J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol.

, 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024

RESEARCH
REVIEW PAPER ARTICLE

Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent

Formulations

Mehrin Najafzadeh Nansa1, Farzaneh Jokarshoorijeh2, Nasibeh Tavakoli Hasanaklou2,

Massomeh Ghorbanloo1, Ramin Hosseni3, Leila Ma'mani2*
1
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, 45371-38791, Iran
2
Department of Nanotechnology, Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran (ABRII), Agricultural
Research, Education, and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
3
Biotechnology Department, Faculty of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Imam Khomeini International
University (IKIU), Qazvin, Iran

Received: 2024-02-20 Accepted: 2024-04-09 Published: 2024-07-17

ABSTRACT
In integrated pest management systems, the usage of repellents has much-unrealized potential.
Modern insect-repellent technologies have greatly benefited from the development of plant essential
oils, in particular. As a result, it appears that plant chemicals may one day be used in place of or in
addition to chemical insecticides to protect agricultural products. These compounds do not harm the
environment and are safer than chemical insecticides. One of the most important plant compounds that
is currently getting much attention is plant essential oils. To decrease reapplications, toxicity, and cost,
research efforts have concentrated on formulations with lower concentrations of active substances and
sustained-release technologies. Currently, there is a remarkable interest in the development of eco-
friendly, secure, and effective pesticides using intelligent, responsive, biodegradable, and biocompatible
materials. It was stated that when using nanotechnology to develop and create targeted pesticides with
an environmentally sensitive controlled release through chemical modifications and compounds, there
is an excellent potential for developing new formulations.

Keywords: Essential Oils, Flies (Diptera), Insect Repellents, Nanoemulsion, Plants Toxic.

How to cite this article

Najafzadeh Nansa M., Jokarshoorijeh F., Tavakoli Hasanaklou N., Ghorbanloo M., Hosseni R., Ma'mani L., Nanoformulation:
An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations. J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 2024; 9(3): 248-262.
DOI: 10.22090/jwent.2024.03.01

INTRODUCTION into human resources through runoff [4].

In the mid-1900s, pesticides were heavily The manual spraying of chemical compounds
advocated for use in agriculture [1]. However has also been linked to reports of pesticide
synthetic pesticides are harmful to the environment poisoning among rural farmers and their families
and many people who live there, even with their [5]. These synthetic pesticides are widely used in
enhanced food security and other benefits [2]. As agriculture, which has resulted in pollution of the
a result, criticism of these intense contemporary environment, pesticide residues in food, a risk to
farming practices that rely heavily on the careless non-target species, and persistence in the fields [6].
application of synthetic pesticides has recently Most wealthy countries have made great efforts to
increased [3]. Approximately 10% of all synthetic reduce chemical pesticides and switch to herbal
pesticides are used, and only approximately 90% remedies; significant progress has been achieved
stay in the environment before finding their way in this regard [7, 8]. Nonetheless, fewer pesticides
* Corresponding Authors Email: leila.mamani@yahoo.com are now on the market because of the enforcement

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

of stringent legislation and an extensive pesticide and the continuous release of nano-encapsulated
registration procedure. Concurrently, it has cleared pesticides. [19].
the path for integrating organic insecticides into Despite being a more modern approach
farming practices [9]. to essential oils, encapsulation technology is
Biopesticides are compounds that can manage a fascinating subject for literature reviews.
agricultural pests because of their distinct Encapsulation can shield delicate dietary
biological activity [10]. Thus, it seems that plant ingredients like EOs from environmental factors
components might be added to or used in place like heat, moisture, pH, and oxygen due to their
of chemical pesticides in the future to protect unstable, volatile nature. Parts, particularly active
agricultural products. Compared to chemical parts like EOs, are ensnared in wall materials by
pesticides, these materials are safer and do not encapsulation. In this situation, encapsulation can
harm the environment [11, 12]. improve the biological activity of EOs. The unstable
These biopesticides can be utilized in integrated nature of essential oils due to their volatile nature
pest control because of their environmentally is a significant contributing factor to their appeal
beneficial qualities [13]. Plant pesticides have in encapsulation. Therefore, their degeneration
been identified as environmentally beneficial is easily caused by this scenario. Furthermore,
substitutes for chemical pesticides because of their increasing food safety may necessitate a high EO
biodegradable nature, lack of persistence, rapid concentration; nevertheless, doing so may result
disintegration, no adverse effects on groundwater, in organoleptic issues within the food system [20].
and agroprotective qualities [14]. Hope for a sustainable future in agricultural and
One of the most important plant compounds food sciences is sparked by recent advancements
that is now gaining much attention is plant in nanotechnology. With the history of using
essential oils (PEOs) [15]. However, there may be nanoencapsulation techniques to transport
a way to increase the stability and bioavailability of pesticides and fertilizers, scientists anticipate
PEOs using possible micro and nanoencapsulation enhancing agrosystems to reduce losses brought
technologies [16]. Botanical pesticides, such as on by biotic and abiotic challenges and boost
crude extracts or partially or fully purified plant production. A new generation of ecologically
products, can be used separately or in combination acceptable, slow-releasing insecticides that have a
with other compounds to target a range of insect more significant influence on crop development
vectors and boost crop yield [4]. Pesticides are has been made possible by using nanomaterials
the first line of defense in agriculture during a [21].
significant biological disaster. Biocompatible, One of the easiest methods to cut back on
biodegradable, and responsive polymers are chemical pesticides is to utilize insecticides
becoming increasingly popular in eco-friendly derived from plants. When it comes to improving
green pesticide formulations. solubility, dispersion, bioavailability, preventing
Nanotechnology is a significant help in creating premature degradation, and enabling tailored
environmentally safe, target-oriented, controlled- release of active components, nanopesticides are
release pesticides [17]. One approach to achieve the most effective substitutes [22, 23]. It is feasible
this is by chemical change, a novel method that has to decrease dose needs and lengthen the time it
excellent potential for creating creative formulae. takes for active compounds to be released by using
Moreover, studies on developing intelligent and formulations that contain repellents contained
regulated pesticide release systems based on in nanoparticles. This reduces toxicity and the
nanomaterials have surfaced. The technologies required treatments[24, 25].
can increase the stability and dispersibility of Using plant-based insecticides is one of the
the active component, as well as the pesticide best alternatives to reduce the use of chemical
loading and target ability [17, 18]. Two common pesticides. These substances can disintegrate in
release behaviors for pesticides encapsulated in the environment, are non-toxic or low-toxic to
nanoparticles are (i) sustained (slow) release and non-target creatures, including pests' natural
(ii) stimuli-responsive release. Active ingredients enemies, and are effective against pests. Plants
(AI) concentrations stay within an effective control were the primary, leading, and most traditional
window against pests over an extended period, of means of pest management until the advent of
time, preventing repeated pesticide application artificial pesticides about 2000 years ago [35].

