Drivetrain

MANUAL GEARBOX

Manual gearbox
The gearbox is located between clutch and differential. A prop-shaft is often used in a rear-
wheel drive vehicle.

A combustion engine does not deliver constant torque. At low revs, torque is low. When
driving off, high torque is required.
Function
Most gears in a gearbox increase torque, resulting in more driving force. The engine speed
is higher.

A reduction ratio in a gearbox is called a low gear. The gear where input and output revs
are equal is called a direct drive. The gear where the output rotational speed is higher than
the input rotational speed is called an overdrive.

Location
In rear-wheel drive vehicles, the engine and the gearbox are often mounted longitudinally.

The input shaft is connected to the clutch plate and thus is in the same single line as the
crankshaft.
The secondary shaft connects the input shaft to the output shaft.
The output shaft is connected to the prop-shaft. The prop-shaft is connected to the
differential.
Operation
Transmissions in this gearbox are created by gearing.

There are gearboxes with:

 single reduction ratio

 double reduction ratio

In a single reduction gearbox, the engine drives the primary shaft through the clutch. A gear
on the primary shaft transmits the driving force to a gear on the secondary shaft. This is a
single reduction. The driving force is transmitted from the secondary shaft to the
differential/the final drive.
This construction is common in front-wheel drive vehicles.

In double reduction gearboxes, the input shaft (the primary shaft) and the output shaft (the
main shaft) are in one line. The secondary shaft is parallel to the primary shaft and the main
shaft.
The first reduction takes place where the primary shaft connects to the secondary shaft. The
driving force is then transmitted from the secondary shaft to the main shaft. This is the
second reduction.
This construction is common in rear-wheel drive vehicles.

Components
The main components in a gearbox are:

 input shaft
 output shaft
 secondary shaft
 reverse gear auxiliary shaft
 gear stick
 selector mechanism
CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE TRANSMISSION

1. CVT gearbox.

Introduction
The CVT is a type of gearbox. The letters CVT stand
for Continously Variable Transmission.

This type of gearbox was invented by Hub van Doorne, owner of DAF trucks; in 1958 it
was, for the first time, used in DAF passenger cars under the name Variomatic.

Function
The CVT can achieve every gear ratio. The CVT gearbox chooses the best gear ratio,
depending on the driving conditions.

Advantages of a CVT:

 stepless change
 no gear change jolt as with a stepped automatic
 for every situation the best gear can be selected
 the engine can operate continuously in the most optimal situation
 cheaper to produce than a conventional automatic

Disadvantage of a CVT:

 less suitable for high power; the maximum torque that can be transmitted is limited

Stepped automatic transmission

With a stepped automatic transmission, the engine speed varies while pulling away. For
each step, the engine speed increases with vehicle speed. When the next gear is selected,
the engine speed drops and increases again with vehicle speed. Continuously
Variable Transmission
With a CVT automatic transmission, the engine speed is constant during pulling away. The
gear ratio changes with vehicle speed. This keeps the engine speed constant.

Principle of operation
A CVT has 2 pulleys: a drive pulley and a driven pulley. The pulleys are connected to each
other by a band. If the drive pulley rotates, then the driven pulley rotates automatically.

To create a different gear ratio, the diameter of the pulleys is adjusted. If the diameter of the
drive pulley becomes larger, then the diameter of the driven pulley becomes smaller and
vice versa.
CVT components
A CVT consists of the following components:

 primary pulley (drive pulley)

This is connected to the engine
 secondary pulley(driven pulley)
This is connected to the output shaft
 push belt
Connects the primary pulley with the secondary pulley
 torque converter
Ensures that the engine can continue running when the car is stationary
 hydraulic clutch
Ensures that the car can drive forward and reverse

When the motor drives the primary pulley, the secondary pulley will rotate, whereby the car
will drive.
Operation
Each pulley of the CVT consists of 2 halves: a fixed half and a moveable half. By moving
these towards each other or away from each other, it is possible to change the diameter.
This is done under the influence of hydraulic pressure.

AUTOMATIC GEARBOX CONTROL

Introduction
The automatic gearbox renders manual selection of the gears by the driver superfluous.

The automatic gearbox can be divided into three generations:

 1st generation
 2nd generation
 3rd generation

The way the automatic gearbox is controlled has changed over the years. In the
1st generation, everything was done hydraulically; in the 3rd generation, the valve block is
activated and controlled electronically.

The oil pump provides the oil pressure necessary. The hydraulic valve block transfers this
pressure to the multi-plate clutches that need to be activated. The automatic gearbox cannot
work without oil pressure.
The oil pump is driven by the engine. Because of this, automatic gearboxes also have oil
pressure when the selector is set to neutral and the engine is running.

PLEASE NOTE
In many cases, vehicles with automatic transmission should not be towed.

This is because the engine is not switched on during towing. Because of this, the oil pump
is not running and the automatic gearbox will not be lubricated.

In addition to lubrication, oil also is used in cooling. Often, an oil cooler or a heat
exchanger is added to the automatic transmission to keep the temperature stable.
First generation
The first generation of automatic gearbox is mechanically operated. A cable or set of rods
are used to 'read' the movements of the selector. By moving the selector, oil ducts are
opened or closed. One of the tasks of these oil ducts is to control the multi-plate clutches.

There are a large number of valves in the valve block. Together, these valves control the
gear changes of the automatic gearbox. There is no electronic control unit; gear changing is
achieved by differences in surface area and pressure only. No solenoid valves are used.

The main feature of a 1st generation automatic gearbox is that the gear changes are fully
controlled and activated hydraulically.

Second generation
The second generation of automatic gearbox is also mechanically operated, like the first
generation.

The control in this generation of gearbox is achieved by means of solenoid valves. Which
solenoids are controlled and when they're activated depends on vehicle speed, wheel speed,
input and output shaft speed and engine load.

The control in this generation is electronic. The activation of the various components
however is still hydraulic.

Third generation
The modern (third) generation of automatic gearbox is operated electronically. The
movement of the selector is transferred into an electronic signal. This signal is then electro-
mechanically transferred into opening and closing of oil ducts.

The control in this generation of gearbox is largely the same as in the 2nd generation. By
comparing incoming data and the driver's intention, the appropriate gear change is
activated.

Both the operation and the control in this generation is electronic.

CALCULATIONS ON A DRIVE TRAIN

Introduction
In this lesson, you will be calculating a vehicle's speed at a given engine speed. You will
need the following data:

 Gear ratio of the gearbox.

 Gear ratio of the final drive in the differential.
 Diameter of the wheels.

Every combustion engine has an engine speed at which it performs best. To be able to
maintain this engine speed, or as close as possible, a gearbox is needed.

To increase torque at the wheels and decrease speed, a final drive is used. In a front-wheel
drive vehicle the final drive is in the gearbox. If the rear wheels are driven, then the final
drive is located in the differential housing on the rear axle.

In both the gearbox and the differential, the speed is lowered and the torque increased by
means of gear wheels.

The vehicle's wheels also have a ratio. Changing the wheels' diameter results in a change in
vehicle speed.
Gearbox

The ratio between input and output rotational speeds gives the gear index (𝑖i).

A gear index can also be calculated using the ratio between the number of teeth on the
active gear wheels.
The formula for the gear index is:

𝑖
EXAMPLE

Rotational speed 𝑛n of the engine is 4000 𝑟𝑝/𝑚4000 rp/m.

Given:

z1= 10 teeth.
z2= 20 teeth.
z3= 10 teeth.
z4= 20 teeth.
Question:
1: First deceleration i1.
2: Second deceleration i2.
3: Gearbox gear ratio ix.
4: Rotational speed nprop−shaft.

Solution 1:

i1=z1z2⇒ 20/10=2.
First deceleration:

Solution 2:

i2=z3/z4⇒ 20/10=2.
Second deceleration:
/

ix=i1∗i2⇒ 2∗2=4.
Solution 3:

Solution 4:
Prop-shaft rotational speed:

nprop−shaft=nengine/i⇒ 4000/4=1000 rp/m.

