NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS/RADIOGRAPHY

PROGRAMME : BSC. HONS IN RADIOGRAPHY

COURSE : SRA 1216

NAME : NYONI LINDSAY S

STUDENT NUMBER : N02420641F

LECTURER : MR A. MOYO

ASSIGNMENT : RADIOLOGY AND RADIATION PROTECTION

DUE DATE : 30/09/2024

1a. Principles of Radiation Protection from External and Internal Sources
Radiation protection is a critical aspect of public health and safety, aimed at minimizing the
harmful effects of ionizing radiation, which can emanate from both external and internal
sourcesi. The principles of radiation protection are grounded in several key strategies,
commonly referred to as the "Three Rs": Reduction of Exposure, Containment and Control,
and Surveillance and Monitoringii. These strategies are designed to ensure that radiation
exposure is kept as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), ultimately safeguarding both
individuals and the environment.
The first principle, Reduce Exposure, involves strategies to minimize the amount of radiation
that individuals are subjected to. Time management is a crucial component; by reducing the
duration spent near a radiation source, the total dose of radiation received can be proportionally
decreasediii. Another important factor in radiation protection is distance. The inverse square
rule states that radiation intensity decreases with increasing distance, hence doubling the
distance from a radiation source results in a one-fourth reduction in exposure. Furthermore,
shielding works well, using the right materials to either block or absorb radiation. Lead, for
example, is frequently employed as a shield against gamma rays, although glass or plastic work
better against beta particles. Through the implementation of these measures, people can
considerably reduce their exposure risk to external radiation.
External sources of radiation include cosmic rays, terrestrial radiation, and artificial sources
such as medical imaging or radioactive materialsiv. Professionals frequently use a mix of time
management, distance, and shielding to protect against external radiation. By absorbing
radiation, materials like concrete, lead, or water can be used to create a safer environment
through shielding. It is also critical to keep a safe distance from sources of radiation,
particularly in industrial and medical settings where exposure times can add up quicklyv.
Implementing strict time management in high-radiation areas is essential, particularly within
nuclear facilities or during radiological procedures to minimize risk.
In contrast, internal radiation exposure occurs when radioactive materials enter the body,
primarily through inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through the skin vi. In this situation, the
containment and control concept is very pertinent. Protecting those who work with radioactive
materials requires the use of techniques like fume hoods and glove boxes, which are meant to
reduce the spread of radioactive elements. Additionally, safe handling procedures can be
established thanks to knowledge of radionuclides' biokinetics, or how they operate within the
bodyvii. Health physics plays a pivotal role in this regard, incorporating monitoring and health
protocols to manage and mitigate the risks associated with internal exposure, including
conducting regular health assessments to identify and address potential issues related to
radioactive intake.

The third principle, Surveillance and Monitoring, underscores the importance of continuous
assessment in radiation protectionviii. Dosimetry, or the measurement of radiation doses
received by workers, is vital in ensuring that exposure remains within safe limits ix.
Environmental monitoring is just as important; it entails scanning the vicinity of radiation
sources in order to identify and measure any possible contamination or high radiation levels.
Internal surveillance, or keeping an eye out for radioactive material intake using techniques
like bioassays, aids in determining internal exposure and putting in place the appropriate health
precautionsx.
Regulation and compliance with guidelines established by national and international
organizations, such as the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), form the backbone of effective
radiation protectionxi. These organizations recommend dose limits and safety practices for both
occupational and public exposure, emphasizing the importance of adhering to established
standards.
In conclusion, methods for lowering exposure to internal and external radiation sources are
included in the principles of radiation protection. Radiation exposure hazards can be reduced
by carefully controlling exposure times, distances, shielding, and contamination levels, as well
as by continuing surveillance and monitoringxii. These principles are critical in various sectors,
including medicine, industry, and research, helping to safeguard human health and the
environment from the potentially harmful effects of radiation.
b. Radiation Hazards and Their Implications

Radiation hazards pose significant risks to human health and the environment, primarily arising
from exposure to various types of ionizing radiationxiii. This type of radiation has the power to
free electrons that are closely bound from atoms, forming ions that have the potential to harm
living things. In order to minimise radiation exposure's negative consequences and put
appropriate safety measures in place, it is imperative to understand the sources, types, related
hazards, and situations in which radiation exposure happens.
Ionizing radiation is categorized into several types, each with distinct characteristics and
associated risksxiv. The primary types include alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, X-
rays, and neutrons. Alpha particles are positively charged and consist of two protons and two
neutronsxv. They are released when heavy metals like radium and uranium decay. A piece of
paper or human skin can easily block the limited penetrating power of alpha radiation.
However, because of their high ionisation potential, alpha-emitting materials can cause serious
internal damage if swallowed or inhaled xvi.