J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024 249

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

Consequently, agricultural professionals have travel (both civilian and military). International
been motivated to develop widely used methods travelers are to blame for the spread of disease
of biopesticides-mediated crop protection by the between countries [44].
adage, "All the pests that arise out of Earth, the EOs have a long history of use as insecticides
Earth itself the antidote supplies" (Lithica, about in ancient Egyptian daily life, including medicine,
400 B.C.) [36]. cosmetics, spiritual enhancement, and other
Companies that produce poison want to do areas [45]. Due to their typically low toxicity to
this. Finding the perfect combination among the mammals and birds, ease of administration, and
millions of artificial substances and those that widespread acceptability by the general public,
are not synthetic takes a lot of effort and money. EOs are desirable alternatives to conventional
Owing to the substantial costs associated with pesticides [46-48]. When EOs are manufactured
this process, these companies have modified organically, they can be used in organic farming
their strategy and are currently trying to evaluate practices, and some of those with insecticidal
the insecticidal properties of a vast array of properties are deemed safe enough to exclude
compounds [33]. These biopesticides can be them from Environmental Protection Agency
utilized in integrated pest control because of (EPA) registration requirements (EPA 2019) [49].
their environmentally beneficial qualities [13]. Combining botanical insecticides with
Integrated pest management (IPM) programs may biocontrol agents has negligible concerns for
combine biological control with bio [37-39]. human health [50-52]. This calls for the creation
According to the definition of repellents, these of "green" insecticides and repellents with a
are compounds that put a barrier between an insect variety of modes of action that can lessen the
and the surface they are present on, preventing the risks that synthetic pesticides offer to both people
insect from coming into contact with the surface and the environment [53-58]. Due to their
of the host [40]. There is a tremendous untapped possible biological effect on insect pests and low
potential in using repellents in integrated pest mammalian toxicity, EOsare an alternative to
management systems. Some plants naturally repel synthetic insecticides [59-61].
insects, and occasionally, they do so much more Herein the controlled release formulations for
effectively than artificial substances [41]. PEOs, in repellents were reviewed in terms of fundamental
particular, are crucial to developing contemporary principles of formulation preparation, mechanism
insect-repellent technologies. Most bioassays have of repellent release from formulations, and
been carried out to test plant compounds' ability effectiveness against insects. This article primarily
to repel mosquitoes and hard-winged species of focuses on the several kinds of biological insect
warehouse pests. Knowing that storage pests may repellants, including natural oils, (EOs), and
inflict harm that goes beyond destroying farmers their extracts, as well as their insect-repelling
and suppliers can demonstrate how important properties, methods of use in textiles, and
they are. They can also put consumers in danger methods of evaluation. Moreover, finally, the area
by impeding the growth of a nation's economy and of application opens up a new avenue for plant
exports [42]. repellents to learn about their effectiveness on
The use of mosquito repellents is a sensible tactic Nano formulation substrates more sustainably.
to protect people from getting into contact with the
vectors that spread these illnesses. However, the ARTHROPOD-BORNE VIRUSES
cost of applying repellents daily may make their Encapsulation material is one of the most
use unaffordable for low-income populations, essential components in the encapsulation process.
who need protection the most [43]. The use of Depending on their particle size, encapsulates can
repellents to stop the spread of illnesses carried be either microcapsules or nanocapsules. Because
by mosquitoes has been receiving more and they keep oil materials from deteriorating in
more attention recently. However, the majority undesirable environmental circumstances and
of today's repellents are volatile and need to be increase the physical and chemical stability of
reapplied regularly because their effectiveness is active compounds, nanocapsules outperform
very temporary. microcapsules in terms of benefits. Encapsulates
In particular, in tropical areas, the spread of can be obtained by physical, physicochemical,
diseases has been slowed by using repellents during or chemical methods, and the properties of

250 J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

the encapsulates vary according to the method compound) [70, 76]. The results provided new
used. Lipososomes, solid-lipid nanoparticles, opportunities for developing hybrid formulations
microemulsions, and nanoemulsions have all been that combine repellents that are effective against
employed to encapsulate bioactive substances in arthropod-borne viruses with gels containing
plant materials [20]. nanoparticles. These systems may be able to
Since the majority of arbovirus is linked to offer advances in terms of efficiency, toxicity, and
neglected tropical illnesses, they pose a threat to security [43, 77].
global public health. Several arthropods, including
dengue, Zika, and yellow fever, among others, can ELECTRO-SPINNING REPELLENTS IN
spread arbovirus to people [62]. Despite being POLYVINYL ALCOHOL-NANOFIBRES
spread by the most well-known vector, arbovirus The two synthetic insect repellents with the
can also be spread to people by ticks, flies, and highest market share for preventing mosquito
fleas. The public health system has a global issue bites are -N, N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide
with arbovirus illnesses. Recent evidence indicates (DEET) - and picaridin [78-80]. Synthetic
that such disorders are risk factors for 40% of the repellents, however, have several harmful and
human population [63]. toxic side effects that can include allergic reactions
Insect repellents are the first line of defense and nervous system damage [80, 81]. Additionally,
against mosquito bites and arbovirus transmission certain mosquitoes have developed a resistance to
among these strategies [64]. Therefore, one strategy synthetic repellents, and their practical usage has
to increase access to this particular protection been limited by environmental concerns [47, 80].
method is through the creation of efficient and Most repellents are applied topically to the
affordable formulations. However, there are skin or infused into fabric surfaces. However,
worries regarding these chemicals' biological because they are volatile, their effectiveness is only
effects and possible toxicity for nontarget creatures temporary, necessitating regular reapplication
[65]. of the repellents. Additionally, when coated on
Low permeation through the skin, a pleasing a cloth surface, their durability and resistance to
scent, lasting repellent action, broad activity abrasion are debatable [82].
against insects, especially the main vectors of A potential solution to these issues would be
interest, resistance to water and perspiration, the direct microencapsulation of these repellents
high chemical stability, no staining of fabrics and in nanofibres during emulsion electrospinning or
clothing, and low cost are all qualities of an ideal the integration of repellents that have already been
repellent formulation [66]. microencapsulated in the nanofibres. First off, the
Using formulations with repellents enclosed microcapsules would offer a carefully regulated
in nanoparticles is a viable approach since it can delivery method with prolonged protection
reduce dosage requirements and extend the time intervals [83]. The second benefit of utilizing
it takes for active compounds to release, which electros nanofibres is that they will produce
lowers toxicity. The number of treatments needed highly functional textiles with the most significant
[67-69]. Due to the use of less active substances, the repellency because of their enormous surface
formulations may also become more inexpensive. areas, which optimize the repellent's evaporation
Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) [70] have when the enclosing capsules are ruptured. Lastly,
been cutting-edge systems over the past 20 years micro-encapsulation keeps repellents away from
[71]. These materials were developed as a moment the skin, minimizing skin irritability and allergic
era of lipid nanoparticles, with a composition reactions. Electrospinning also has the advantage
comprising a blend of strong and fluid (oil) lipids of being a quick and affordable method for creating
[72]. These materials were created as a second Nanoscale fibers (10–800 nm) [84].
generation of lipid nanoparticles, with a mixture The direct microencapsulation of repellents
of solid and liquid (oil) lipids as their main from an emulsion and the electro-spinning
ingredients [72, 73]. Hydrogels are frequently integration of already encapsulated repellents
utilized as gelling agents in formulations [74]. into nanofibres are the main topics of this work.
The creation of cellulose hydrogel-incorporated Permethrin, p-menthane-3, 8-diol micro-
NLCs is loaded with a combination of icaridin (a capsules, catnip oil, and chili oil were among
synthetic substance) and geraniol [75] (a natural the repellents that were electros into polyvinyl

J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024 251

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

alcohol (PVA) nanofibres structures. In general, surface is a novel idea [92]. Although this method
all integrated mosquito repellents in the Nano offers long-lasting usefulness, microcapsules must
fibrous structures demonstrated a markedly lower still be actively ruptured to release the therapeutic
number of decreasing decreases than the control. ingredients.
As a result, the technology detailed here Emulsion electro-spinning is another
produced a brand-new, very effective repelling innovation that has gained popularity for
textile material that can be utilized to prevent producing core-shell, bi-component Nano fibrous
mosquito-related disorders [54]. structures [93]. Emulsion electro-spinning is a
The active ingredient in lemon eucalyptus oil, straightforward and inexpensive technology that
p-menthane-3,8-diol (PMD), is obtained from encapsulates and incorporates functional additives
the twigs and leaves of Eucalyptus citriodora, a into nanofibres in a single step [94]. Additionally,
member of the Myrtaceae family [80, 81]. PMD unlike micro-capsules, encapsulated additives
can repel by disguising the environmental cues constantly release their contents via the thin wall
that mosquitoes utilize to locate their host [79, of the fiber, which may lead to shorter-term use
85, 86]. The active ingredients of chili essential [92]. As a result, each method has advantages and
oil, another biological repellant, are capsaicin and disadvantages.
dihydrocapsaicin. The morphological and mechanical
On mosquitoes, dogs, rabbits, cats, birds, cotton characteristics of the electrospun nanofibres and
pests, etc., chili oil has a strong anti-feed ant and structures can be dramatically changed by adding
deadly action [87, 88]. Similarly, catnip essential additives to the electro-spinning solutions [94].
oil, which includes the ingredient nepetalactone Permethrin exhibits a strong repelling effect,
as its primary component, has a strong, minty as described in other research studies [78, 95].
scent that keeps spiders, cockroaches, termites, These findings unequivocally support the use of
spittlebugs, and other pests away [86, 89]. innovative insect repellents incorporated into
The capacity of both emulsion and micro- textile fabrics to prevent mosquito bites. These
capsule electro-spinning to incorporate repellents biological insect repellents may provide an
into Nano fibrous structures for textile applications alternative to the harmful insecticides used to
are compared in this study [84]. However since the treat textiles [96]. Recent developments in vector
majority of these polymers, like Polyamides (PA) management, such as using biological repellents
and -Polyethylene (PE-, cannot degrade naturally to stop mosquitoes from entering homes, offer a
and can only be dissolved in hazardous solvents, promising application for brand-new repelling
their use is hazardous to the environment. textiles in push-pull systems [97-99].
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) was selected for this In light of these potential applications, future
investigation because it is water soluble, making research should focus on the material's lifespan,
hazardous solvents unnecessary, easy to process, such as washing durability and repellency efficacy
and biodegradable [90]. Additionally, PVA has longevity. Additionally, because PVA dissolves
many uses in the textile, medicinal, and cosmetic in water, it will be crucial to consider potential
industries. cross-linking techniques to make the PVA added
This study used electro-spinning to incorporate to the various repellents water-insoluble and
various permethrin, PMD, chili, and catnip oil independent of ambient humidity.
repellant concentrations into PVA nanofabrics
directly or through microencapsulation for PMD. EVALUATION OF THE MOSQUITO
Because of its versatility in producing REPELLENT ACTIVITY OF NANO-SIZED
nanofibres from different synthetic and natural PARTICLES
polymers, electro-spinning has recently gained Nanotechnology has revolutionized progress
popularity [81]. Numerous improvements have in many fields of science, such as engineering,
been made to the electro-spinning setup to develop biotechnology, analytical chemistry, water
functional Nano fibrous structures with distinctive treatment, and agriculture [100-102]. However,
features as a result of the present emphasis on their use in crop protection is in its early stages.
electro-spinning [91]. Utilizing electros pun The use of nanoparticles (NPs) in the production
micro-capsules in nanofibres mats to include of new pesticides and insecticides to protect
functional additives into the fiber matrix or fiber and produce plants in a research area has been

