PROCESS CONTROL-I

(UPCIE504)

Material Prepared By: Mr. DEBI PRASAD DASH,

Assistant Professor, Department of I&EE,
C.E.T, BHUBANESWAR

Resources:
1. Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson,
Pearson.
2. Process control principles and applications by S. Bhanot., Oxford
University Press, 2010.

1
Prerequisites:
Basic Electronics, Control System

Course Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this course, a student will be able to

1. Interpret different industrial processes.

2. Predict the appropriate controller for a specific process.

3. Design electronic, hydraulic and pneumatic controllers.

4. Identify different final control elements used for process control.

5. Analyze a control valve based on its type and characteristics.

2
 SYLLABUS
Module I (12 hrs)
Introduction to process control-Process definition, what is process-control Block
diagram with examples (Ch-1) [C. D Johnson]. Controller Principle-Introduction,
Process characteristics- process equation, process load, process lag, self-regulation.
Control system parameters-error, variable range, control parameter range, control lag,
Dead Time, Cycling, Controller modes, Discontinuous controller modes-two position
mode, Multi position mode, Floating control mode. Continuous control modes: P, I, D
mode. Composite control modes: PI, PD, PID (Ch-9) [C.D. Johnson]. Comparison of
various controller principle. Controller tuning –process reaction curve (PRC). Ziegler
Nichols tuning [K. Ogata] [(Ch-4.10) S. Bhanot]
Module II (11 hrs)
Electronics Controller-Introduction, Electronics discontinuous controllers, electronic
proportional controller, electronics Integral controller, electronic derivative controller, PI,
PD, PID controller. [Ch- 10, C. D. Johnson][Ch-6, S. Bhanot].Hydraulic and Pneumatic
Controllers-Only PID design. [Ch-10,
C. D. Johnson] [Ch-5, S. Bhanot]. Digital controller: Introduction, components and
working of Direct Digital Control (DDC), benefits of DDC, Digital control realization. [Ch-
7, S. Bhanot]
Module III (10 hrs)
Final control element [Ch-4, K. Kant]: Introduction, Final control operation-signal
conversion, Actuator-pneumatic actuation, hydraulic actuation, Electric actuation.
Control element-Control valve characteristics, control valve categories [Ch-4.6, K. Kant]
[Ch-7, C. D. Johnson]

Text books:
1. Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson.
2. Process control principles and applications by S. Bhanot., Oxford university Press,
2010.
3. Computer based Industrial Control, 2nd ed. by K. Kant.PHI.
Reference Books:
1. M. Gopal, “Digital Control and State Variable Methods” Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.
2. C. Johnson, “Process Control Instrumentation Technology”, PHI, New Delhi.

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 MODULE-I
Class-1

1.1 PROCESS CONTROL

 In process control, the basic objective is to regulate the value of some physical
quantity involved in a process.
 To regulate means to maintain that quantity at some desired value regardless of
external influences.
 The desired value is called the reference value or set point.

1.2 ELEMENTS USED IN PROCESS CONTROL

 To provide a practical, working description of process control, it is useful to describe
the elements and operations involved in more generic terms.
 The elements of a process-control system are different functional parts of the
system. Following elements are the basic elements of a process-control system.

Process:
 Definition: “A process consists of a complex assembly of phenomena that relate to
some manufacturing sequence”.
 Many variables may be involved in such a process. The process where one variable
is controlled is known as single variable process. When many variables, perhaps
inter related, are controlled, the process is known as multivariable process.

Measurement:
 Measurement refers to the conversion of the variable into some corresponding
analog of the variable, such as pneumatic pressure, an electrical voltage or current
or a digitally encoded signal.
 Further transformation or signal conditioning may be required to complete the
measurement function.
 Initial measurement is done by sensor followed by signal conditioning circuit.
 The result of the measurement is a representation of the variable value in some
form required by the other elements in the process-control operation.