Beta particles, which can be either negatively charged electrons (beta-minus) or positively
charged positrons (beta-plus), are emitted during radioactive decay as well. They have greater
penetration power than alpha particles and can penetrate the skin, posing a risk of internal
injury if they enter the bodyxvii. Gamma rays, on the other hand, are high-energy
electromagnetic radiation that can pass through the human body, making them particularly
hazardous in terms of external exposure. Effective shielding against gamma radiation typically
requires dense materials such as lead or thick concrete. X-rays, similar to gamma rays, are high-
energy photons used in medical imaging but can also pose risks if proper precautions are not
takenxviii. Finally, neutrons, which are uncharged particles released during nuclear reactions,
can lead to secondary radiation through interactions with other materials, creating additional
hazards.

The associated hazards from radiation exposure can be categorized based on their biological
effects and the context of exposure. One of the most significant long-term risks is the increased
probability of developing cancerxix. Ionizing radiation can damage the DNA within cells,
leading to mutations that may cause cancer. This risk is dose-dependent—higher levels of
exposure correlate with a greater likelihood of cancer development. In high-dose situations,
such as those experienced in nuclear accidents or radiation therapy, individuals may suffer from
acute radiation syndrome (ARS). ARS is characterized by a range of symptoms, including
nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and even death, especially when doses exceed 1 gray (Gy)xx.
Moreover, genetic effects are a concern, as ionizing radiation can cause mutations in germ
cells, potentially leading to hereditary issues passed on to future generations. While the
incidence of genetic effects from radiation exposure remains a topic of debate, the possibility
of long-term public health repercussions is significant. Additionally, exposure to high doses of
beta radiation can result in acute skin damage, including radiation burns. Although alpha
particles are less harmful externally, they pose a severe risk if they come into direct contact
with open wounds or damaged skin.
Internal exposure to radioactive materials can cause localized damage to specific organs or
tissues. For instance, inhaling radon, a radioactive gas produced from the natural decay of
uranium in soil and rock, poses a serious risk to lung tissue and significantly increases the
likelihood of developing lung cancerxxi. In addition to human health risks, radiation hazards
also extend to environmental and ecological concerns. Radioactive contamination can
adversely impact ecosystems, with organisms accumulating radioactive isotopes through the
food chain, thus elevating radiation doses for both wildlife and humansxxii.
Radiation hazards can emerge in various contexts, making it essential to recognize and address
them appropriately. Nuclear power plants, for example, can present significant risks during
accidents, leaks, or improper handling of radioactive materials, potentially endangering
workers and surrounding communities. In medical facilities, the use of ionizing radiation for
diagnostic purposes and treatment must be carefully managed to minimize exposure for both
patients and healthcare providers. Similarly, industries that utilize radioactive isotopes for
testing or power generation must adhere to stringent regulations to mitigate exposure risks.
Research laboratories also require rigorous controls and monitoring systems to prevent
accidents and ensure safe handling of radioactive materials.
Natural sources of radiation, such as cosmic rays, terrestrial radiation, and radon gas, can
expose individuals, even in the absence of explicit control measures. Background radiation
varies by location and can contribute to the cumulative exposure of individuals over timexxiii.
In conclusion, understanding radiation hazards is critical for the protection of human health
and the environment. The various types of ionizing radiation present distinct risks, and the
consequences of exposure can range from acute health effects to long-term cancer risks and
genetic damage. By recognizing the contexts in which radiation hazards arise and
implementing effective safety measures, individuals and organizations can work to minimize
these risks and protect public health. Awareness, regulation, and adherence to safety protocols
are essential in safeguarding against the potentially harmful effects of radiation exposure.
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