252 J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

investigated. Since nanoparticles have a high both systemic and local adverse effects, human
surface-to-volume ratio, they can pass through the experiences and animal research have shown
cell membranes of insects and damage them [103]. that it is generally harmless. Infants and kids who
The study of how nanomaterials interact with applied medicinal formulations containing DEET
insects, the creation of nanoemulsions, and their experienced DEET dermal absorption. Both death
use as novel insecticides are all aspects of the and toxicity have been reported in some instances,
promising field of pest management known as including encephalopathy, and cardiovascular,
nanotechnology. Due to its potential for usage dermal, and psychotic seizures [107].
in a wide range of applications, nanotechnology Even though DEET is widely utilized, there are
has gained much attention and can help make dangers to both human and environmental health.
agriculture more sustainable. Nanotechnology and As a result, efforts to create natural repellents
nanoscience advancements recently have given and environmentally friendly pharmaceutical
rise to expectations for a potential new industrial formulations are growing [108]. Thousands of
revolution. Nanotechnology is the study and plants have been examined for their ability to
manipulation of matter with a size range of around resist pests during the past 50 years. Some organic
1 to 100 nanometers. Nano-scale materials can and plant-based repellents are more effective than
have peculiar physical, chemical, and biological their synthetic counterparts. Because of their
features. These characteristics could differ greatly volatility, (EOs) have a brief period of action.
from those of bulk materials and individual atoms Numerous products from natural sources that
or molecules [104]. are effective insect repellents and insecticides are
Such characteristics could be linked to available [109].
biological effects absent from larger particles Due to their selectivity, safety, and few adverse
with a comparable chemical makeup. In these effects on the environment and non-target
circumstances, novel methods are required for creatures, (EOs) have the potential to be effective
the systematic definition of nanoparticles and insect repellents and pesticides [110].
their properties as a basis for ensuring data The majority of Eucalyptus globules, 1, 8-cineol
reproducibility, identifying the underlying (Eucalyptol), have both a potent ovipositional
processes of toxicity, and forecasting repellent and a moderate mosquito feeding
environmental behaviors [105]. repellent [111].
The Culicidae family of mosquitoes is the (EOs) are uncomfortable for extensive usage
dangerous transmitter of several tropical diseases, because of their poor water solubility, chemical
including encephalitis, filariasis, malaria, and instability, volatility, propensity for oxidation,
nuisance mosquitoes. One of the most crucial and instability [112]. Therefore, by increasing
strategies to avoid transmitting diseases is to the dissolving rate, water solubility, dispersion
control mosquito populations and protect people uniformity, and stability after topical application,
from their bites. integrating (EOs) in Nano formulations, such as
Although DEET is highly effective and widely micro-emulsions, could resolve these issues [113].
used to repel mosquitos, some biting Diptera are
resistant. In addition, there are worries over the Textile finishes that repel insects
toxicity and allergic reactions caused by DEET. As Malaria and dengue fever are two of the most
a result, alternative repellents, such as PEOS, are lethal illnesses in the world. Dengue is a vector-
required [106]. borne disease brought on by viruses, whereas
A 15% weight-to-weight concentration of malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease
eucalyptus oil in a micro-emulsion can be as brought on by protozoan parasites. Around 500
repellent as DEET. In terms of thermodynamics million people worldwide contract malaria each
and kinetics, it appears that nano-scale year, and more than one million people die from it,
microemulsion is stable. In conclusion, creating 90% of whom are children. Additionally, 250,000
Nano-sized micro-emulsions may prolong the instances of dengue hemorrhagic fever and an
duration of mosquito protection by delaying the estimated 100 million cases of dengue fever are
volatility of eucalyptus essential oil release from reported each year. The issue is growing and even
formulations [106]. posing a threat to Europe due to climate change
Although DEET use has been linked to and global warming [114].

J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024 253

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

Citrus eucalyptus (crombie citriodora) extract for kill insects, this natural active ingredient is also
pmd used in numerous goods [115, 125].
The only plant-based repellent that the Centres In another study, the modified ORIFCE
for Disease Control (CDC) has recommended technique was used to encapsulate citronella with
for use in disease-endemic areas is PMD. This chitosan [127]. An application of DEET melamine
is because PMD has been clinically shown to be capsules was made to a polyester net fabric.
effective at preventing malaria and is thought to Anopheles Gambia mosquitoes were used in a
pose no health risks to humans [115]. It should tunnel test to evaluate the insecticidal effect [128].
be mentioned that the EPA has not registered Neem oil was encapsulated in three different shell
lemon eucalyptus essential oil for use as an insect polymers, including PVA, gum Arabic, and whey
repellent. protein isolate/malt dextrin, using the spray dyeing
The leaves of lemon eucalyptus trees, or method described by Sittipummongkol et al [129].
Crombie citriodora (Myrtaceae), are used to make Gum Arabic was used to encapsulate eucalyptus
a potent natural repellant. It was found during oil and cedar wood oil using a straightforward
widespread screenings of plants used in Chinese coacervation process. Fabrics treated with capsules
traditional medicine in the 1960s. Due to its demonstrated insect repellency behavior when
energizing scent, cosmetic manufacturers employ tested against the silverfish (Lepisma saccharina)
lemon eucalyptus essential oil, which contains bug [130].
85% citronellal [116]. Many plant extracts and
oils have a long-lasting ability to keep mosquitoes ESSENTIAL OILS
away (up to several hours). They are effective Worldwide, insect repellents are frequently
repellents for a brief period after application, but made from (EOS)extracted from plants in the
because their active components are frequently Lamiaceae (mint family), Poaceae (aromatic grass
highly volatile, they quickly evaporate, leaving family), and Pinaceae (pine and cedar family)
the user defenseless. The exception to this rule is families [131]. Many commercial repellents
para-menthane-3,8-diol, which has a lower vapor contain a variety of PEOs, such as peppermint,
pressure than the volatile monoterpenes found lemongrass, geraniol, pine oil, pennyroyal, cedar
in the majority of plant oils [117] and provides oil, thyme oil, and patchouli, either for aroma or
exceptional long-term protection against a wide as repellents. Thyme oil, geraniol, peppermint oil,
range of insect vectors [118], as opposed to cedar oil, patchouli, and clove are the most potent
essential oils, which are insect repellent for about of these and have been shown to repel malaria,
an hour [119]. Due to its demonstrated clinical filarial, and yellow fever vectors for 60–180
efficacy in preventing malaria and because it is minutes [132, 133].
thought to pose minimal harm to human health In locations where disease is endemic, it is not
[120-122]. advisable to use repellents that merely contain
The synthetic pesticide permethrin belongs EOS in place of an active ingredient like DEET.
to the pyrethroid family and has limited water Additionally, repellents that contain many EOS
solubility. According to the WHO pesticide may irritate the skin, especially in the presence of
guideline, it is classified as Class II, is moderately sunshine [134].
dangerous, and is advised for the finishing The study findings also showed that the
applications to mosquito nets [123, 124]. effectiveness of several commercially available
Limonene is a very volatile oil that is typically mosquito repellents varies depending on the
obtained from the citrus family. species of mosquito that is being repelled. Overall,
Due to its pleasant scent and popularity, it the study findings supported the notion that
has been utilized extensively in the culinary DEET-based treatments are the most effective
and cosmetic industries. Due to its pesticide bug repellents currently available [135]. The
properties, this natural active ingredient is also researchers additionally noted that additional
used in numerous products [125]. A very volatile research is needed to examine the effectiveness of
oil, limonene, is often obtained from the citrus these interventions in deterring other mosquito
family. Due to its flavor and pleasant smell, it species since their study concentrated on the
has been extensively employed in the food and effectiveness of wearable technology and spray-on
cosmetic industries [126]. Because of its ability to repellents against Ae. Aegypti females. In addition,