Error detector:
 Error detector determines the error by comparing the actual value of the parameter
from measurement and set point value. This should be done before any control
action taken by the controller.
4
 Controller:
 Controller is used to examine the error and determine what action, if any, should be
taken.
 This part of the control system has many names, such as compensator or filter, but
controller is the most common.
 The action required to drive the controlled variable to the set-point value may be
performed by an operator (in case of open-loop process control), by electronic
signal processing, by pneumatic signal processing or by a computer.
 In modern control systems, the operations of the controller are typically performed
by microprocessor-based computers.
 Input to the controller is the error (which is the difference between the measured
value of the controlled variable and the reference value of the variable, expressed in
the same terms as the measured value).
Control element:
 It is the device which provides the required changes in the controlled variable to
bring it to the set point. This element also referred to as final control element. It
has direct influence on the process.
 This element accepts an input from the controller, which is then transformed into
some proportional operation performed on the process.
 Often an intermediate operation is required between the controller output and the
final control element. This operation is referred to as an actuator because it uses
the controller signal to actuate the final control element. The actuator translates the
small energy signal of the controller into a larger energy action on the process.

Class-2

1.3 PROCESS CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

+ e=r-b p Control u Process c

Controller
Set-point(r) Elemen
- t

Measurement

[Fig-1: Block diagram of a process control loop defines all the basic elements and
signals involved]
5
 Process control block diagram is a model constructed using blocks to represent
each distinctive element.
 Figure-1 shows a general block diagram constructed from the elements defined
previously.
 The controlled variable in the process is denoted by c and the measured
representation of the controlled variable is labeled b.
 The controlled variable set point is labeled r, for reference.
 The controller uses the error input to determine an appropriate output signal, which
is provided as input to the control element.
 The control element operates on the process by changing the value of the
controlling process variable, u.
 The error detector is a subtracting-summing point that outputs an error signal,
e = r – b.
Example

(a) Physical Diagram of a Process Control Loop

[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

(b) Block Diagram of the Process Control Loop

[Fig-2: The physical diagram of a control loop and its corresponding block diagram]
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 Figure-2 shows how a physical control system is represented as a block diagram.
 The physical system for control of flow through a pipe is shown in Figure-2.
 Variation of flow through an obstruction (the orifice plate) produces a pressure-
difference variation across the obstruction. This variation is converted to the
standard signal range of 3 to 15 psi.
 The P/I converter changes the pressure to a 4 to 20-mA electric current, which is
sent to the controller.
 The controller outputs a 4 to 20-mA control signal to signify the correct valve setting
to provide the correct flow. This current is converted to a 3- to 15-psi pressure
signal by the I/P(Current to Pressure) converter and applied to a pneumatic
actuator.
 The actuator then adjusts the valve setting.
 Figure-2 shows how all the control system operations are condensed to the
standard block diagram operations of measurement, error detection, controller, and
final control element.
 The purpose of a block diagram approach is to allow the process-control
system to be analyzed as the interaction of smaller and simpler subsystems.
If the characteristics of each element of the system can be determined, then
the characteristics of the assembled system can be established by an
analytical marriage of these subsystems.
 It becomes evident that the specification of a process-control system to regulate a
variable, c, within specified limits and with specified time responses, determines the
characteristics the measurement system must possess. This same set of system
specifications is reflected in the design of the controller and control element.

Class-3

1.4 CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE

 Controller is a device used in process control which takes error (Difference between
the set-point value and measured value of the control variable) as input and
determines an appropriate output to the final control element.
 Essentially, the controller is some form of computer—either analog or digital,
pneumatic or electronic—that, using input measurements, solves certain equations
to calculate the proper output.
 These equations describe the modes or action of controller operation.
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 The nature of the process itself and the particular variable controlled(e.g.
Temperature, Pressure, Flow etc) determine which mode or modes of control are to
be used and the value of certain constants in the mode equations .

1.5 PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS

 The selection of what controller modes to use in a process is a function of the
characteristics of the process.
 Few properties of processes that are important for selecting the proper modes are
discussed below.
Process Equation:
 A process control loop regulates some dynamic variable in a process.
 This controlled variable (e.g. Temperature, Pressure, Flow etc),a process
parameter, may depend on many other parameters in the process
 It may deviate from its desired value because of these sources.
 We have selected one of these other parameters to be our controlling parameter
(which is changed/ manipulated to bring the control variable to desired value).
 If a measurement of the controlled variable shows a deviation from the set point,
then the controlling parameter is changed, which in turn changes the controlled
variable.