Because of the lower rotational speed, due to the transmission with (i)= 4, the torque
becomes four times greater.

If (𝑖) is greater than 1, then there will be a deceleration.

If (𝑖) is less than 1, then there will be an acceleration.

Differential
The gear index in the differential can also be calculated by using the ratio between the
number of teeth.

The ratio between ring gear and drive pinion effects the total transmission index.

You can use the same formula:

𝑖=𝑧2/𝑧1i
Wheels
The wheels are the last factor in the total gear ratio of the drive train.

The size of the wheels effects the transmission ratio. A smaller wheel needs more rotations
to cover the same distance.

To calculate the speed of this vehicle, you need the rolling circumference ( 𝑐c).

Calculate
If the gear ratios are known, the speed of the vehicle can be determined.

Given:
Gearbox gear ratio: ix=4.
Gear ratio final drive ie=4.
Rolling circumference of the tyres: O=1.9 m.
Engine rotational speed: n=4000 rp/m.

Question:
Speed of the car in km/h.

Solution:
Step 3:
Calculate the speed of the car.

Given:
Rotational speed of the wheel is 250 rp/m.
Rolling circumference of the wheel is 1.9 m.

I: Calculate the rotational speed from rp/m to 𝐻𝑧.

Engine mechanical
MICROMETER

Micrometer.

Introduction
The micrometer is a tool that allows you to accurately measure the length of an object.

This measuring tool is also called a screw gauge.

With most micrometers you can measure to an accuracy of 1/100 millimetre (mm). This is
the same as 10 micrometers (μm).

Micrometer use
The micrometer expands due to the heat of your hand and it will then no longer measure
accurately. Always, therefore, take hold of the micrometer by its heat-insulated handle.

When you measure an object using a micrometer, hold it between the anvil and the
measuring spindle. Tighten the barrel until the measuring spindle nearly touches the object.
Turn the measuring spindle using the ratchet against the object until you hear a click. Lock
the micrometer using the lock lever and read the micrometer.
Reading the micrometer
First read the value from the fixed scale. The top scale comprises whole
millimetres while the bottom scale comprises half millimetres.

Next, read the value where the barrel touches the 0 line. These are hundredths
of a millimetre.

Add the values together and you will have read the micrometer.

CRANKSHAFT
Introduction
The crankshaft is the main shaft of the engine and drives the wheels via the drivetrain. The
crankshaft is mostly made from a single piece.

The crankshaft consists of:

 crankshaft journals - these connect the crankshaft to the engine block.

 connecting rod bearing journals; the connecting rods are connected to the crankshaft
at this point.
 counter weights - these ensure that the crankshaft is balanced. If it is in balance, the
crankshaft will operate with minimum vibration.

Crank angle
The connecting rod bearing journals are at a certain angle to one another. This angle is
known as the crank angle or spark interval. This is selected in such a way that the power
strokes of the engine are distributed regularly.

In a 4-stroke single cylinder engine, there is 1 power stroke for every 2 revolutions. Two
revolutions is the equivalent of 720°.
You can calculate the crank angle if you divide 720° by the number of cylinders (4). (180°)

One or more connecting rods may be attached to a single connecting rod bearing journal.
This primarily depends on the type of engine block.
Lubrication
The crankshaft is a moving part and requires lubrication. The oil is directed to
the bearing journals.

The crankshaft journals have a direct oil supply from the engine block. The
connecting rod bearing journals have a supply gallery via the crankshaft
bearing journals.
Bearings
The crankshaft rotates and therefore requires bearings. It is able to revolve
thanks to main bearings. Each bearing journal is enclosed by a main bearing. A
main bearing consists of two bearing shells. Each bearing shell has a recess so
that it is only able to fit in the bearing cap one way round.

The crankshaft also includes bearings in an axial direction. Axial means along
its length. Thrust bearings can be found on one or both sides of the crankshaft.

The main bearings are made of a softer material than the crankshaft itself.
That way, only the bearing shells need to be replaced in the event of wear and
tear.

Between the bearing shells and bearing journals is a film of oil, the purpose of
which is to keep wear and tear and heat accumulation to a minimum.

Construction
A crankshaft may be made of forged or cast steel. The bearing journals are
surface-hardened to make them resistant to wear and ensure that they remain
tough.

Bearings
A bearing shell can be made of various materials.

The innermost layer is the running surface. This is where the shaft rotates. It is
made of a very soft alloy of lead-indium or white metal. Any hard particles
released during wear are captured and therefore do not travel any further.

A layer of nickel may be located between the running surface and lead-bronze
layer to ensure that the running surface does not come into contact with the
lead-bronze.

The lead-bronze layer is attached to the steel shell. It consists of 75% copper,
23.5% lead and 1.5% tin.
The steel shell forms the carrier and provides the mechanical strength.

TIMING SYSTEM

Introduction
The inlet and exhaust valves are opened and closed by the camshaft (s). The camshaft (s)
are driven by the crankshaft by means of a timing system. It is important here that the
valves are opened and closed at the right time. The transmission of the crankshaft to the
camshaft (s) takes place by means of a toothed belt, chain or gears.

Timing
The timing of a 4-stroke engine makes the connection between the crankshaft and camshaft.
The camshaft operates the inlet and exhaust valves and rotates at half the speed (revolutions
per minute) of the crankshaft.

The crankshaft and the camshafts must be positioned exactly correctly with regard to each
other. When this is not the case, the valves will come in contact with the piston. The engine
will then not be able to rotate.

First we need to ensure the timing is correct with regard to installing the timing belt. The
easiest method is:

1. Position the piston in the TDC position.

2. Position the camshaft of the inlet valves just before the inlet valves open.
3. Position the camshaft of the exhaust valves just after the exhaust valves close.

Always follow the manufacturer's instructions when setting the engine timing.

Components
Because the timing of the engine must not change, the timing belt must be kept tensioned.
If this is not done, the timing belt can slip off or jump a few teeth. Idlers and guide rollers
prevent this from happening.

Often the timing belt also drives the coolant pump. The timing belt also drives the diesel
pump with regard to diesel engines.

Types
The timing system drive can be designed in different ways.

Timing gears are often used in heavy-duty commercial vehicles.

The timing belt or timing chain is used the most in passenger cars.
The timing chain is used the most in motorcycles.

COMPRESSION RATIO

Introduction
During the compression stroke the mixture is compressed. The compression ratio is a
measure indicating how strongly the air in the cylinder is compressed during the
compression stroke.

Inside the cylinder the piston creates two different chambers.

The space above the piston at top dead center (TDC) is the combustion chamber volume.

 The space above the piston at bottom dead center (BDC) is the stroke volume plus
the combustion chamber volume.
The stroke volume is the space between TDC and BDC.

If the piston is at TDC, there is still space at the top. This space between the piston head
and the cylinder head is called the combustion chamber space.

During the compression stroke, the piston starts at BDC. The total volume above the piston
is compressed to the volume of the combustion chamber space.

The ratio between the total volume above the piston at BDC and the volume of the
combustion chamber space is called the compression ratio.

Compression ratio
The compression ratio is the ratio between the volume above the piston at BDC (stroke
volume plus combustion chamber volume) and the volume above the piston at TDC
(combustion chamber volume).

Formula:

ε= (Vs+Vc)
Vc
𝑉𝑠=Vs= Stroke volume (cm )
ε= compression ratio(epsilon)

𝑉𝑐=Vc= Combustion chamber volume (cm )

3

The compression ratio is often expressed in a figure related to 1.

For example 8:1. This means that the stroke volume and the combustion
chamber volume combined are eight times as large as the combustion
chamber volume itself.

Calculating compression ratio

To calculate the compression ratio of a cylinder, you will need the stroke length
and the compression volume.

A calculation is given below.

An engine has a combustion chamber space (Vc) of 50 cm3. The stroke volume
(Vs) is 350 cm3.