254 J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

more research on the effectiveness of wearable Neem

devices based on commercially available insect Neem, also known as Azadirachta indicia,
repellents is compiled in Table 1. is frequently used as a natural DEET substitute
in India and several of its neighboring nations.
Natural products Neem has been tested for insect repellency against
In the beginning of history, early humans found various arthropods with varying degrees of success.
that burning aromatic or potently scented plants Numerous field experiments have demonstrated
or certain kinds of wood might deter insects. To that Neem-based treatments are extremely
ward off insects, ancient Egyptians put pungent- effective. Neem hides the wearer's aroma and
smelling chemicals on their skin. The Romans deters insects from landing while having a strong
employed cinnamon, lupines, pomegranate skins, scent that some people find offensive [153, 154].
galbanum, cedar, and camphor. Hemp was found Azadirachta, salami, nimbi, and meliantriol are
to be helpful against insects in the sixteenth some of the main limuloids, or active substances,
century, and a wide variety of plant extracts, found in Neem. Neem components exhibit a
including garlic, olive oil, pennyroyal oil, and raw variety of effects on insects like mosquitoes,
tomato juice, were later proven effective. houseflies, cockroaches, and others [155]. Neem
has not yet received EPA approval for topical
Citronella insect repellent usage. Although it has low dermal
Plant-based mosquito repellents frequently toxicity, if applied undiluted, it can cause skin
contain (EOS) and extracts from the citronella irritation, such as dermatitis [156].
genus of plants, including Cymbopogon nardus. Neem oil may offer some protection against
Rather than being practical, citronella has made biting mosquitoes, but it is not yet advised for
usage by travelers to disease-endemic areas due
its way into numerous commercial remedies
to the dearth of solid studies. Neem is frequently
due to its familiarity. One of the most popular
promoted as a natural DEET substitute. The
natural insect repellents on the market, citronella
efficacy of Neem-based formulations has been
is applied in quantities of 5–10%. Although this
demonstrated in several field trials in India [153,
is lower than most other commercial repellents,
154, 157].
more significant amounts may make skin more
sensitive. For around two hours, citronella-based Lemon citriodora
repellents keep mosquitoes away from hosts, but Lemon eucalyptus, also known as Crombie
it's crucial to choose the correct formulation [148, citriodora, provides a possible all-natural repellant
149]. that can be derived from its leaves. P-menthane-3,
Citronella contains citronellal, geraniol, 8-diol (PMD), an ingredient in lemon eucalyptus
citral, -pinned, and limonene, which produce a essential oil that has pesticide qualities, is a natural
very efficient dose of DEET when applied [150]. alternative to chemical insect repellents. Most
However, many of these (EOS) quickly evaporate, likely, it works by obscuring the ambient cues that
reducing their effectiveness and leaving users mosquitoes use to find their prey. It is thought that
vulnerable. However, the protection period can be PMD simply obscures or distorts the appealing
significantly extended by lowering the release rate signals that people send, making it difficult for
of the volatile oils by combining citronella with a mosquitoes to find them.
big molecule like vanillin (5%) [151]. Pure PMD exhibits considerably more
Plant oils like citronella are a more viable repelling efficacy when compared to the oil of
choice for creating long-lasting repellents because lemon eucalyptus. Compared to DEET, it has
of the use of microencapsulation technologies to also demonstrated a remarkable capacity to
improve the efficacy of natural repellents. Travelers repel mosquitoes. PMD is the only plant-based
to regions with endemic diseases are not advised repellent that the Centers for Disease Control
to use citronella-based repellents. Citronella (CDC) has recommended for use in disease-
application to prevent mosquito bites, however, endemic areas due to its demonstrated clinical
may offer significant disease vector protection in efficacy in preventing malaria and is thought to
areas where more effective alternatives are not pose no danger to human health. However, it is
available or are too expensive [152]. essential to note that the EPA has not registered

J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024 255

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

Table 1. Previous research studies on the effectiveness of commercially available insect repellents, controlled release systems based on
repellents, and repellent-based goods

*In the lab, insect repellents based on controlled-release formulations were created and tested against several mosquito species. As a
result, the manufacturer names were only given for wearable technology or commercially accessible repellant items.

the oil of lemon eucalyptus for use as an insect Negahban et al. [161] employed its nanocapsulated
repellent [158, 159]. essential oil and tested it against Plutella xylostella
L. They found a higher efficiency in the repellant
Artemisia activity of the nanocapsulated essential oil on P.
The Artemisia genus is one of the largest genera xylustella than the non-capsulated one. A. anuua
in the Asteraceae family. It consists of more than is a species grown in many parts of the world,
500 species. The species are mostly distributed including Iran. It contains various compounds
in the northern hemisphere [160]. Many of the in its aerial parts, being used as antibacterial and
species contain chemicals possessing medicinal, pesticide agents [160]. Artemisinin is one of the
antimicrobial, and pesticidal effects. Artemisia secondary metabolites mostly found in its aerial
sieberi Besser is one of the species grown in Iran. parts, particularly in flowers. Artemisinin has

256 J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

been long used in traditional Chinese medicine. repellents limit the release of insecticides into
It is currently used as a drug to combat mosquitos the environment and extend the duration of their
causing malaria (Plasmodium falciparum and P. effectiveness. It advances the human condition.
vivax) [162]. Since its natural occurrence is slow, According to certain studies, it may be possible
attempts are being made to increase its content in to create long-lasting mosquito-repellent items
A. annua. One of the tools successfully employed like bracelets, socks, creams, rolls, and sprays.
for this purpose is using nanoparticles as the It is advised that more research be done
elicitor [114]. to comprehend the fundamental concepts of
formation and the mechanism of the repellent's
CONSIDERATIONS FOR REPELLENT rate of release from the device system.
TESTING METHODOLOGY More research that focuses on fundamental
The books and articles used in this study entomological impact, as well as physical and
were found through searches in reputable chemical factors, is also required.
databases like Sciencedirect, Proquest, Taylor & Finally, before insect repellents based on
Francis, Online library, Web of Science, Springer, crops that have grown renewable are accepted
Academic Oxford, and Bioone, as well as through commercially, more thorough, and in-depth
search engines like Medline, Citation Index, entomological and epidemiological testing should
BIOISIS, Pubmed, Google Scholar, and Elmnet's be carried out.
Persian language search engine. This essay was
also compiled using domestic scientific research CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
publications from 2010 to 2022. The authors declare an absence of competing
The keywords "repellents, formulations, financial interests in personal relationships that
botanicals, repellents, mosquitoes, insects" were could influence the work reported in this paper.
used in the search approach. 106 study titles
were found in the initial search for the review REFERENCE
of research, and after their summaries were 1. Copplestone, J.F., The development of the WHO
examined, According to the input criteria (original Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 1988. 66(5): p.
and review books and papers relevant to the effect 545.
of insect repellants), books and articles on the 2. Marutescu, L. and M. Chifiriuc, Molecular mechanisms
topic that were published between 1987 and 2022 of pesticides toxicity,[in:] Grumezescu AM (ed), New
were chosen, and other materials were rejected. pesticides and soil sensors. 2017, Academic Press, San Diego.
The materials were taken from the https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804299-1.00012-6
3. Singh, R., H. Singh, and A.S. Raghubanshi, Challenges
aforementioned scientific sources, categorized,
and opportunities for agricultural sustainability in
compiled, and presented in the form of a review changing climate scenarios: a perspective on Indian
article by the goals of this study. agriculture. Tropical Ecology, 2019. 60: p. 167-185.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42965-019-00029-w
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4. Chaudhary, S., et al., Progress on Azadirachta indica
FOR FUTURE WORK based biopesticides in replacing synthetic toxic
pesticides. Frontiers in plant science, 2017. 8: p. 610.
The growing need for protection against
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00610
mosquito annoyance is driving daily increases 5. Carvalho, F.P., Pesticides, environment, and food
in research into mosquito repellents. There safety. Food and energy security, 2017. 6(2): p. 48-60.
have recently been intensive searches for a safe, https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.108
enjoyable, and environmentally friendly solution 6. Dhuldhaj, U.P., R. Singh, and V.K. Singh, Pesticide
to eliminate or lessen the spread of mosquito- contamination in agro-ecosystems: toxicity, impacts,
and bio-based management strategies. Environmental
carrying diseases. Increasing the duration of Science and Pollution Research, 2023. 30(4): p. 9243-9270.
effective repellents' protection is the main concern. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24381-y
A key tactic for achieving more efficient 7. Arbabi Bidgoli, S., Endocrine disrupting effects of carbon
systems with fewer side effects is the development nanotubes: a systematic review on next generation
of novel formulation-based insect repellents. nanotechnology based agrochemicals. Journal of Water and
Environmental Nanotechnology, 2020. 5(2): p. 102-113.
Micro/solid lipid nanoparticles, Nanoemulsions/
8. Tarassoli, Z., M. Labbafi, and F. Jokar Shoorijeh, Allelopathic
microemulsions, liposomes, nanostructured effect of herbal formulation containing Ferula assa-foetida
micelle hydrogels, and cyclodextrins-based L. essential oil and castor oil (Ricinus communis L.) as an

