorem;
 1. Open the two terminals (remove any load) between which you want to find the
Thevenin equivalent circuit.
2. Determine the voltage (VTH) across the two open terminals.
3. Determine the resistance (RTH) between the two terminals with all voltage sources
shorted and all current sources opened.
4. Connect VTH and RTH in series to produce the complete Thevenin equivalent for the
original circuit.
5. Place the load resistor removed in step 1 across the terminals of the Thevenin
equivalent circuit.

 Norton’s Theorem
- Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN
is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
- A summary of steps for theoretically applying Norton’s theorem;
1. Short the two terminals between which you want to find the Norton equivalent circuit.
2. Determine the current (IN) through the shorted terminals.
3. Determine the resistance (RN) between the two terminals (opened) with all voltage
sources shorted and all current sources opened
4. Connect IN and RN in parallel to produce the complete Norton equivalent circuit for
the original circuit.