[Fig-3: Control of temperature by process control]

[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]
8
 Control of liquid temperature in a tank is shown in Figure-3
 The controlled variable is the liquid temperature (TL).
 This temperature depends on many parameters in the process—for example, the
input flow rate via pipe A, the output flow rate via pipe B, the ambient
temperature(TA), the steam temperature(TS), inlet temperature(T0) and the steam
flow rate(QS).
 In this case, the steam flow rate is the controlling parameter chosen to provide
control over the variable (liquid temperature).
 If one of the other parameters changes, a change in temperature results. To bring
the temperature back to the set point value, we change only the steam flow rate—
that is, heat input to the process.
 This process could be described by a process equation where liquid temperature is
a function as
TL = F(QA, QB, QS, TA, TS, T0)………………………..(1)
Where
QA, QB = flow rates in pipes A and B
QS = steam flow rate
TA = ambient temperature
T0= inlet fluid temperature
TS =steam temperature
 To provide control via QS, we do not need to know the functional relationship
exactly, nor do we require linearity of the function.
 The control loop adjusts QS and thereby regulates TL, regardless of how the other
parameters in Equation (1) vary with each other.
 In many cases, the relationship of Equation (1) is not even analytically known.
Process Load:
 From the process equation or knowledge of and experience with the process, it is
possible to identify a set of values for the process parameters that results in the
controlled variable having the set point value. This set of parameters is called the
nominal set.
 The term process load refers to this set of all parameters, excluding the controlled
variable.
 When all parameters have their nominal values, we speak of the nominal load on
the system.
 The required controlling variable value under these conditions is the nominal value
of that parameter.

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 If the set point is changed, the control parameter is altered to cause the variable to
adopt this new operating point. The load is still nominal, however, because the other
parameters are assumed to be unchanged.
 Suppose one of the parameters changes from nominal, causing a corresponding
shift in the controlled variable. We then say that a process load change has
occurred.
 The controlling variable is adjusted to compensate for this load change and its effect
on the dynamic variable to bring it back to the setpoint.
 In the example of Figure-3, a process load change is caused by a change in any of
the five parameters QA, QB, TA, TS, T0 affecting liquid temperature.
 The extent of the load change on the controlled variable is formally determined by
process equations such as Equation (1).
 In practice, we are concerned only that variation in the controlling parameter brings
the controlled variable back to the set-point. We are not necessarily concerned with
the cause, nature, or extent of the load change.
Transient: Another type of change involves a temporary variation of one of the load
parameters. After the excursion, the parameter returns to its nominal value. This
variation is called a transient. A transient causes variations of the controlled variable,
and the control system must make equally transient changes of the controlling variable
to keep error to a minimum. A transient is not a load change because it is not
permanent.
Process Lag:
 At some point in time, a process-load change or transient causes a change in the
controlled variable.
 The process-control loop responds to ensure that the variable returns to the set-
point value. Action will be taken after some time due to delay introduced by the
process and the control system.
 Part of this time is consumed by the process itself and is called the process lag.
 Thus, referring to Figure-3, assume the inlet flow is suddenly doubled.
 Such a large process-load change radically changes (reduces) the liquid
temperature.
 The control loop responds by opening the steam inlet valve to allow more steam
and heat input to bring the liquid temperature back to the set-point. The loop itself
reacts faster than the process.
 In fact, the physical opening of the control valve is the slowest part of the loop.

10
 Once steam is flowing at the new rate, however, the body of liquid must be heated
by the steam before the set-point value is reached again.
 This time delay or process lag in heating is a function of the process, not the control
system.
 Clearly, there is no advantage in designing control systems many times faster
than the process lag.

Self-Regulation:
 A significant characteristic of some processes is the tendency to adopt a specific
value of the controlled variable for nominal load with no control operations.
 The control operations may be significantly affected by such self-regulation.
 The process of Figure-3 has self-regulation, as shown by the following argument.
(1) Suppose we fix the steam valve at 50% and open the control loop so that no
changes in valve position are possible.
(2) The liquid heats up until the energy carried away by the liquid equals that input
energy from the steam flow.
(3) If the load changes, a new temperature is adopted (because the system
temperature is not controlled).
(4) The process is self-regulating, however, because the temperature will not “run
away,” but stabilizes at some value under given conditions.