J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024 257

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

herbicide on Amaranthus retroflexus L. seed germination. and Environmental Nanotechnology, 2023. 8(2): p. 151-
Journal of Medicinal Plants, 2021. 20(80): p. 69-82. 163.
https://doi.org/10.52547/jmp.20.80.69 23. Jethave, G., et al., Decontamination study of Organic
9. Dayan, F.E., C.L. Cantrell, and S.O. Duke, Natural Pollutants from wastewater for Sustainable Clean
products in crop protection. Bioorganic & Environment. Journal of Water and Environmental
medicinal chemistry, 2009. 17(12): p. 4022-4034. Nanotechnology, 2019. 4(4): p. 263-274.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2009.01.046 24. Radhakrishnan, V., GREEN SYNTHESIS AND
10. Glare, T.R. and L.M. Nollet, Types of biopesticides, CHARACTERISATION OF COPPER OXIDE
in Biopesticides handbook. 2015, CRC Press. p. 7-24. NANOPARTICLES - REDUCED GRAPHENE
https://doi.org/10.1201/b18014-4 OXIDE NANO COMPOSITES FOR FACILE
11. Raghavendra, N., et al., Microwave assisted biosynthesis ELECTROCHEMICAL OXIDATION OF PONCEAU 4R
of silver nanoparticles using banana leaves extract: AND ALIZARIN RED DYES IN AQUEOUS MEDIUM.
Phytochemical, spectral characterization, and anticancer Journal of Water and Environmental Nanotechnology,
activity studies. Journal of Water and Environmental 2021. 6(3): p. 241-251.
Nanotechnology, 2021. 6(1): p. 49-61. 25. Falahati, M., et al., The effect of functionalization of
12. Viswanathan, P., K. Kalimuthu, and A. Vanitha, Facile mesoporous silica nanoparticles on the interaction and
synthesis of silver nanoparticles, anti-inflammatory, stability of confined enzyme. International journal of
antibacterial and photocatalytic activities using Pogostemon biological macromolecules, 2012. 50(4): p. 1048-1054.
speciosus Benth. An endemic medicinal plant. Journal of https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2012.02.032
Water and Environmental Nanotechnology, 2022. 7(3): p. 26. De Espindola, G.M., et al., Agricultural land use
306-316. dynamics in the Brazilian Amazon based on remote
13. Duke, S.O., A. Evidente, and M. Vurro, Natural sensing and census data. 2012. 32(2): p. 240-252.
products in pest management: Innovative approaches https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.04.003
for increasing their use. 2019. p. 2299-2300. 27. Arbabi Bidgoli, S.J.J.o.W. and E. Nanotechnology, Endocrine
https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.5552 disrupting effects of carbon nanotubes: a systematic review
14. Alliance, D., et al., Chemical Study, Predictions In Silico on next generation nanotechnology based agrochemicals.
and Larvicide Activity of the Essential Oil of Root 2020. 5(2): p. 102-113.
Philodendron deflexum Poepp. Journal of Computational 28. Raghavendra, N., et al., Microwave assisted biosynthesis
and Theoretical Nanoscience, 2017. 14(7): p. 3330-3337. of silver nanoparticles using banana leaves extract:
https://doi.org/10.1166/jctn.2017.6630 Phytochemical, spectral characterization, and anticancer
15. Sahithya, K., et al., Antimicrobial and Environmental activity studies. 2021. 6(1): p. 49-61.
Applications of Inorganic Nanoparticles Synthesised 29. Viswanathan, P., et al., Facile synthesis of silver
from Plants. Journal of Water and Environmental nanoparticles, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and
Nanotechnology, 2022. 7(4): p. 389-406. photocatalytic activities using Pogostemon speciosus
16. Sharma, S., et al., Encapsulation of essential oils in nanocarriers Benth. An endemic medicinal plant. 2022. 7(3): p. 306-316.
for active food packaging. Foods, 2022. 11(15): p. 2337. 30. Isman, M.B.J.C.p., Plant essential oils for pest and
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11152337 disease management. 2000. 19(8-10): p. 603-608.
17. Anandhi, S., et al., Nano-pesticides in pest management. J. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(00)00079-X
Entomol. Zool. Stud, 2020. 8: p. 685-690. 31. Sahithya, K., et al., Antimicrobial and Environmental
18. Jokar-shorijeh, F., et al., Repellency and control of nymph Applications of Inorganic Nanoparticles Synthesised from
of greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes Vaporariorum) using Plants. 2022. 7(4): p. 389-406.
nanobiopesticide. Journal of Biosafety, 2020. 12(4): p. 97- 32. Pimentel, D., Encyclopedia of pest
110. management. 2002: CRC press.
19. Abdollahdokht, D., et al., Conventional agrochemicals https://doi.org/10.1201/NOE0824706326
towards nano-biopesticides: An overview 33. Kuhr, R.J. and N. Motoyama, Pesticides and the future:
on recent advances. Chemical and biological minimizing chronic exposure of humans and the
technologies in agriculture, 2022. 9(1): p. 13. environment. Vol. 2. 1998: IOS Press.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-021-00281-0 34. Dabhane, H., et al., Cow urine mediated green synthesis
20. Mutlu-Ingok, A., et al., Advances in biological of nanomaterial and their applications: a state-of-the-art
activities of essential oils. Studies in Natural review. 2021. 6(1): p. 81-91.
Products Chemistry, 2022. 74: p. 331-366. 35. Isman, M.B., Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91099-6.00010-4 repellents in modern agriculture and an increasingly
21. Alizadeh, M., et al., Ethology of Sunn-pest oviposition regulated world. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 2006. 51: p. 45-66.
in interaction with deltamethrin loaded on mesoporous https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151146
silica nanoparticles as a nanopesticide. Chemical and 36. Ibn, H. and T. Tyrwhitt, Orpheus, Peri lithôn De lapidibus,
Biological Technologies in Agriculture, 2022. 9(1): p. 1-13. poema Orpheo a quibusdam adscriptum. Payne, White,
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-022-00296-1 and Elmsly, London, 1781.
22. Zolriasatein, A., S. Abdolahzadeh, and N. Motakef Kazemi, 37. Tremblay, É., et al., Toxicity and sublethal effects
An Examination of the Application of Polyurethane-Based of an insecticidal soap on Aphidius colemani
Hydrophobic Nanocoatings Inspired by Natural Structures (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). 2008. 64(3): p. 249-254.
in Extracting Water from Air Humidity. Journal of Water https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1514