𝜀=(𝑉𝑠+𝑉𝑐)
𝑉𝑐

𝜀=(350+50)
50

𝜀=8:1
A ratio of 14 to 20 applies for diesel engines: 1. For four-stroke engines a ratio
of 7 to 12 applies: 1.
Engine management
SINGLE-SPARK IGNITION COIL

Introduction
The single-spark ignition coil – also called pen ignition coil or 'Coil-on-plug' – is an
actuator.

The coil generates a very high voltage, so that the spark plug can create a spark between the
spark plug electrode. This spark is needed to ignite the mixture in the combustion chamber.

The control unit determines when the ignition coil generates the high voltage.

Positioning
Pen ignition coils are often only visible after removing the engine cover.
This type of ignition coil extends through openings in the valve cover to the spark plugs, to
which they are directly connected.

Some ignition coils are equipped with a mounting eye, with which the coils are screwed
against the valve cover.

Construction
The pen ignition coil consists of various parts. The upper part is the output stage. The
output stage is placed in the plastic block to which the plug is attached.

A laminated core is placed in the long, slender part of the ignition coil. The laminated core
is enclosed between two permanent magnets and wound with copper wire. These copper
windings form the secondary coil. A second coil is placed around the secondary coil: the
primary coil.

The primary coil has fewer windings and is made of thicker copper wire. This coil is
connected to the output stage. The secondary coil is connected to the coil spring at the
bottom of the pin. This coil spring is the high voltage connection that connects the ignition
coil to the spark plug.

Operation
When current flows through the primary coil, a magnetic field is created; the laminated
core thereby becomes magnetic. The two permanent magnets help to increase the magnetic
energy, while the laminated core limits the magnetic losses.

If you interrupt the current, the magnetic field falls away. If the magnetic field falls away, a
voltage is created: the induction voltage.

The induction voltage in the secondary coil is so high that the gas starts to conduct between
the electrodes of the spark plug; the spark plug sparks.
The minimum voltage required to conduct a gas stream is called the ionisation voltage. In
addition to obtaining the ionisation voltage, it is important that sufficient energy is present
to maintain the 'spark' for some time.

MAPS

Introduction
Controls and regulations often use maps. A map is a lookup table with data. Sensors tell the
engine management which data must be taken from the table. The data in the lookup table
has been determined and stored at an earlier time.

The data in a map is linked to two variables. One of these variables belongs to the Y-axis of
the map, the other variable to the X-axis. The incoming values from the sensors determine
where the lines of the X and Y axis intersect in the map. The cell where the lines intersect
contains the information that the engine management needs in that situation.

Three-dimensional map
You can display a map in a three-dimensional diagram. The substructure of the diagram is
determined by the input of two sensors. A value is associated with each point on the
substructure. This value is reflected in the height of the diagram. The axis that belongs to
the height is called the Z axis.
CRANKSHAFT POSITION SENSOR

Introduction
An inductive crankshaft sensor is a pick-up sensor.

Using this sensor, the control unit measures the position of the crankshaft and the engine
speed.

Location
The inductive crankshaft sensor is often placed in an opening in the flywheel housing.
Directly under this opening you will find the flywheel, surrounded by a gear ring.

The distance between the measuring part of the sensor and the teeth of the gear ring is no
more than a few millimeters.

Construction
The inductive crankshaft sensor is built up of the following components:

 Plastic housing.
 Coil.
 Magnet.
 Soft iron core.

The plastic housing is often provided with a mounting eye. By inserting a bolt through the
eye and tightening, the sensor stays in place.

Operation
As the crankshaft turns, the teeth of the gearwheel move past the sensor one
after the other.

The magnet in the sensor ensures a magnetic field.

This magnetic field changes constantly as the teeth of the gearwheel move
past the inductive pickup.

Magnetic field
A changing magnetic field generates a voltage in the coil of the sensor.

A tooth approaching the sensor increases the strength of the magnetic field.
Once the tooth is directly in front of the sensor, the field is at its maximum. The
field strength decreases again as the tooth moves away from the sensor again.
Generated voltage
The magnitude of the voltage produced depends on the number of windings in
the coil and the speed with which the magnetic field changes.
Expressed as a formula:

Determining the speed

The control unit measures the voltage from the inductive pickup.

When the speed increases, the teeth move faster

past the inductive pickup.

This causes the frequency of the AC voltage to increase.

By measuring the frequency of the AC voltage, the control unit can determine
the speed of the engine.
Recognising the top dead centre (TDC)
A tooth is deliberately omitted from the gear wheel.

This missing tooth is directly in front of the inductive sensor when the
crankshaft is 90° before the TDC of cylinder 1.
Because of this, there is a short moment where no tooth passes the inductive
sensor.

The control unit recognises this missing tooth by the deviating frequency and
now knows that the crankshaft is 90° before the TDC of cylinder 1.

On the basis of the number of teeth that have passed after the missing tooth,
the control unit can always determine the current position of the crankshaft.
CAMSHAFT POSITION SENSOR

Introduction
The camshaft position sensor is a sensor with which the control unit determines the position
of the camshaft.

If the position of the camshaft is known, the control unit knows which part of the duty cycle
is in progress.

Location
In engines with overhead camshaft (s) you will find the camshaft position sensor in a recess
in the cylinder head. Via this recess the measuring part of the sensor 'looks' directly at the
camshaft.

The distance between the measuring part of the sensor and the pulse wheel of the camshaft
is no more than a few millimeters.
A pulse wheel is mounted on the camshaft. The pulse wheel has one or more reference
points in the form of notches. The pulse wheel rotates along the sensor.
The position of the camshaft can be determined using these reference points.

In engines with variable camshaft timing, a position sensor is mounted on each camshaft
with adjustable timing.

Construction
A camshaft position sensor consists of the following parts:
  Plastic housing.
 Permanent magnet.
 Printed circuit board with Hall element.

The plastic housing is often provided with a mounting eyelet. By inserting a bolt through
the eye and tightening, the sensor stays in place. A rubber o-ring prevents oil leakage.

The electronic circuit requires a 5-volt supply voltage and a ground. The power
supply must be connected to junction C and ground to junction A. The output
signal is generated at junction B.

Principle
The reference notch(es) of the camshaft pulse wheel pass(es) the sensor once per camshaft
revolution.
The magnetic field - generated by the permanent magnet in the sensor - changes at the
moment the notch of the pulse wheel turns in front of the Hall sensor. The electronic circuit
responds to the presence or absence of the magnetic field.

The output voltage of the sensor only has two values. High if a notch is in front of the
sensor and low if a tooth is in front of the sensor.
The rotating camshaft causes a voltage form known as square wave voltage.

Checks camshaft position sensor

To function, the Hall camshaft position sensor requires power and ground.
If no signal can be seen on the engine control unit with an oscilloscope, check
for the presence of power (5 V or 12 V) and ground on the sensor.

Since the Hall sensor contains an electronic circuit, measuring the resistance of
this sensor makes no sense. It provides a measurement result from which you
cannot draw any conclusions.

As with the inductive sensor, the air gap between the Hall sensor and the
sensor disc should not be too large.
Unlike the inductive sensor, it does not affect the amplitude of the signal. If the
air gap is too large, the sensor will not give a signal.
Chassis - Brakes
DRUM BRAKE: INTRODUCTION

Brake drum
You can identify a drum brake by the brake drum. The brake drum is always attached to the
wheel. When you brake, the brake drum and with it the wheel are slowed down.

There are two types of brake drum:

 A brake drum that is mounted on the hub; this drum is fixed with the wheel bolts.
 A brake drum with integral hub; this drum is fixed with a central hub nut.

Operation
When pressing the brake pedal the pressure in the brake system increases. Due to the
pressure increase the brake pistons in the brake cylinder move out. The brake pistons press
the brake shoes against the brake drum. This slows down the brake drum and with it the
wheel.
When you release the brake pedal, the pressure in the brake system decreases. The return
spring pulls the brake shoes from the brake drum and the brake pistons are pushed back into
the brake cylinder.