Class-4

1.6 CONTROL SYSTEM PARAMETERS

Error:

[Fig-4: Error detector and controller]

The deviation or error of the controlled variable from the set-point is given by
e = r – b………………………………………….(2)
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where e = error
b = measured indication of variable
r = set point of variable (reference)
 Equation (2) expresses error in an absolute sense, or in units of the measured
analog of the control signal.
 Thus, if the set-point in a 4 to 20-mA range corresponds to 9.9 mA and the
measured value is 10.7 mA, we have an error of -8 mA.
 Obviously, this current error has little direct meaning unless related to the controlled
variable.
 To describe controller operation in a general way, it is better to express the error as
percent of the measured variable range (i.e., the span).
 The measured value of a variable can be expressed as percent of span over a
range of measurement by the equation

= × 100……………………(3)

where
= minimum of measured value

= maximum of measured value

= actual measured value

= measured value as percent of measurement range

The previous equation is in terms of the actual measured variable, c, but the same
equation can be expressed in terms of the measured indication, b. It is necessary only
to translate the measured minimum and maximum to bmin and bmax.
To express error as percent of span, it is necessary only to write both the setpoint and
measurement in terms of percent of span and take the difference according to Equation
(2). The result is

= × 100…………………………………..(4)

Where = error expressed as percent of span

 A positive error indicates a measurement below the set point, and a negative
error indicates a measurement above the set point.

12
Variable Range:
 Generally, the variable under control has a range of values within which control is to
be maintained. This range can be expressed as the minimum and maximum value
of the variable or the nominal value plus and minus the spread about this nominal
value.
 If a standard 4- to 20-mA signal transmission is employed, then 4 mA represents
the minimum value of the variable and 20 mA the maximum.
 When a computer-based control system is used, the dynamic variable is converted
to an n-bit digital signal. Often, the transformation is made so that all 0’s are the
minimum value of the variable and all 1’s are the maximum value.

Control Parameter Range:

 Another range is associated with the controller output. Here we assume the final
control element has some minimum and maximum effect on the process.
 The controller output range is the translation of output to the range of possible
values of the final control element.
 This range is also expressed as the 4- to 20-mA standard signal, again with the
minimum and maximum effects in terms of the minimum and maximum current.
 Often, the output is expressed as a percentage where 0% is the minimum controller
output and 100% the maximum
 The controller output as a percent of full scale when the output varies between
specified limits is given by

= × 100…………………..(5)

Where

= controller output as percent of full scale

= value of the output

= maximum value of controlling parameter

= minimum value of controlling parameter

Class-5

Control Lag:
 The control system also has a lag associated with its operation.

13
 When a controlled variable experiences a sudden change, the process-control loop
reacts by outputting a command to the final control element to adopt a new value to
compensate for the detected change.
 Control lag refers to the time for the process-control loop to make necessary
adjustments to the final control element.
 Thus, in Figure-3, if a sudden change in liquid temperature occurs, it requires some
finite time for the control system to physically actuate the steam control valve.

Dead Time:
 Another time variable associated with process control is a function of both the
process control system and the process. This is the elapsed time between the
instant a deviation (error) occurs and when the corrective action first occurs.
 An example of dead time occurs in the control of a chemical reaction by varying
reactant flow rate through a long pipe. When a deviation is detected, a control
system quickly changes a valve setting to adjust flow rate. But if the pipe is
particularly long, there is a period of time during which no effect is felt in the reaction
vessel. This is the time required for the new flow rate to move down the length of
the pipe.
 Such dead times can have a profound effect on the performance of control
operations on a process.

Cycling:
 One of the most important modes is an oscillation of the error about zero.
 This means the variable is cycling above and below the set-point value. Such
cycling may continue indefinitely, in which case we have steady-state cycling.
Here we are interested in both the peak amplitude of the error and the period of the
oscillation.
 If the cycling amplitude decays to zero, however, we have a cyclic transient error.
Here we are interested in the initial error, the period of the cyclic oscillation, and
decay time for the error to reach zero.