258 J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

38. Zolriasatein, A., et al., An Examination of the Application mosquito-repelling fabrics. 2019. 6(8): p. 182139.
of Polyurethane-Based Hydrophobic Nanocoatings https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.182139
Inspired by Natural Structures in Extracting Water from 55. Marrone, P.G.J.P.M.S., Pesticidal natural products-
Air Humidity. 2023. 8(2): p. 151-163. status and future potential. 2019. 75(9): p. 2325-2340.
39. Jethave, G., et al., Decontamination study of Eriochrome https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.5433
Black-T from wastewater by using AlTiPbO Nanoparticles 56. Isman, M.B.J.I.c. and products, Bridging the
(ATPO-NPs) for Sustainable Clean Environment. 2019. 4: gap: Moving botanical insecticides from the
p. 263-274. laboratory to the farm. 2017. 110: p. 10-14.
40. Choochote, W., et al., Repellent activity of selected https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.07.012
essential oils against Aedes aegypti. 2007. 78(5): p. 359-364. 57. Pandiyan, G.N., et al., Larvicidal activity of
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2007.02.006 selected essential oil in synergized combinations
41. Mirzaie, M., et al., Preparation, Optimization, and against Aedes aegypti. 2019. 174: p. 549-556.
Characterization of CuInS2 quantum dots by a D-optimal https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.03.019
Design. 2018. 58. Ikbal, C. and R.J.J.o.p.s. Pavela, Essential oils
42. Peterson, C. and J.J.P.O. Coats, Insect repellents- as active ingredients of botanical insecticides
past, present and future. 2001. 12(4): p. 154-158. against aphids. 2019. 92: p. 971-986.
https://doi.org/10.1039/b106296b https://doi.org/10.1007/s10340-019-01089-6
43. Abrantes, D.C., et al., Development of a 59. Koul, O., S. Walia, and G.J.B.i. Dhaliwal, Essential oils as
mosquito repellent formulation based on green pesticides: potential and constraints. 2008. 4(1): p.
nanostructured lipid carriers. 2021. 12: p. 760682. 63-84.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.760682 60. Chellappandian, M., et al., Botanical essential
44. Moore, S.J., M.J.I.r.p. Debboun, methods, and oils and uses as mosquitocides and repellents
uses, History of insect repellents. 2007: p. 3-29. against dengue. 2018. 113: p. 214-230.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420006650.ch1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.12.038
45. Khater, H., M. Govindarajan, and G. Benelli, Natural Remedies 61. Vasantha-Srinivasan, P., et al., Toxicological effects
in the Fight Against Parasites. 2017: BoD-Books on Demand. of chemical constituents from Piper against the
https://doi.org/10.5772/63275 environmental burden Aedes aegypti Liston and
46. Khater, H.F.J.P., Prospects of botanical biopesticides their impact on non-target toxicity evaluation against
in insect pest management. 2012. 3(12): p. 641-656. biomonitoring aquatic insects. 2018. 25: p. 10434-10446.
https://doi.org/10.5567/pharmacologia.2012.641.656 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9714-x
47. Pavela, R. and G.J.T.i.p.s. Benelli, Essential 62. Guarner, J. and G.L. Hale. Four human diseases with
oils as ecofriendly biopesticides? Challenges significant public health impact caused by mosquito-
and constraints. 2016. 21(12): p. 1000-1007. borne flaviviruses: West Nile, Zika, dengue and yellow
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2016.10.005 fever. in Seminars in diagnostic pathology. 2019. Elsevier.
48. Shende, A.P., N.J.J.o.W. MITRA, and E. Nanotechnology, https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semdp.2019.04.009
Green synthesis of iron nanoparticles using bioflocculant 63. Leta, S., et al., Global risk mapping for
extracted from okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L) Moench) major diseases transmitted by Aedes aegypti
and its application towards elimination of toxic metals from and Aedes albopictus. 2018. 67: p. 25-35.
wastewater: A statistical approach. 2021. 6(4): p. 338-355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2017.11.026
49. Pavela, R.J.I.c. and products, Essential oils for 64. Gettie Audain DHSc, M. and M.J.O.J.o.I.i.N. Carmen
the development of eco-friendly mosquito Maher, Prevention and control of worldwide mosquito-
larvicides: a review. 2015. 76: p. 174-187. borne illnesses: nurses as teachers. 2017. 22(1): p. 1D.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.06.050 https://doi.org/10.3912/OJIN.Vol22No01Man05
50. Kaufman, P.E., et al., Nicotinoid and pyrethroid 65. Webb, C.J.P.H.R. and Practice, A review of recommendations
insecticide resistance in houseflies (Diptera: Muscidae) on the safe and effective use of topical mosquito repellents. 2016.
collected from Florida dairies. 2010. 66(3): p. 290-294. https://doi.org/10.17061/phrp2651657
https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1872 66. Tavares, M., et al., Trends in insect repellent
51. Scott, J.G.J.P.m.s., Evolution of resistance to pyrethroid formulations: A review. 2018. 539(1-2): p. 190-209.
insecticides in Musca domestica. 2017. 73(4): p. 716-722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.01.046
https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.4328 67. Sharma, G., et al., Nanostructured lipid carriers:
52. Shi, J., et al., Role transformation of fecundity a new paradigm in topical delivery for dermal
and viability: The leading cause of fitness costs and transdermal applications. 2017. 34(4).
associated with beta-cypermethrin resistance h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 6 1 5 /
in Musca domestica. 2020. 15(1): p. e0228268. CritRevTherDrugCarrierSyst.2017019047
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228268 68. Radhakrishnan, V.J.J.o.W. and E. Nanotechnology,
53. Benelli, G., R.J.I.c. Pavela, and products, Beyond GREEN SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERISATION
mosquitoes-Essential oil toxicity and repellency OF COPPER OXIDE NANOPARTICLES-REDUCED
against bloodsucking insects. 2018. 117: p. 382-392. GRAPHENE OXIDE NANO COMPOSITES FOR FACILE
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.02.072 ELECTROCHEMICAL OXIDATION OF PONCEAU 4R
54. Ciera, L., et al., Electrospinning repellents in AND ALIZARIN RED DYES IN AQUEOUS MEDIUM.
polyvinyl alcohol-nanofibres for obtaining 2021. 6(3): p. 241-251.