The retaining springs hold the brake shoes in place.

The kinetic energy of the vehicle is converted into heat.heat.

The wheel brake cylinder consists of two pistons and two rubber brake cup seals. The
springs press the cups against the pistons and ensure that the brake fluid is sealed off.

The dust covers ensure that debris and moisture are kept outside. The brake fluid remains
behind the dust cover if there are minor brake fluid leaks along the brake cup seals and the
piston.

Leading and trailing brake shoes

When braking the brake shoes are pressed against the brake drum. With this brake drum
construction there are two different types of brake shoes:

 Leading brake shoe: This is the brake shoe that is pulled by the brake drum. The
braking efficiency of this brake shoe is better than the trailing brake shoe. Because
of this the leading brake shoe wears more.
Because this brake shoe is pulled onto the drum it is said to have a 'self-servo'
effect.
 Trailing brake shoe: This is the brake shoe that is pushed away by the brake drum.
The braking efficiency is less than the leading brake shoe. This brake shoe is also
called descending or tapering.
 If the brake drum turns in the other direction, then the leading brake shoe becomes
the trailing and the trailing the leading.
 

Disadvantage of drum brakes

The biggest disadvantage of drum brakes is that they quickly overheat during
braking. If the drum brake gets to hot, then it loses its' braking force. Because
the drum brake is a closed construction, the heat cannot easily escape.

The drum brake is often used on the rear axle. The rear axle requires less
braking force, because during braking the vehicle pitches forward. For this
reason the drum brakes don't heat up too quickly on the rear axle.

BRAKE CALIPER

Introduction
The caliper is always attached to an upright or an axle housing.
When braking the caliper transfers the braking force to the chassis.
Fixed caliper
The fixed caliper consists of the following components:

 caliper
 brake piston
 air bleed screw

The fixed caliper is mounted on an upright or axle housing.

In the caliper there are at least two pistons, one on each side of the brake disc. During
braking pressure is built up in the caliper. The brake pistons push the brake pads against the
brake disc.

Often there is an air bleed screw on the top of the caliper with which you can bleed the air
out of the caliper.
Floating caliper
The floating caliper consists of the following components:

 caliper
 brake piston
 air bleed screw
 guide bush

The guide bush is attached to the upright or the axle housing. The caliper can move on the
guide bush.
In the floating caliper the brake piston(s) is on one side of the brake disc. During braking
pressure builds up in the caliper. The brake piston(s) presses the brake pad against the brake
disc. The caliper presses itself to the right across the guide bush until the outer brake pad is
pulled against the brake disc.

The floating caliper is often used because it needs less space.

There is also an air bleed screw installed on this caliper in order to bleed the air.

BRAKE PADS
Construction
The brake pads are installed in the caliper.

The brake pad consists of:

 metal backing plate

 brake lining
 damping material

Construction
The brake lining is glued on one side of the metal backing plate. During braking the brake
lining/pad is pressed against the brake disc. The kinetic energy of the vehicle is converted
into heat.

On the other side of the metal backing plate is the damping material. During braking the
brake pads can vibrate and make noise. The damping material ensures that vibration and
noise are reduced.

Requirements friction material

The important brake lining requirements are:

 A correct and constant friction coefficient.

 Can withstand high temperature and pressure.
 High resistance to brake fade
 Wear resistant
 Must not be sensitive to water
 Low noise level during braking
Brake fade due to glazing of the brake lining happens when the brakes
overheat. The bonding material of the brake lining melts and forms a hard
glass-like layer on the lining.
The glass-like layer reduces the coefficient of friction which in turn reduces the
braking power.

Types of friction material

Depending on their application, the friction material of brake pads and brake shoes is made
of various materials. Brake lining with a high friction coefficient brakes well when the
pedal force is soft, but experiences brake fade sooner at high temperatures. Brake lining
with a lower but more constant friction coefficient does not experience as much brake fade,
but a stronger pedal force is required for sufficient braking deceleration.

Brake lining can be subdivided into the following categories:

 Non-metallic (organic): glass fibre, Kevlar, and/or aramid, etc.

Advantages: low noise level, inexpensive, good friction even at low temperatures, and low
wear on the brake disc/drum.
Disadvantages: shorter lifespan, a lot of brake dust, brake fade occurs sooner under heavy
loads.
  Metallic (sintered): sintered steel and volcanic rock, etc.

Advantages: minimal brake fade (racing) and a long lifespan.

Disadvantages: a stronger pedal force is required, a higher temperature for maximum
friction is required, faster wear of the brake disc/drum, and a higher noise level.

 Semi-metallic: the combination of organic and sintered materials is a compromise

between lifespan, noise level, and braking performance.

Advantages: although it does not have the braking performance of the sintered lining, it has
a longer lifespan.
Disadvantages: more expensive than organic and sintered brake linings.

 Ceramic: a combination of clay, porcelain, and copper flakes and fibres, among
others.

Advantages: very wear-resistant, low noise level, minimal brake fade.

Disadvantages: expensive, poor heat exchange (despite the copper), so the steel brake discs
are more likely to warp. Warping can be prevented by installing special brake discs.

Wear
You can always measure the thickness of the brake lining, but there are also other ways that
you can see or hear that the brake pads are worn:

 Brake pad groove

If the groove is no longer visible then the brake pads need to be replaced. The
groove ensures less vibration and noise.
 acoustic indicator
On the metal backing plate of the brake pad there is an iron lip that rubs against the
brake disc and makes a scraping noise when the brake pad needs replacing.
 electric wear indicator
When the brake pads are almost worn out, the electric wear indicator will send a
signal to the dashboard light.
The system can react to indicator interruptions or it comes into contact with
earth (when it touches the brake disc). In both cases, a copper wire is installed
in the brake pad that will become exposed once the brake lining has worn down
to a minimum level.

PARKING BRAKE

Introduction
A parking brake ensures that a stationary vehicle does not start to roll, even without a
driver. The parking brake must be able to work separately from the service brake (normal
brake). The parking brake can also work as an emergency brake when the service brake
malfunctions. The parking brake can be mounted on the front or rear axle.
There are two main types of parking brake:

 Mechanical parking brake:

Here the parking brake is engaged by a handle or pedal.
 Electric parking brake:
Here the parking brake is engaged automatically or with a button
Mechanical operation
There are various designs of parking brake which are operated mechanically:

 Drum brake:
The drum shoes of the service brake can also be operated mechanically
by the parking brake.
 Drum-in-hat parking brake:
In the disc brake of the service brake there is an integrated drum brake
which only serves as a parking brake.
 Disc brake
On the brake calliper of the service brake is a mechanism that can
operate the brake piston.

Sometimes they are operated by foot instead of by hand. Those types of

parking brakes can be engaged by depressing the foot pedal. Depending on
the type of foot-operated parking brake, either a separate lever is employed or
the pedal is depressed again strongly in order to release the parking brake.
Electrical operation
The electrically-operated parking brake has the same designs as its mechanical counterpart.

On some systems an electric motor operates one or two handbrake cables.

Other systems have an electric motor directly on the parking brake.
Many electrical parking brake systems are equipped with a convenience function. This
function ensures that when the engine is switched off and/or when a car door is opened, the
parking brake is engaged automatically. This prevents the vehicle from rolling away. The
convenience function automatically releases the parking brake, allowing you to drive away
smoothly.

When performing brake system maintenance, it is important that the convenience function
is disabled. If the parking brake suddenly engages, it can crush your fingers and cause
damage to the brake system.
BRAKE PEDAL FORCE AND HYDRAULIC
BRAKE FORCE

Brake pedal
The brake pedal is a lever that transfers the force from your foot to the master brake
cylinder. A lever has an arm. This is the distance from the hinge to the point where the
force is applied.