Controller Modes:
 Controller operation has two modes
 Discontinuous mode (On/Off type of control)

14
  Continuous mode (smoothly varying the final control element from one
extreme to another)
 The choice of operating mode for any given process-control system is a
complicated decision.
 It involves not only process characteristics but cost analysis, product rate, and other
industrial factors. At the outset, the process-control technologist should have a good
understanding of the operational mechanism of each mode and its advantages and
disadvantages.

Reverse and Direct Action:

 The error that results from measurement of the controlled variable may be positive
or negative, because the value may be greater or less than the set-point.
 A controller is said to be operated with direct action, when an increasing value of
the controlled variable causes an increasing value of the controller output.
 An example would be a level-control system that outputs a signal to an output valve.
Clearly, if the level rises (increases), the valve should be opened (i.e., its drive
signal should be increased).
 Reverse action is the opposite case, where an increase in a controlled variable
causes a decrease in controller output.
 An example of this would be a simple temperature control from a heater. If the
temperature increases, the drive to the heater should be decreased.

Class-6

1.7 DISCONTINUOUS CONTROLLER MODES

(i)Two-Position Mode:
 The most elementary controller mode is the ON/OFF, or two-position, mode. This is
an example of a discontinuous mode.
 It is the simplest and the cheapest and often suffices when its disadvantages are
tolerable. Although an analytic equation cannot be written, we can, in general, write

15
 This relation shows that when the measured value is less than the set point, full
controller output results. When it is more than the set point, the controller output is
zero.
 A space heater is a common example. If the temperature drops below a set point,
the heater is turned ON. If the temperature rises above the set point, it turns OFF.
Neutral Zone
 In virtually any practical implementation of the two-position controller, there is an
overlap as ep increases through zero or decreases through zero.
 In this span, no change in controller output occurs. This is best shown in Figure 4,
which plots p versus ep for a two-position controller.
 We see that until an increasing error changes by ∆ep above zero, the controller
output will not change state.
 In decreasing, it must fall ∆ep below zero before the controller changes to the 0%
rating.
 The range 2∆ep, which is referred to as the neutral zone or differential gap, is
often purposely designed above a certain minimum quantity to prevent excessive
cycling. The existence of such a neutral zone is an example of desirable hysteresis
in a system.

[Fig-4: Two-position controller action with neutral zone.]

[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

16
 [Fig-5: Two-position controller response] [Fig-6: Two-position controller
response with neutral zone]
[Resource: Process control principles and applications by S. Bhanot., Oxford University Press, 2010.]

Applications: Generally, the two-position control mode is best adapted to large-scale

systems with relatively slow process rates. Thus, in the example of either a room
heating or air-conditioning system, the capacity of the system is very large in terms of
air volume, and the overall effect of the heater or cooler is relatively slow. Sudden,
large-scale changes are not common to such systems.
Other examples of two position control applications are liquid bath-temperature control
and level control in large-volume tanks.

(ii) Multiposition Mode:

 A two-position controller can have only two settings- 0% or 100%
 Multiposition controller output can be set to several intermediate settings(25%,
50%,75%,100%) thereby increasing the quality of control.
 This discontinuous control mode is used in an attempt to reduce the cycling
behavior and overshoot and undershoot inherent in the two-position mode.
 This mode is represented by

…………………..(6)
The most common example is the three-position controller where

17
 As long as the error is between and of the set point, the controller stays at

some nominal setting indicated by a controller output of 50%.

 If the error exceeds the set point by or more, then the output is increased by

100%.

 If it is less than the set point by - or more, the controller output is reduced to

zero.
 Figure-7 illustrates this mode graphically.

[Fig-7: Three-position controller action]

[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

Application: In the field of control valve technology, three-position controllers are

frequently used in combination with electric actuators. The three states may be
counterclockwise motion (e.g opening), clockwise motion (e.g. closing) and off (stay
where it is)
Class-7

(iii) Floating-Control Mode:

 In floating control, the specific output of the controller is not uniquely determined by
the error.
 If the error is zero, the output does not change but remains (floats) at whatever
setting it was when the error went to zero.
 When the error moves off zero, the controller output again begins to change.
 It is of two types
o Single Speed
o Multiple Speed

18
Single Speed
In the single-speed floating-control mode, the output of the control element changes at
a fixed rate when the error exceeds the neutral zone. An equation for this action is

= ± | | > ∆ …………………..(7)
Where

= rate of change of controller output with time

= rate constant (%/s)