J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024 259

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

69. Falahati, M., et al., The effect of functionalization of Fe3O4@ gold core shell nanoparticles: a potential
mesoporous silica nanoparticles on the interaction and sulforaphane delivery system. 2016. 11(3): p. e0151344.
stability of confined enzyme. 2012. 50(4): p. 1048-1054. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151344
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2012.02.032 84. Peresin, M.S., et al., Effect of moisture on electrospun
70. Salvi, V.R. and P. Pawar, Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) nanofiber composites of poly (vinyl alcohol) and
system: A novel drug targeting carrier. Journal of Drug cellulose nanocrystals. 2010. 11(9): p. 2471-2477.
Delivery Science and Technology, 2019. 51: p. 255-267. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm1006689
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2019.02.017 85. Dolan, M.C. and N.A.J.R.d.i.i.r. Panella, A
71. Fang, J.-Y., et al., Lipid nanoparticles as vehicles for topical review of arthropod repellents. 2011: p. 1-19.
psoralen delivery: solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) versus https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2011-1090.ch001
nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC). 2008. 70(2): p. 633-640. 86. Kazem, M.G., S.J.A.-E.J.o.A. El-Shereif, and E. Science,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2008.05.008 Toxic effect of capsicum and garlic xylene extracts in
72. Doktorovova, S. and E.B.J.E.o.o.d.d. Souto, Nanostructured toxicity of boiled linseed oil formulations against some
lipid carrier-based hydrogel formulations for drug piercing sucking cotton pests. 2010. 8(4): p. 390-396.
delivery: a comprehensive review. 2009. 6(2): p. 165-176. 87. Kalita, B., S. Bora, and A.K.J.I.J.R.D.P.L.S. Sharma, Plant
https://doi.org/10.1517/17425240802712590 essential oils as mosquito repellent-a review. 2013. 3(1): p.
73. Khosa, A., et al., Nanostructured lipid carriers for 741-747.
site-specific drug delivery. 2018. 103: p. 598-613. 88. Ciera, L.W., Functionalizing textile materials with mosquito
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.04.055 repellents in melt extrusion and electrospinning. 2014,
74. Binder, L., et al., The role of viscosity on skin penetration from Ghent University.
cellulose ether‐based hydrogels. 2019. 25(5): p. 725-734. 89. Katz, T.M., J.H. Miller, and A.A.J.J.o.t.A.A.o.D.
https://doi.org/10.1111/srt.12709 Hebert, Insect repellents: historical perspectives
75. De Oliveira, J.L., et al., Geraniol encapsulated in chitosan/ and new developments. 2008. 58(5): p. 865-871.
gum arabic nanoparticles: A promising system for https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2007.10.005
pest management in sustainable agriculture. Journal of 90. Peresin, M.S., et al., Nanofiber composites of polyvinyl
agricultural and food chemistry, 2018. 66(21): p. 5325-5334. alcohol and cellulose nanocrystals: manufacture
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00331 and characterization. 2010. 11(3): p. 674-681.
76. Song, A., et al., Effect of liquid-to-solid lipid ratio on https://doi.org/10.1021/bm901254n
characterizations of flurbiprofen-loaded solid lipid 91. Kayaci, F. and T.J.C.p. Uyar, Electrospun zein nanofibers
nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers incorporating cyclodextrins. 2012. 90(1): p. 558-568.
(NLCs) for transdermal administration. Drug Development https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.05.078
and Industrial Pharmacy, 2016. 42(8): p. 1308-1314. 92. Grandcolas, M., et al., Needleless electrospun nanofibers
https://doi.org/10.3109/03639045.2015.1132226 containing micro-capsules: a methodology for self-
77. Tarasi, R., et al., β-cyclodextrin functionalized poly supported microcontainers. 2017. 7: p. 100-104.
(5-amidoisophthalicacid) grafted Fe3O4 magnetic https://doi.org/10.9790/9622-070601100104
nanoparticles: A novel biocompatible nanocomposite 93. Qi, H., et al., Encapsulation of drug reservoirs in fibers by
for targeted docetaxel delivery. 2016. 417: p. 451-459. emulsion electrospinning: morphology characterization and
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmmm.2016.05.080 preliminary release assessment. 2006. 7(8): p. 2327-2330.
78. Zhu, J. and X.J.J.o.t.A.M.C.A. Zeng, Adult repellency https://doi.org/10.1021/bm060264z
and larvicidal activity of five plant essential oils 94. Pilehvar-Soltanahmadi, Y., et al., An overview on
against mosquitoes. 2006. 22(3): p. 515-522. application of natural substances incorporated with
https://doi.org/10.2987/8756-971X(2006)22[515:ARALAO electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds to development of
]2.0.CO;2 innovative wound dressings. 2018. 18(5): p. 414-427.
79. Saad, K.A., M.M. Roff, and A.J.J.o.E.S. Idris, https://doi.org/10.2174/1389557517666170308112147
Toxic, repellent, and deterrent effects of citronella 95. Khoobdel, M., et al., The efficacy of permethrin-
essential oil on Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: treated military uniforms as a personal protection
Aleyrodidae) on Chili plants. 2017. 52(2): p. 119-130. against Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) and its
https://doi.org/10.18474/JES16-32.1 environmental consequences. 2005. 2: p. 161-167.
80. Corbel, V., et al., Evidence for inhibition of https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03325871
cholinesterases in insect and mammalian nervous 96. Menger, D.J., et al., A push-pull system to reduce
systems by the insect repellent deet. 2009. 7(1): p. 1-11. house entry of malaria mosquitoes. 2014. 13: p. 1-8.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-7-47 https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-13-119
81. Anstrom, D.M., et al., Mosquitocidal properties of natural 97. García-Moreno, P.J., et al., Encapsulation of fish oil
product compounds isolated from Chinese herbs and in nanofibers by emulsion electrospinning: Physical
synthetic analogs of curcumin. 2012. 49(2): p. 350-355. characterization and oxidative stability. 2016. 183: p. 39-49.
https://doi.org/10.1603/ME11117 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.03.015
82. Itoh, H., et al., Morphology and mechanical 98. Achee, N.L., et al., Spatial repellents: from discovery and
properties of PVA nanofibers spun by free development to evidence-based validation. 2012. 11: p. 1-9.
surface electrospinning. 2016. 73: p. 2761-2777. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-11-164
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-016-1620-8 99. Killeen, G.F. and S.J.J.M.j. Moore, Target
83. Kheiri Manjili, H., et al., D, L-sulforaphane loaded product profiles for protecting against outdoor

260 J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

malaria transmission. 2012. 11: p. 1-6. development and testing. 2011. 10(1): p. 1-15.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-11-17 https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S11
100. Kitherian, S.J.R.J.o.N. and Nanotechnology, Nano and 116. Vieira, I.G., Estudo de caracteres silviculturais e de
bio-nanoparticles for insect control. 2017. 7(1): p. 1-9. produção de óleo essencial de progênies de Corymbia
https://doi.org/10.3923/rjnn.2017.1.9 citriodora (Hook) KD Hill & LAS Johnson procedente de
101. Manjili, H.K., et al., The effect of iron-gold core shell Anhembi SP-Brasil, Ex. Atherton QLD-Austrália. 2004,
magnetic nanoparticles on the sensitization of breast cancer Universidade de São Paulo.
cells to irradiation. 2014. 5(2). 117. Barasa, S.S., et al., Repellent activities of stereoisomers
102. Kafi-Ahmadi, L., et al., Co-precipitation synthesis, of p-menthane-3, 8-diols against Anopheles gambiae
characterization of CoFe2O4 nanomaterial and (Diptera: Culicidae). 2002. 39(5): p. 736-741.
evaluation of its toxicity behavior on human leukemia https://doi.org/10.1603/0022-2585-39.5.736
cancer K562 cell line. 2020. 65(2): p. 4845-4848. 118. Carroll, S.P. and J.J.J.o.t.A.M.C.A. Loye, PMD,
https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-97072020000204845 a registered botanical mosquito repellent with
103. Dangi, K. and A.K.J.M.T.P. Verma, Efficient & deet-like efficacy. 2006. 22(3): p. 507-514.
eco-friendly smart nano-pesticides: Emerging https://doi.org/10.2987/8756-971X(2006)22[507:PARBMR
prospects for agriculture. 2021. 45: p. 3819-3824. ]2.0.CO;2
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.03.211 119. Phasomkusolsil, S., M.J.S.A.j.o.t.m. Soonwera, and p. health,
104. Council, N.R., Review of the federal strategy for Insect repellent activity of medicinal plant oils against
nanotechnology-related environmental, health, and safety Aedes aegypti (Linn.), Anopheles minimus (Theobald) and
research. 2009. Culex quinquefasciatus Say based on protection time and
105. Murdock, R.C., et al., Characterization of nanomaterial biting rate. 2010. 41(4): p. 831.
dispersion in solution prior to in vitro exposure using 120. Zielinski-Gutierrez, E., et al., Protection against mosquitoes,
dynamic light scattering technique. 2008. 101(2): p. 239-253. ticks, and other insects and arthropods. 2012, Oxford
https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfm240 University Press.
106. Navayan, A., et al., Evaluation of the mosquito repellent 121. Hill, N., et al., Plant based insect repellent and
activity of nano-sized microemulsion of Eucalyptus insecticide treated bed nets to protect against malaria
globulus essential oil against culicinae. 2017. 12(4). in areas of early evening biting vectors: double blind
https://doi.org/10.5812/jjnpp.55626 randomised placebo controlled clinical trial in the
107. Qiu, H., J.W. McCall, and H.W.J.I.j.o.p. Jun, Bolivian Amazon. bmj, 2007. 335(7628): p. 1023.
Formulation of topical insect repellent N, N-diethyl- https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39356.574641.55
m-toluamide (DEET): vehicle effects on DEET in 122. Anjali, C., et al., Formulation of water-dispersible
vitro skin permeation. 1998. 163(1-2): p. 167-176. nanopermethrin for larvicidal applications. Ecotoxicology
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-5173(97)00379-7 and environmental safety, 2010. 73(8): p. 1932-1936.
108. Hashemi, Z., et al., Antileishmanial and antibacterial https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2010.08.039
activities of biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles 123. Anjali, C., et al., Formulation of water-
using Alcea rosea extract (AR-AgNPs). 2021. 6(3): p. 265- dispersible nanopermethrin for larvicidal
276. applications. 2010. 73(8): p. 1932-1936.
109. Nerio, L.S., J. Olivero-Verbel, and E.J.B.t. Stashenko, Repellent https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2010.08.039
activity of essential oils: a review. 2010. 101(1): p. 372-378. 124. Li, W., et al., Spectroscopic and theoretical study
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.07.048 on inclusion complexation of beta-cyclodextrin
110. Pavela, R.J.I.C. and Products, Larvicidal property with permethrin. 2010. 981(1-3): p. 194-203.
of essential oils against Culex quinquefasciatus https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2010.08.008
Say (Diptera: Culicidae). 2009. 30(2): p. 311-315. 125. Hebeish, A., et al., Preparation of durable insect repellent
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2009.06.005 cotton fabric: Limonene as insecticide. 2008. 74(2): p. 268-273.
111. Klocke, J.A., M.V. Darlington, and M.F.J.J.o.c.e. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.02.013
Balandrin, 1, 8-Cineole (Eucalyptol), a mosquito 126. Jadaun, S., et al., Biodegradable nanocellulose reinforced
feeding and ovipositional repellent from volatile oil of biocomposites for food packaging-a narrative review and
Hemizonia fitchii (Asteraceae). 1987. 13: p. 2131-2141. future perspective. 2023. 8(3): p. 293-319.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01012562 127. Hsieh, W.-C., et al., Controlled release properties of
112. Moretti, M.D., et al., Essential oil formulations useful chitosan encapsulated volatile citronella oil microcapsules
as a new tool for insect pest control. 2002. 3: p. 64-74. by thermal treatments. 2006. 53(2): p. 209-214.
https://doi.org/10.1208/pt030213 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2006.09.008
113. Lai, F., et al., Artemisia arborescens L essential oil-loaded solid 128. N’guessan, R., et al., DEET microencapsulation: a slow-
lipid nanoparticles for potential agricultural application: release formulation enhancing the residual efficacy of bed
preparation and characterization. 2006. 7: p. E10-E18. nets against malaria vectors. 2008. 102(3): p. 259-262.
https://doi.org/10.1208/pt070102 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.10.012
114. Paul, R., Functional finishes for textiles: improving 129. Sittipummongkol, K., et al., Core shell
comfort, performance and protection. 2014: Elsevier. microcapsules of neem seed oil extract containing
https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857098450.1 azadirachtin and biodegradable polymers and their
115. Maia, M.F. and S.J.J.M.j. Moore, Plant-based release characteristics. 2019. 76: p. 3803-3817.
insect repellents: a review of their efficacy, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-018-2456-1