The force in the brake master cylinder varies depending on the force on the brake pedal.
You can calculate this using the formula:

F1 x r1 = F 2 x r2

F1 = force on brake pedal

F2 = force in brake master cylinder
r = lever of the force

The torque is equal throughout the lever. When you know the distance from the pivot point
to the point where the force is applied, and the amount of force exerted on the pedal, you
can calculate the force in the brake master cylinder.
EXAMPLE
Given:

 The distance between the pivot point and the point where the brake master cylinder
applies force (r2): 40 mm.
 The distance between the hinge and the brake pedal (r1): 200 mm.
 The force exerted on the brake pedal (F1): 500 N.

Question:
Calculate the force exerted on the piston of the brake master cylinder.

The basic formula is: Torque = force x lever arm ⇒ T = F x r.

Solution:

T = F 1 x r1 ⇒ T = F 2 x r2
The calculation consists of two torque propositions, namely:

Removing the Torque from either side of the = symbol, yields the following:
F1 x r1 = F2 x r2 500 N x 200 mm = F2 x 40 mm
F2 = (500 N x 200 mm) / 40 mm
F2 = 2500 N

Hydraulic system
The brake system consists of the following hydraulic parts:

 brake master cylinder

 brake caliper
This can be found on a disc brake.
 wheel cylinder
This can be found on a drum brake.
The brake pedal operates a piston in the brake master cylinder. The piston exerts a force on
the brake fluid.

Hydraulic pressure is created by this force in the brake system. The pressure exerts a force
on the brake piston in the brake caliper, and the pistons in the wheel cylinder.

The forces in the brake system can be calculated using the formula:

F2 x A3 = F3 x A2

F2= force on the brake master cylinder piston.

A2 = surface area of the brake master cylinder piston.
F3 = force on the brake piston.
A3 = surface area of the brake piston.
The basic formula of this calculation is F = p x A.

EXAMPLE
Given:
F2 = 2000 N
A2 = 2 cm2
A3 = 4 cm2

Find:
Braking force F3

Solution:
F2 = p x A2
2000 = p x 2
p = 2000 / 2
p = 1000 N / cm2

F3 = p x A3
F3 = 1000 x 4
F3 = 4000 N

Cross-multiplication:
p = F2 / A2 => p = F3 / A3
F 2 / A2 = F 3 / A3

When cross-multiplying, this becomes:

F2 x A3 = F3 x A2

Solution:
F2 x A3 = F3 x A2
2000 x 4 = F3 x 2
8000 = F3 x 2
F3 = 8000 / 2
F3 = 4000 N
Chassis - Wheel
alignment, steering
and suspension
CAMBER

Introduction
The center line of the wheel when viewed from the front runs through the middle of the
wheel, when viewed from the road surface.
The perpendicular line on the road surface is a line that stands at 90° to the road surface.

The angle that exists between the center line of the wheel and the perpendicular line on the
road surface is the camber.

The camber can be measured using alignment equipment.

Positive/negative camber
We can distinguish between positive and negative camber.

The effect of negative camber on driving behaviour is:

 that it provides greater stability on a bend

The effect of positive camber on driving behaviour is:

 better road contact when the vehicle is loaded

An acceptable value for the camber lies between 0 and 2° negative.

Positive/negative camber
We can distinguish between positive and negative camber.

The effect of negative camber on driving behaviour is:

 that it provides greater stability on a bend

The effect of positive camber on driving behaviour is:

 better road contact when the vehicle is loaded

An acceptable value for the camber lies between 0 and 2° negative.

KING PIN INCLINATION (KPI)

Introduction
The swivel axle turns about 2 points. If you draw a line between those two points, you will
then have the steering-swivel axis.

The perpendicular line is a fully straight line that lies 90 degrees to the road surface.

The angle between the steering-swivel axis and a line perpendicular to the road, as viewed
from the front of the vehicle, forms the king pin inclination (KPI). This angle is mostly
around 12° on both the right and the left.

The return to straight ahead effect

The king pin inclination ensures that the wheels return to the straight-ahead
position after the vehicle has rounded a bend.

The wheels turn around a swivel axle that is at an angle. This causes the body
to lift as the wheels turn from the straight-ahead position.
After rounding the bend, the body weight presses the wheels back into the
straight-ahead position. The greater the king pin inclination, the greater this
effect will be.

TRACK ROD LENGTH AND TRACK ROD

ANGLE DIFFERENCE

Toe out on a bend

Toe-out is important in order to achieve a notional, common pivot point when
driving around a bend. Toe-out when rounding a bend can be checked using
alignment equipment.

The majority of vehicles have a toe-out of 19° for the outer wheel and 20° for
the inner wheel when rounding a bend. The exact values can be found in the
manufacturer's data for the vehicle concerned.

If the tracking is correct but the toe-out on a bend is not, the position of the
steering rack may possibly be incorrect. This may be the result of a collision or
the disassembly of the sub-frame and steering rack.
Difference in track rod length
The tracking is aligned by changing the length of the track rods.

When the steering rack is not in the centre of the car, for example after
dismantling and assembly, a difference in the lengths of the track rods may
result.

During steering, this difference in track rod length causes a difference in toe
out on a bend. The wheels then no longer have a notional, common pivot point.

During suspension unloading, this difference in track rod length causes a

difference in toe out; the car pulls to one side.
ELECTRIC POWER STEERING

Introduction
The electric power steering motor is sometimes mounted on the steering rack.
It's aim is to enable the driver to exert less force on the steering wheel while
driving.
Depending on the design, the electric motor on this power steering drives
various components:

 the steering shaft

 the steering pinion
 the gear rack

Electric motor
The electric power steering works using an electric motor. The power of the
electric motor varies depending on the force the driver exerts on the steering
wheel.

The electric motor operates the gear rack via a worm and worm gear in the
motor. There are also designs where the steering column and/or steering
shaft/pinion is assisted by the electric motor.

Because electric power steering is more efficient than hydraulic power

steering, the electric version is now used more and more often.

SHOCK ABSORBERS

Twin tube damper

A damper consists of a cylinder filled with oil and a piston that can move up and down in
the cylinder.

In a twin tube damper the innermost cylinder contains an additional cylinder with a base
valve. The oil flows into and out of the outer area via the base valve.

The upper part is connected to a piston rod and piston. The piston contains valves that
control the flow of oil and as a result determine the damping.

This damper is filled with oil and a pressurised gas. The gas can be air or nitrogen.

Mono tube
This damper has only one cylinder.

The bottom part of the damper is filled with a pressurised gas and is separated
from the oil by a dividing piston. The gas that is used is nitrogen. This keeps
the oil pressurised.

The upper part is connected to a piston rod and piston. The piston contains
valves that control the flow of oil and as a result determine the damping.
Damper with level adjustment
The damper with level adjustment is a combination of a damper and an air
spring.

These are generally used on the rear axle to be able to adjust the lorry height
under different loads.

Electrical
fundamentals
GROUND-SWITCHED AND POSITIVE-
SWITCHED
There are two ways to connect a consumer:
  ground-switched
 positive-switched

Ground connections are often used in automotive electronics. Many actuators are connected
to ground by the control unit.

Ground-switched means that the switch is positioned after the consumer.

Positive-switched means that the switch is positioned before the consumer.

VOLTMETER
Multimeter
The multimeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical components and circuits.

The most common units we can measure with a multimeter are:

 direct and alternating voltage, in volts (V)

 direct and alternating current, in amperes (A)
 resistance, in ohms (Ω)

Measuring with a voltmeter

With a voltmeter, you measure the difference in voltage (potential difference)
between two measuring points.

If you want to measure the voltage difference across lamp R1, you connect
the measuring probes to points 12 and 19.

If you want to measure the voltage at point 12, you connect the red probe to
point 12 and the black probe to the negative terminal of the battery (point 26).

You can put the measuring probes on any point to measure the voltage across
any component. You cannot make a short circuit with a voltmeter because a
voltmeter has high internal resistance, meaning that the current flowing
through a voltmeter is very low.
Setting a voltmeter
Before you can start measuring, you first need to set the multimeter correctly.