∆ = half the neutral zone

If above equation is integrated for the actual controller output, we get
=± + (0) | |>∆ …………………..(8)

Where (0) = controller output at = 0

 Above equation shows that the present output depends on the time history of errors
that have previously occurred. Because such a history usually is not known, the
actual value of floats at an undetermined value.
 If the deviation persists, then above equation shows that the controller saturates at
either 100% or 0% and remains there until an error drives it toward the opposite
extreme.
 A graph of single-speed floating control is shown in figure-8(a). In figure-8(b), a
graph shows controller output versus time and error versus time for a hypothetical
case illustrating typical operation. In this example, we assume the controller is
reverse acting.
 Most controllers can be adjusted to act in either the reverse or direct mode.

19
 (b)
[Fig-8: Single-speed floating controller as shown in: (a) single-speed controller action as
the output rate of change to input error, and (b) an example of error and controller
response.]
[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]
 Here the controller starts at some output p(0). At time t1 , the error exceeds the
neutral zone.
 The controller output decreases at a constant rate until t2 , when the error again falls
below the neutral zone limit.
 At t3, the error falls below the lower limit of the neutral zone, causing controller
output to change until the error again moves within the allowable band.

Multiple Speed
 In the floating multiple-speed control mode, not one but several possible speeds
(rates) are changed by controller output.
 Usually, the rate increases as the deviation exceeds certain limits. Thus, if we have

certain speed change points, depending on the error, then each has its

corresponding output rate change, . We can then say

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 = ± | |> …………………..(9)

 If the error exceeds , then the speed is . If the error rises to exceed , the

speed is increased to , and so on.

 A graph of this mode is shown in Figure-9.

[Fig-9: Multiple-speed floating mode control action]

[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

 Actually, this mode is a discontinuous attempt to realize an integral mode

Applications: Primary applications of the floating-control mode are for the single-
speed controllers with a neutral zone. This mode has an inherent cycle nature much
like the two-position, although this cycling can be minimized, depending on the
application.

Class-8

1.8 CONTINUOUS CONTROLLER MODES

(i) Proportional Control Mode:

 There exists a linear relationship exists between the controller output and the error
in proportional controller.

21
 When the control variable deviates from the set point due to disturbance, the
controller gives a correction which is proportional to the deviation.
 The correction forces the controlled variable towards the set value, reducing the
error, which in turn causes reduction in the corrective action.
 This mode can be expressed by
= + ………………………….(10)
Where = proportional gain between error and controller output (% per %)
= controller output with no error (%)
 As the measured value increases above the set point, the error will be negative(as
= − ) and the output will decrease i.e, the term will subtract from .
 Thus the above equation represents reverse action.
 Direct action would be provided by putting a negative sign in front of the correction
term.
Proportional Band:
 In proportional controller, over some range of errors about the set point, each value
of error has a unique value of controller output in one-to-one correspondence.
 The range of error to cover the 0% to 100% controller output is called the
proportional band, because the one-to-one correspondence exists only for errors
in this range.

[Fig-10: The proportional band of a proportional controller depends on the inverse of

the gain]
[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

 In fig-10 has been set to 50% and two different gains have been used.
22
 Proportional band is inversely proportional to gain.
 High gain means large response to an error
 Proportional band is defined by the equation
= …………………..(11)

 When is very high proportional control acts like on-off controller

Offset:
 Proportional control mode produces a permanent residual error in the operating
point of the controlled variable when a change in load occurs. This error is referred
to as offset.
 It can be minimized by a larger constant , which also reduces the proportional

band.

[Fig-11: An offset error must occur if a proportional controller requires a new zero-error
output following a load change]
[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

 Consider a system under nominal load with the controller at 50% and the error zero,
as shown in Figure-11
 If a transient error occurs, the system responds by changing controller output in
correspondence with the transient to effect a return-to-zero error.

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 Suppose, however, a load change occurs that requires a permanent change in
controller output to produce the zero-error state. Because a one-to-one
correspondence exists between controller output and error, it is clear that a new,
zero-error controller output can never be achieved. Instead, the system produces a
small permanent offset in reaching a compromise position of controller output under
new loads.
Characteristics of the proportional mode:
1. If the error is zero, the output is a constant equal to .
2. If there is error, for every 1% of error, a correction of percent is added to or

subtracted from , depending on the sign of the error.