J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024 261

 M. Najafzadeh Nansa et al. / Nanoformulation: An Efficient Approach to Natural Insect Repellent Formulations

130. Sharma, R., A.J.I.j.o.c.s. Goel, and technology, Development (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). 2009. 57(21): p. 10156-10162.
of insect repellent finish by a simple coacervation https://doi.org/10.1021/jf9023118
microencapsulation technique. 2018. 30(2): p. 152-158. 147. Balaji, A., et al., Nanoformulation of poly (ethylene
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCST-02-2017-0022 glycol) polymerized organic insect repellent by PIT
131. Barnard, D.R., Repellency of essential oils to emulsification method and its application for Japanese
mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of encephalitis vector control. 2015. 128: p. 370-378.
medical entomology, 1999. 36(5): p. 625-629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.02.034
https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/36.5.625 148. Trongtokit, Y., et al., Comparative repellency of 38 essential
132. Barnard, D.R.J.J.o.m.e., Repellency of essential oils to oils against mosquito bites. 2005. 19(4): p. 303-309.
mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). 1999. 36(5): p. 625-629. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1637
https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/36.5.625 149. Goodyer, L.I., et al., Expert review of the evidence base
133. Rutledge, L. and R.J.J.V.E. Gupta, Reanalysis of the CG for arthropod bite avoidance. 2010. 17(3): p. 182-192.
Macnay mosquito repellent data. 1995. 21: p. 132-135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1708-8305.2010.00402.x
134. Trongtokit, Y., et al., Efficacy of repellent products against 150. Curtis, C., et al., The relative efficacy of repellents against
caged and free flying Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. mosquito vectors of disease. 1987. 1(2): p. 109-119.
2005. 36(6): p. 1423. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2915.1987.tb00331.x
135. Mapossa, A.B., et al., Mosquito‐repellent controlled‐release 151. Tawatsin, A., et al., Repellency of volatile oils from plants
formulations for fighting infectious diseases. 2021. 20: p. 1-33. against three mosquito vectors. 2001. 26: p. 76-82.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03681-7 152. Moore, S.J., et al., Field evaluation of traditionally
136. Sibanda, M., et al., Bicomponent fibres for controlled used plant-based insect repellents and fumigants
release of volatile mosquito repellents. 2018. 91: p. 754-761. against the malaria vector Anopheles darlingi in
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2018.06.016 Riberalta, Bolivian Amazon. 2007. 44(4): p. 624-630.
137. Akhtar, M.U. and W.W.J.T.A. Focke, Trapping citronellal
https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/44.4.624
in a microporous polyethylene matrix. 2015. 613: p. 61-65.
153. Sharma, V., M. Ansari, and R.J.J.o.t.A.M.C.A. Razdan,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tca.2015.06.003
Mosquito repellent action of neem (Azadirachta indica) oil.
138. Sungkapreecha, C., et al., Phase behavior of the polymer/
1993. 9(3): p. 359-360.
drug system PLA/DEET. 2017. 126: p. 116-125.
154. Singh, N., A. Mishra, and A.J.I.j.o.M. Saxena, Use of neem
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2017.08.031
cream as a mosquito repellent in tribal areas of central
139. Iliou, K., et al., Citronella oil‐loaded electrospun
India. 1996. 33(2): p. 99-102.
micro/nanofibrous matrices as sustained
155. Schmutterer, H.J.A.r.o.e., Properties and
repellency systems for the Asian tiger mosquito
potential of natural pesticides from the neem
Aedes albopictus. 2019. 75(8): p. 2142-2147.
tree, Azadirachta indica. 1990. 35(1): p. 271-297.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.5334
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.35.1.271
140. Anjali, C., et al., Neem oil (Azadirachta indica)
156. Reutemann, P. and A.J.D.c. Ehrlich, atopic, occupational,
nanoemulsion-a potent larvicidal agent against
Culex quinquefasciatus. 2012. 68(2): p. 158-163. drug, Neem oil: an herbal therapy for alopecia causes
https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.2233 dermatitis. 2008. 19(3): p. E12-5.
141. Agrawal, N., G.L. Maddikeri, and A.B.J.U.S. Pandit, Sustained 157. Caraballo, A.J.J.-A.M.C.A., Mosquito repellent action of
release formulations of citronella oil nanoemulsion Neemos®. 2000. 16(1): p. 45-46.
using cavitational techniques. 2017. 36: p. 367-374. 158. Drapeau, J., et al., Green synthesis of para-Menthane-3,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.11.037 8-diol from Eucalyptus citriodora: Application
142. Kasting, G.B., V.D. Bhatt, and T.J.J.T.i.v. Speaker, for repellent products. 2011. 14(7-8): p. 629-635.
Microencapsulation decreases the skin absorption of N, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crci.2011.02.008
N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). 2008. 22(2): p. 548-552. 159. Nasci, R.S., et al., Protection against mosquitoes, ticks, &
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2007.11.003 other insects & arthropods. 2013. 56(2): p. 94-99.
143. Bezerra, F.M., et al., Controlled release of 160. Abad, M.J., L.M. Bedoya, and P. Bermejo, Essential
microencapsulated citronella essential oil on cotton oils from the Asteraceae family active against
and polyester matrices. 2016. 23: p. 1459-1470. multidrug-resistant bacteria, in Fighting multidrug
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-016-0882-5 resistance with herbal extracts, essential oils and
144. Türkoğlu, G.C., et al., Micro-and nano-encapsulation their components. 2013, Elsevier. p. 205-221.
of limonene and permethrin for mosquito repellent https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-398539-2.00014-8
finishing of cotton textiles. 2020. 29: p. 321-329. 161. Negahban, M., et al., Repellent activity of nanoencapsulated
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13726-020-00799-4 essential oil of Artemisia sieberi Besser on Plutella xylostella
145. Iscan, Y., et al., DEET-loaded solid lipid particles for L. larvae. Iranian Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
skin delivery: in vitro release and skin permeation Research, 2014. 29(4): p. 909-924.
characteristics in different vehicles. 2006. 23(3): p. 315-327. 162. Ghasemi, B., R. Hosseini, and F.D. Nayeri, Effects
https://doi.org/10.1080/02652040500444198 of cobalt nanoparticles on artemisinin production
146. Yang, F.-L., et al., Structural characterization of and gene expression in Artemisia annua. Turkish
nanoparticles loaded with garlic essential oil and their Journal of Botany, 2015. 39(5): p. 769-777.
insecticidal activity against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) https://doi.org/10.3906/bot-1410-9

262 J. Water Environ. Nanotechnol., 9(3): 248-262 Summer 2024