For measuring the battery voltage, for example, you set the following:

1. Place the test probes (1) in the correct connections; Black (negative) in
the ‘COM’ connection, red (positive) in the ‘V Ω’ connection.
2. Set the selector button AC voltage/DC voltage (2) to DC voltage.
3. Turn the rotary switch (3) to the correct measuring range; The expected
voltage is around 12 volts, so you set the switch to 20 V. If you have no
idea how high the voltage is that you can expect, set the switch to the
highest range and view the measured value. If the voltage falls within a
different range, choose the correct range for an accurate measurement.

CALCULATIONS COMBINED CIRCUITS

Calculating combined circuits

To arrive at a good outcome, it's important to make a plan in advance. Sometimes you
cannot solve a circuit in one go. It's then necessary to tackle the solution step-by-step.

𝑉=𝐼∗𝑅
Use Ohm's law:

And the formulas for calculating the total resistance:

Series circuits:
RV=R1+R2+R3, etc.
Parallel circuits:
1𝑅𝑉= 1 + 1 + 1
R1+R2+R31, etc.

Calculation example 1:

𝑅2R2 and 𝑅3R3.

Requested:
Calculate the current through the resistors

Given:
V=11 V
R1=7 Ω
R2=5 Ω
R3=5 Ω

𝑅3R3.
Solution:
First calculate the total resistance of and
R2−3=R2+R3
R2−3=5 Ω+5 Ω
R2−3=10 Ω

Now calculate the current with Ohm's law.

IR2−3=R
V

IR2−3=11 V
10 Ω

IR2−3=1.1 A

Calculation example 2:

𝑅3R3.
Requested:
Calculate the voltage across the resistor

Given:
V=7 V
R1=4 Ω
R2=5 Ω
R3=8 Ω

𝑅2R2 and 𝑅3R3.

Solution:
First calculate the total resistance of
R2−3=R2+R3
R2−3=5 Ω+8 Ω
R2−3=13 Ω
Now calculate the current with Ohm's law.

IR2−3=R
V
IR2−3=7 V
13 Ω

R2−3=0.54 A

VR3=IR2−3∗R3
Now you can calculate the voltage across resistor R3 with Ohm's law.
VR3=0.54 A∗8 Ω
VR3=4.32 V

Calculation example 3:
Requested:
Calculate the voltage across resistor R3.
Given:
V=14 V
R1=28 Ω
R2=9 Ω
R3=12 Ω

𝑅2R2 and 𝑅3R3.

Solution:
First calculate the total resistance of
1= 1 + 1
R2−3 R2 R3

1= 1 + 1
R2−3 9 12

1= 0.11 + .008
R2−3
1= 0.19
R2−3

R2−3 = 1
0.19

R2−3 = 5.26 Ω

Calculate the total resistance.

RV=R1+R2−3
RV=28 Ω+5.26 Ω
RV=33.26 Ω
Calculate the total current through the circuit.
I= V
RV

𝐼=14𝑉
33.26 Ω

I=0.42 A

Now you can calculate the voltage across R2 with ohm's law.
VR2=I∗R2−3
VR2=0.42 A∗5.26 Ω
VR2=2.21 V

Body electrical
RELAY
A relay consists of a coil with a soft iron core. When a current flows through the coil, a
magnetic field is produced. This current is called the control current (primary circuit).

This magnetic field exerts a force on the lever. A switch is attached to the lever. The force
of the magnetic field moves the lever and closes the switch for the main current (secondary
circuit).
Operation
A relay can switch a large (main) current using a small (control) current.

A small switch can switch the control current without burning out. The relay
contact switches the current to the load and can tolerate this.

A standard relay has four connection points.

These are: a main current input, a main current output, a control current input
and a control current output.

Relays are used, for example, to switch the current for the starter motor, the
horn and the main beam.

Types
Relays can be grouped into 3 types. Relays with a make, a break and a
changeover contact.
 1. Make relays; this relay type makes (i.e. connects) the circuit when it is
energised.
2. Break relays; this relay type breaks the circuit when it is energised.
3. Changeover relays; this relay type makes a circuit when it is energised
and makes another circuit when it is de-energised.

A relay sometimes has a resistor or a diode fitted.

The resistor or diode is connected in parallel across the coil and used to reduce
the induced voltage in the coil when switching it off.

A changeover relay can be recognised by the extra main current connection or by the
symbol on the housing.

CURRENT CLAMP

Introduction
With a current clamp you can measure a current through a wire without creating an open
circuit in the wire.
A current clamp is suitable for measuring large currents, modern current clamps can also
measure milli-amperes.

The current clamp releases a voltage. You must therefore connect a current clamp to a
voltmeter.
multimeter must be in the 𝑚𝑉mV position. The outputs of the current clamp are
When connecting the current clamp you need to set the multimeter correctly. The

connected to the inputs of the voltmeter.

voltmeter must indicate 0 𝑚𝑉0 mV. You can set this using the calibration button.
Before measuring, you must set the zero point of the current clamp. If no current flows, the

Magnetic field
The current clamp measures the magnetic field around the conducting wire. If
there is more current, the magnetic field will increase.

The magnetic field ensures that the sensor in the current clamp generates a

An output voltage of 1 𝑚𝑉1 mV is, for example, equal to 1 𝐴1 A through the

voltage.

wire.

When connecting the current clamp, you must bear in mind the direction of
current. If the current through the cable comes in on the + side of the current
clamp, you get a positive reading. If the current comes in on the - side, you get
a negative reading.
FAULT FINDING

V4 method
The V4 method is often used in fault finding. It is a fast method for finding faults. Before
you use the V4 method, you must switch on the load.

V1: Measure the terminal voltage.

Measure the voltage across the battery.

V2: Measure the applied voltage.

This is the voltage across the load.

V3: Measure the voltage loss in the earth circuit.

This is the voltage across the wire from the negative side of the load to the negative
terminal of the battery. This may be a maximum of 0.5 V.

V4: Measure the voltage loss in the positive side of the circuit.
This is the voltage across the wire from the positive terminal of the battery to the positive
side of the load. This may be a maximum of 0.5 V.

Check V4 method
V1 = V2 + V3 + V4
The terminal voltage must be equal to the partial voltages.
 Voltage
loss
A consumer is usually connected in series with wires, connectors, fuses and
switches. All these components must have the lowest possible resistance in
order to provide the consumer/load with sufficient voltage. The maximum
voltage loss that may be caused by a contact resistance is 0.5 V.

If these conductors have oxidised connections, this produces a contact

resistance, and less voltage is provided to the load.

If there is a contact resistance in series with the rear window heating, this will
not work properly.

Measuring the voltage loss.

EXAMPLEDuring the main circuit check you will find a voltage drop of 2.99 V in the
ground circuit. The voltage drop across the ground circuit is much too high.

The voltage drop across the ground circuit ensures that there is not a full voltage across the
rear window heater. This means that the rear window is not completely free of
condensation.
Networks
INTRODUCTION COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Communication is about exchanging information. In daily life you use
communication consciously and unconsciously every day.

Communication also takes place in a vehicle. Examples of this are:

 An intelligent mixer motor on the heater housing can report back

its current position to the climate control unit. The same control
unit, in turn, transmits a new desired position to the mixer motor.
 The front left door control unit indicates to the rear right door
control unit that the rear right window needs to be lowered.
 The emergency call control unit transmits the current GPS position
via a GSM network to an emergency center that the airbags are
activated.
 The instrument panel notifies the driver that the reserve level in
the fuel tank has been reached.

Information is exchanged between at least two parties, for example the actuator and the
climate control unit. But it can also be a "group conversation": an ESP control unit that
reports the current vehicle speed to 25 other control units.
In vehicle technology, communication takes place via one of the following
media:

 Via wiring with electricity.