3. There is a band of error about zero of magnitude PB within which the output is not
saturated at 0% or 100%.

Class-9

(ii) Integral-Control Mode: (Reset Controller)

 The integral mode eliminates the offset problem in proportional mode by allowing
the controller to adapt to changing external conditions by changing the zero-error
output.
 In this mode the rate of controller output is proportional to error.
 The integral action will cause the value of manipulated variable to change until the
error is zero.
 Here the controller output is not only a function of the magnitude of the error, but
also a function of duration of error.
 The equation for integral controller is
( )= ∫ + (0)…………………..(12)

 = ……………………...…..(13)

 This equation shows that when an error occurs, the controller begins to increase (or
decrease) its output at a rate that depends upon the size of the error and the gain.
 If the error is zero, the controller output is not changed. If there is positive error, the
controller output begins to ramp up at a rate determined by above equation.
 Figure-12(a) shows how the rate of change of controller output depends upon the
value of error and the size of the gain.

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 Figure 12(b) shows how the actual controller output would look if a constant error
occurred. You can see how the controller output begins to ramp up at a rate
determined by the gain.

[Fig-12: Integral mode controller action: (a) The rate of output change depends on
error, and (b) an illustration of integral mode output and error]
[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

Characteristics of the integral mode:

1. If the error is zero, the output stays fixed at a value equal to what it was when the
error went to zero.
2. If the error is not zero, the output will begin to increase or decrease at a rate of
percent/second for every 1% of error.
(iii) Derivative-Control Mode: (Rate/Predictive/Anticipatory Control)
 In derivative control, the controller output is proportional to the rate of error.
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 Derivative controller generates the manipulated variable from the rate of change of
error. Hence steady state error signal is not recognized by derivative control.
 In derivative control, at steady state, the rate of change of error is zero,
regardless of how big it is. Therefore, derivative only controllers are rarely
used in practice.

 The equation of derivative control is

( )= …………………..(14)

where the gain, , tells us by how much percent to change the controller output for
every percent-per-second rate of change of error.
 Derivative action is used primarily in processes with long dead and lag times.
 Derivative mode is generally used with a small gain, because a rapid rate of change
of error can cause very large, sudden changes of controller output which can lead to
instability.
Characteristics of the derivative mode:
1. If the error is zero, the mode provides no output.
2. If the error is constant in time, the mode provides no output.
3. If the error is changing in time, the mode contributes an output of percent for
every 1%-per-second rate of change of error.
4. For direct action, a positive rate of change of error produces a positive derivative
mode output.

[Fig-13: Derivative mode controller action changes depending on the rate of error]
[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

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Class-10

1.9 COMPOSITE CONTROL MODES

(i) Proportional-Integral Control (PI):

 This is a control mode that results from a combination of the proportional mode and
the integral mode.
 This mode combines the advantages of both controller types. Hence there exists
one-to-one correspondence without the inherent offset.
 Equation of PI mode is
( )= + ∫ + (0) …………………..(15)
Where (0)= integral term value at t = 0
 This combination is favourable for systems in which large load change occurs.

[Fig-14: Proportional-integral (PI) action showing the reset action of the integral
contribution]
[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

Characteristics of the PI mode:

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1. When the error is zero, the controller output is fixed at the value that the integral term
had when the error went to zero.
2. If the error is not zero, the proportional term contributes a correction and the integral
term begins to increase or decrease the accumulated value,depending on the sign
of the error.
(ii)Proportional-Derivative Control Mode (PD):
 A second combination of control modes has many industrial applications. It involves
the serial (cascaded) use of the proportional and derivative modes.
 Equation of PD mode is
= + + …………………..(16)

Where the terms are all defined in terms given by previous equations.
 It is clear that this system cannot eliminate the offset of proportional controllers.
 It can, however, handle fast process load changes as long as the load change offset
error is acceptable.

[Fig-15: Proportional-derivative (PD) action showing the offset error from the
proportional mode]
[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

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Class-11

(iii)Three-Mode Controller (PID):

 One of the most powerful but complex controller mode operations combines the
proportional,integral, and derivative modes.
 This system can be used for virtually any process condition.
 The analytic expression is
= + ∫ + + (0) …………………..(17)

Where all terms have been defined earlier.