 Via a light conductor with light.
 Via the air with radio waves (wireless).

In vehicle technology, most communication is wired. Wireless communication

comes second and lastly, light communication.

Agreements
To understand each other when communicating, a number of choices and
agreements are necessary.

To start with, through which medium are we going to communicate? And what
language will we speak? At what speed will we speak? Can we speak through
each other or does everyone wait until the other is ready before speaking?

Take for example the sending of a telegraph message via Morse code.
Do we use a wired connection (telegraph line and signal key) or with light
(signal lamp)?
With Morse code we can send letters but which language do we speak? English,
Dutch, French?
How quickly do you operate the signal key? Too fast and the receiver cannot
keep up with you.
When can I send you something back? While you are sending, or do I have to
wait until you're done? How do I know that you've finished sending? Do you
always end your message with the same signal?

Similar choices and agreements are also needed in the vehicle. Take the
example of an engine control unit and a transmission control unit in a car.
Manufacturer's choice
If the manufacturer opts for wired communication between two control
units, then analogue or digital communication must be chosen.

Then each control unit must know which voltage on the wire has which
meaning. For example:

 Voltage on the wire between 0 and 1 V means a digital 1.

 Voltage on the wire between 4 and 5 V means a digital 0.

Both control units must speak the same language on the wires, with the same letters, words
and grammar. This is also called the communication protocol.

There are brand-specific protocols and universal protocols. A number of examples of

universal protocols are:

 J1939: a CAN protocol for trucks.

 J1850 and KWP2000: both a protocol for vehicles and universal
diagnostic testers.
 FlexRay: a protocol for systems where safety and high speed are
required.

Both control units must also speak at the same speed. With digital communication this is
called the baud rate or bit rate; the number of ones and zeroes per second (b/s).

EXAMPLE

A manufacturer can opt for the universal CAN bus protocol, but then still has to choose
what the communication speed on the CAN network should be, for example 500 kb/s. All
control units on this network must then be set to the same speed.
CONTROLLER AREA NETWORK

Introduction

The degree to which a CAN bus is used varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. There
are vehicles with fewer than ten control units, and at the other extreme there are some with
almost 100 control units.

When the number of control units increases, a designer must take account of the number of
messages that must be spread across the bus, i.e. the traffic on the bus. This traffic is also
called the bus load.

In order to limit the bus load, there are often several CAN networks in a single vehicle.
Control units which have to exchange a lot of information between each other are linked
together by a designer to form a single network.

The topology of a network means:

how is the network structured and which control unit is connected to
which network?
Need for topology
While troubleshooting in networks it is necessary to have information from the
topology of all networks. You use this information to make connections.
Furthermore, with the help of topology you can predict the effect of
disconnecting plugs in the wiring harness or on control units.

Depending on the topology, the disconnection of plugs from some control units
can cause an interruption in the network, because the bus runs through the
printed circuit board in the control unit.

Exchange of information

In order to allow a limited exchange of information between the networks possible, they are
connected to each other via a gateway. The gateway acts like a passage with a filter. Only
certain messages (identifiers) are allowed to pass through. The gateway also adjusts the
speed. The gateway function is often added to an existing control unit and this function runs
as a separate piece of software in the control unit.

One possible extra function of the gateway is to enable communication between the
diagnostic tester and the control units. This communication takes place via the CAN bus.

Multiple control units can also have the function of a gateway.

You will only find this out after studying a diagram of the entire network.

It's also possible that a control unit is connected to two networks without
fulfilling the gateway function. This control unit then needs a lot of
information from both networks. If you only connect this control unit to
one of the two networks, then too much data must be copied to the
second network. The bus load on the second network then becomes too
high.
In fact, this one control unit is then given a private connection to both
networks.

CONTROLLER AREA NETWORK (CAN)

BUS: ELECTRICAL OPERATION
The telegraph line

The CAN bus can be compared to the telegraph line of the past. Connected in parallel with
the telegraph line are small post offices (control units), which can receive and transmit
messages.

Each post office has a telegraph operator to whom information is delivered. The telegraph
operator puts the information onto the telegraph line in a suitable format.
All post offices can send and receive a message. Every sent piece of
information is seen by all post offices.

Send messages
To send, the telegraph operator can use a signal key to draw the idle
voltage on the line to ground. The recipient can see who is sending. This
will have to be encrypted in the message itself. The lamp serves as the
recipient of the messages. If a telegraph operator somewhere starts
sending, the message can be read with the lamp in every post office.
This is also a feedback to the telegraph operator when they are
transmitting: they can immediately see what they are sending.

Now all post offices only need proper agreements about, for example,
when someone can start sending (timing) and who can send first if
several telegraph operators want to start simultaneously (arbitration).
These agreements together are called a protocol.

Digital messages
With CAN, normal copper wire is used to transmit digital messages. Digital
means that only two states are recognised on the bus: '0' and '1'. These two
states are made visible on the bus by two different voltage levels (high/low).

Only the control units in the car are connected to the CAN bus.

Each control unit contains a CAN interface which makes it possible to transmit
and receive digital messages.
Data line
Four control units are connected to a data line in the same way that post
offices are connected to a telegraph line.

Instead of one data line, the CAN bus consists of two lines, called CAN-H and
CAN-L. A receiver uses the voltage difference between CAN-H and CAN-L to
determine whether a bit has the value '1' or the value '0'. This method
contributes to the operating reliability of CAN.

At both ends of the bus, CAN-H and CAN-L are connected to each other via two
terminating resistances of 120 ohms. These resistances prevent the reflection
of messages on the bus and are mounted in a control unit or in the cable
harness.

Send and receive

Like a post office, each control unit contains a telegraph key (transmitter) and
a receiver.

The quiescent voltage comes from the supply source which is integrated into
the receiver. Together, they form the electrical connection between the CAN
controller (telegraph operator) and the CAN bus (telegraph line).

This connection is called the CAN interface. This CAN interface makes the ones
and zeros electrically visible on the bus.
The transmitter (Tx) comprises two electronic switches which are always
operated simultaneously via the output of an inverter.

If a '1' is passed to the input of the inverter, the output will be '0'. If a '0' is
passed, the output will be '1'.

The receiver (Rx) consists of a voltage divider with three resistances and a
differential amplifier (operational amplifier).

State of the bus

The state of the bus is called recessive when a logical "1" is sent. When a
logical '0' is sent, the state of the bus is dominant.

The control unit can send a message by making a series of ones and zeroes: a
series of bits. A bit is the smallest piece of information that a computer can
understand: 0 or 1.
The receiver in the CAN interface processes the difference between CAN-H and CAN-
L. As both data lines are twisted, electrical interference on either line has an equally strong
effect on each other
CONTROLLER AREA NETWORK (CAN)
BUS: DIAGNOSIS
Introduction

The introduction of the CAN bus has changed the way we think about a system. Where a
system previously had one control unit that was relatively easy to fathom and access, a
system is now divided among several control units. Without a system overview (e.g. a
block diagram), it is impossible to find malfunctions. Control units that are seemingly
unconnected with a certain system may well be the cause of a malfunction. In addition to a
system overview, a functional description of the system is needed.

Using a diagnostic tester is the quickest way to assess the bus communication in the first
instance. Reading the error codes should provide an initial indication of which components
are still, or no longer, communicating via the bus.

Measurements

Besides reading error codes, you can also perform measurements on the CAN bus yourself,
preferably with an oscilloscope.

The three points used to analyse a scope image are:

 the shape of the signal

 the voltage levels of the signal
 the bus load
The shape of the signal must be a clean block shape, where CAN-H and CAN-L are the
inverse of each other. Closing resistors must ensure that the data cable works as little like a
coil as possible.Two control units are connected to the CAN bus and each of them has a
resistance of 120 Ω. If there is no problem with the data cable, you will measure a
resistance of 60 Ω. If one of the CAN wires is interrupted, you will measure a resistance of
120 Ω. With a short circuit between the CAN wires you measure a resistance of 0 Ω.

Attention: Never measure resistance in a circuit where the power supply is connected.

Voltage level
The voltage level can show whether there is a short circuit to earth, to the
power supply or between CAN-H and CAN-L. By disconnecting control units, you
can check which control unit is involved.

Attention: Voltage levels can only be checked with a scope. A multimeter only
indicates the mean voltage!
Bus load
The traffic on the CAN bus (bus load) can also only be seen with the scope. The
bus load, expressed as a percentage, is the space that messages will take up.
In other words: is there still enough space between the messages? The busier
the message transfer becomes, the more difficult it becomes to get a message
directly on the bus.

With a high bus load it becomes difficult for messages with a low priority to
appear on the bus without waiting.
E-mobility
HV BATTERY
Introduction
A hybrid or electric vehicle has two batteries:

1. The 12 V battery (for the auxiliary electrical systems).

2. The HV battery (to provide the high voltage components with
electricity).

The acronym HV stands for high voltage.

The HV battery can be placed in the boot or in the base of the vehicle.

The most common chemical compositions of HV batteries for electric vehicles are:

 Nickel-metal hydride (NiMh)

 Lithium-ion (Li-ion).
Components
A HV battery contains the following components:

 battery modules
To store electricity
 service plug
To isolate the high voltage from the HV system.
 main relay
In order to isolate the HV battery from the rest of the vehicle.
 current sensor
To measure the input and output current of the HV battery.
 battery ECU
To regulate the processes for the HV battery.

Battery module
Just like a 12 V battery the HV battery is made up of a number of cells.

The cells in a HV battery can be connected in both series and parallel.

 Series connected cells increase the voltage.

 Parallel connected cells increase the capacity.
Service plug
The service plug is used during repairs (and in emergency situations) to isolate
the high voltage from the vehicle.

The service plug is usually orange, so it is easy to recognise.

Because the current can only flow when there is a closed circuit, the service
plug can actually be positioned anywhere between two modules.
Main relay
Two main relays separate the HV battery from the rest of the vehicle by
isolating the plus and minus pole. With a third relay, the inrush current is
limited by connecting a resistor in series.

The capacitors in the inverter cause a short high charging current when
switching on; the series resistor limits the current.

There are some conditions required for turning off the main relay in
hybrid or electric vehicles.

 When the ignition is off, both poles of the HV battery must be

isolated.
 The relay should now be open because there is no switching
voltage.
 In emergency situations all contacts should open.
Current measurement
A current sensor is connected onto the battery ECU. This measures the input
and output currents of the HV battery.

It is important to determine the exact current, in order to calculate the amount

of energy in the HV battery. The amount of energy in the HV battery is called
the "state of charge" (SOC).

Because the HV battery supplies a direct voltage, the current is measured by a

Hall sensor.
Connections wiring diagram:

 73: voltage supply

 74: hall signal
 75: ground
Battery ECU
The battery ECU gathers information so that the quality of the HV battery is
always at its optimum level.

The battery ECU measures:

 temperature of the HV battery

 temperature of the cooling air
 input and output currents from the battery
 voltage per module

The battery ECU:

  keeps the cells in balance
 controls the fan
 calculates the State Of Charge (SOC)
 limits or prevents (dis) charge in the case of a failure

Cooling
If the temperature gets too high, the HV battery can easily lose capacity and
become permanently damaged. Therefore, the battery needs to be cooled.

Air is drawn in from the passenger space and blown between the modules ;
then the air is then channelled outside.

In the car, the temperature is often optimal for cooling the HV battery. It is also
possible to cool the HV battery with the air conditioning system; this often
happens with fully electric vehicles.
Maintenance and safety
It is possible that the HV battery may no longer function properly.

A problem that sometimes occurs is that the HV battery is no longer balanced.

The voltage of one or more modules deviates too much from the others.

In general you can say that the lowest voltage may not deviate more than 5 %
from the source voltage .

The problem, moreover, does not necessarily have to mean that the module is
defective.

 Oxidised connections may cause a contact resistance.

 An excessive discharge of the battery can also be a cause; you can see
this by looking at the State Of Charge (SOC).
RESOLVER
Introduction
Most position sensors, like an inductive sensor and a Hall effect sensor,
can only determine the position of a rotating component. A resolver can
determine a rotating components position, regardless of whether it is
stationary or rotating.

The resolver can be compared to a rotating transformer with a variable

air gap.

The rotor conducts the magnetism; it has a special shape, so the

position can be determined.

The operational life of this sensor is long, because there are no

mechanical contacts. Additionally, it is very accurate and resistant to
vibrations.
The stator consists of multiple coils and has 6 terminals.

Fundamental principle
With a transformer, AC voltage is transformed from one coil to another
through an iron core.

In this transformer, the core is oval, so the output voltage varies.

If one of the coils is wound in the opposite direction, the voltage at the
output coil will be reversed.

During rotation of the rotor, relative to a coil of the stator, the air gap
becomes larger and smaller each time. The voltage at the output is
therefore always higher and lower. The size of the air gap varies, as a
result of which the generated voltage also varies.
Operation
A resolver contains multiple coils. A resolver transforms best in the
direction of the rotor, here the air gap is the smallest.

Four coils are connected to each output. One pair are wired in the same
direction, and the other pair in the opposite direction. This is why you
measure a different voltage at 90°.
Stationary
The position of the rotor can be accurately determined by using two sensors.

With this sensor, the input is called reference; the two outputs
are sinusoidal and cosine.

The sensor cannot see any difference when the rotor is rotated 180°.
Rotating
If the rotor starts rotating, the signal will fluctuate faster and faster.

If the rotational speed is high enough, a virtual sine wave will become
visible. This is then used by the ECU to determine the speed and position
of the rotor.
At the moment that the speed rises, the sine signal gets more periods.
The reference signal remains the same.Within 180 degrees each rotation
of the rotor gives a unique combination of a sinusoidal signal and a
cosine signal. The line across the tops of the sinusoidal signal and the
cosine signal use the ECU to determine the position and speed of the
rotor.
CHARGING MODES
Charging modes
A vehicle can be connected to a charging station in different modes.

 Mode 1: A vehicle is directly connected to the mains power grid.

The only protection is a fuse.
 Mode 2: There is a communication device in the cable, which
means a setting can be chosen regarding the maximum charging
current.
 Mode 3: The charging station is connected to the power grid
permanently. The charging station is tuned to the mains power
grid.
 Mode 4: Direct current charging/fast charging. With the special
connectors and charging stations, extra fast charging is possible.
DE-ENERGISING HV SYSTEM
De-energising
One of the cables in the HV system is damaged. The HV system needs to
be de-energised to replace this cable.

You can use this check list:

1. Consult the workshop documentation.

2. Check the tools.
3. Make sure the ignition switch is off.
4. Remove the ground at the 12 V battery.
5. Put on the insulating gloves.
6. Remove the service plug.
7. Wait for the required time to pass.
8. Check the voltage.
Measure insulation resistance
You have received an error code on the diagnostics tester that there is a
problem with the insulation resistance in one of the cables between the
inverter and the electric motor.

To check the insulation resistance, complete the following steps.

1. Disconnect the cables from the motor.

2. Disconnect the cables from the inverter.
3. Set the insulation resistance meter to 500 V.
4. Connect the black measuring probe to the housing.
5. Connect the red measuring probe to the U cable.
6. Press 'Test' to start the measurement.
7. Note the measured values.
8. Measure the insulation resistance of the V cable and the W cable in the
same way.
9. Assess the measured values.
10.Replace the cable with the poor insulation resistance.
11.Connect the cables with the inverter.
12.Connect the cables with the motor.
Switching back on
You have carried out the repairs. You are going to check whether the repairs are
successful.

Switch the system back on using these steps:

 Connect ground to the 12 V battery.

 Fit the service plug.
 Take off the insulating gloves.
 Switch the ignition on.
 Check that the fault is repaired.