[Fig-16: The three-mode controller action exhibits proportional, integral, and derivative
action]
[Resource: Process control instrumentation technology, 8th ed. by C. D. Johnson, Pearson]

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 This mode eliminates the offset of the proportional mode and still provides fast
response.

1.10 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS CONTROLLER PRINCIPLE

Controller Mode Settling time Offset Maximum deviation from set-point

P LH H LH
PI H Z H
PD L LH L
PID ML Z ML

LH:Lower than highest ML: More than lowest Z: Zero H: Highest L: Lowest

Class-12

1.11 CONTROLLER TUNING

 Tuning of controller can be described as adjusting the parameters of the controller
so that the system response is good or what is wanted by the designer.
 Proper tuning of controller is very important as it will improve product quality, reduce
wastage, shorten down time and consequently save money and increase profit.
 Tuning of PID controller loop primarily involves the adjustment of its control
parameters like proportional gain, integral time and derivative time to the optimum
values for obtaining the desired close loop response.
 The desired response in majority of cases is either the fastest response to a set
point change or the fastest return to the set point after a load change.
 There are variety of performance criteria for controller tuning that may be adopted,
some of which are
o Keep the maximum deviation (error) as small as possible
o Achieve short settling time
o Minimize the integral of errors until the process has settled at its desired se
point
(i) Process Reaction Curve (PRC) method:
 This method of controller tuning was developed by Cohen and Coon.
 It is also called open loop method.

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Method
 First of all we have to find out the process reaction curve which is the open loop
step response of the system.
 Consider the control system shown in the figure-17
 Disconnect the controller from the final control element (i.e. make it open loop)
 Introduce a step change of magnitude A to the variable m which actuates the
final control element.
 Record the value of the output with respect to time. The plot is known as
process reaction curve.

[Fig-17: Chen-Coon tuning loop configuration]

[Resource: Process control principles and applications by S. Bhanot., Oxford University Press, 2010.]

 Cohen and Coon observed that the response of most processing unit to an input
change, such as the above, has a sigmoidal shape(Shown in fig-18), which can be
adequately approximated by the response of a first order system with dead time
( ) ( )
( )= = …………………..(18)
( )

( )
= =
( )

= where S is the slope of the sigmoidal response at the point of inflection

=Time elapsed until the system responded

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 [Fig-18: Process Reaction Curve]
[Resource: Process control principles and applications by S. Bhanot., Oxford University Press, 2010.]
Cohen and Coon used the approximate model and estimated the values of the
parameters: static gain , dead time and time constant .

Table1: Tuning parameters according to Cohen-Coon method

Kp Ti Td
P 1
= 1+
3 --------------------- ------------------------
PI 1 30 + 3
= 0.9 +
12 = -------------------------
9 + 20

PID 1 3 32 + 6
= + 4
4 4 = =
13 + 8 11 + 2

(ii) Ziegler Nichols tuning method

 This method was proposed by John G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols in 1942.
 This is based on the frequency response analysis of the process.
 This is also known as online tuning method or ultimate gain method or ultimate
cycle method.
 It is a closed loop procedure.
 It employs the following steps
o Place the controller in the closed loop with low gain. Remove integral and
derivative action. Keep only proportional action.

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 o Using only the proportional control and with the feedback loop closed,
introduce a set point change and vary the proportional gain until the system
oscillates continuously(Known as sustained oscillation i.e amplitude of the
oscillation remains same). The frequency of continuous oscillation is the
cross over frequency ( ). The gain (value of ) at which sustained
oscillation occurred is known as ultimate gain ( ). The ultimate gain is
found by trial and error process. Time period of the sustained oscillation is
known as ultimate period ( =2 / ).
o Note the ultimate gain and ultimate period .
o Using the values of and , Ziegler and Nichols recommended the
following tuning parameters for various modes of controllers

Table2: Tuning parameters according to Ziegler-Nichols method

Kp Ti Td

P 0.5 --------------- ----------------

PI 0.45 /1.2 ----------------

PID 0.6 /1.2 /8

************ End of Module-1 ****************

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