INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION

32
EXERCISES
Section 32.2 Double-Slit Interference
10. INTERPRET This problem involves interference from a double-slit arrangement. Given the parameters of the
arrangement, we are to find the wavelength of the illuminating light.
DEVELOP Because d  L, we can apply Equation 32.2a with d = 15 μm, L = 2.2 m, m = 1, and y = 7.1 cm to find
the wavelength λ. We may also approximate sinθ by y/L because y  L (i.e., it’s a small angle).
EVALUATE The wavelength is
d sin θ dy (15 μm )( 7.1 cm )
λ= ≈ = = 484 nm = 480 nm
m mL (1)( 2.2 m )
to two significant figures.
ASSESS The exact formula is
d sin θ d ⎡ ⎛ y ⎞⎤
λ= = sin tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
m mL ⎢⎣ ⎝ L ⎠⎦
which differs by 0.05% from the result above (i.e., ± 0.2 nm, which is much less than the precision of the data).
11. INTERPRET This problem involves double-slit interference. We are to find the spacing between adjacent bright
fringes, given the wavelength of the light, the slit spacing, and the slit-screen distance.
DEVELOP The geometrical parameters of the source, slits, and screen satisfy the conditions for which Equations
32.2a and 32.2b apply (i.e., d L and λ d ). The locations of bright fringes are given by
mλ L
ybright =
d
where m is the order number.
EVALUATE The spacing of bright fringes is

Δy = ( m +1)
λL
−m
λL
=
λL
=
( 550 nm )( 74 cm ) = 1.63 cm
d d d 0.025 mm

ASSESS Since λ d , the spacing between bright fringes is much smaller than L, as it should be.
12. INTERPRET For a double-slit interference arrangement, we are to find the slit-to-screen distance given the
wavelength, the slit spacing, and the spacing between bright fringes.
DEVELOP We will assume that the particular geometry of this type of double-slit experiment satisfies the
conditions for using Equations 32.2a and 32.2b (i.e., d  L and λ  L), and verify afterward.
EVALUATE (a) The slit-to-screen spacing on the screen is

Δy =
λL
⇒ L=
Δyd
=
( 0.12 mm )( 5.0 mm ) = 95 cm
d λ 633 nm
(b) For two different wavelengths, the ratio of the spacings is Δy′ Δy = λ ′ λ ; therefore
Δy′ = ( 5 mm )( 480 633) = 3.8 mm.

32-1
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32-2 Chapter 32

ASSESS Note that the conditions d  L and λ  L are indeed met, so we are justified in using Equation 32.2a.
The fringe spacing for 480 nm may also be found by applying Equation 32.2a with L = 95 cm. The result is the
same.
13. INTERPRET This problem is about double-slit interference. We are interested in the wavelength of the light
source.
DEVELOP For small angles, we may approximate sinθ ~ θ, so Equation 32.1 gives Δθ = λ d , and the
interference fringes are evenly spaced.
EVALUATE Substituting the values given, we obtain
λ = d Δθ = ( 0.37 mm )( 0.065° )(π 180° ) = 420 nm
ASSESS The wavelength λ is much smaller than the slit spacing d, as needed for using Equation 32.1a.
14. INTERPRET Given the angular position of the 5th dark fringe and the wavelength of the light, we are to find the
slit separation in a double-slit experiment.
DEVELOP The interference minima fall at angles given by Equation 32.1b. The ratio ydark/L = tanθ, so Equation
32.1b can be written as
λ
d = ( m + 1 2)
tan θ
Notice that the order m is defined as the number of the bright fringe, with m = 0 corresponding to the central
(bright) fringe. Thus, the 5th dark fringe corresponds to m = 5.
EVALUATE For m = 5, Equation 32.1b gives

d=
( 5 + 12 ) λ = ( 5.5)( 546 nm ) = 1.52 mm
tan θ tan ( 0.113° )
ASSESS The condition λ  d is met, so we are justified in using Equation 32.2b. Note that the significant figures
are determined by the wavelength and the angle—not by the order number (which are defined as integers and so
have infinite accuracy).
Section 32.3 Multiple-Slit Interference and Diffraction Gratings
15. INTERPRET The setup is a multiple-slit interference experiment. We want to know the number of minima
(destructive interferences) between two adjacent maxima.
DEVELOP In an N-slit system with slit separation d (illuminated by normally incident plane waves), the main
maxima occur for angles (see Equation 32.1a) sin θ = mλ d , and minima for angles (see Equation 32.4)
sin θ = m′λ ( Nd ) (excluding m′ = 0 or multiples of N ).
EVALUATE Between two adjacent maxima, say m′ = mN and ( m + 1) N, there are N − 1 minima. The number of
integers between mN and ( m + 1) N is
( m + 1) N − mN − 1 = N − 1
because the limits are not included. Therefore, For N = 5, the number of minima is 4.
ASSESS The interference pattern resembles that shown in Fig. 32.8. Note that the number of minima is
independent of the order number m. Also note that our result agrees with Fig. 32.8.
16. INTERPRET This problem involves a multiple-slit system. We are to find the first maximum, given the angular
position of the first minimum.
DEVELOP Apply Equation 32.4 to find the ratio λd. For the first minima ( m = 1), this gives
λ
= N sin θ min
d
where N = 3 for this problem (i.e., three slits). The angular position of the first maxima can then be found using
Equation 32.1a.
EVALUATE The first maximum is at

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-3

λ
sin θ max = = N sin θ min
d

θ = sin −1 ( N sin θ min ) = sin −1 ( 3sin ( 5.4° ) ) = 16.4°

ASSESS The two minima occur at approximately 5.4° and 10.8°.

17. INTERPRET In this problem, we want to locate certain maxima and minima in a multiple-slit interference
experiment. We are given the necessary parameters.
DEVELOP According to Equation 32.1a, primary maxima occur at angles θ = sin −1 ( mλ d ) . On the other hand,
minima occur at angles (see Equation 32.4)
θ min = sin −1 ⎡⎣ m′λ ( Nd ) ⎤⎦ , m′ = ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 4, ± 6,…
where m′ is an integer but not an integer multiple of N.
EVALUATE (a) Using the above equation, the first two maxima (after the central peak, m = 0) are for m = 1 and 2.
The angular positions for these maxima are at
θ1 = sin −1 (1 × 633 nm 7.5 μm ) = 4.8°
θ 2 = sin −1 ( 2 × 633 nm 7.5 μm ) = 9.7°
(b) With N = 5, excluded, the third minimum is for m′ = 3 and the sixth for m′ = 7 (because m′ = 5 doesn’t count). Then
θ3,min = sin −1 ⎡⎣3λ ( 5λ ) ⎤⎦ = 2.9°
θ 7,min = sin −1 ⎡⎣7λ ( 5λ ) ⎤⎦ = 6.8°
ASSESS The minima would be difficult to observe because the secondary maxima between them are faint.
18. INTERPRET We are to find the first- and fifth-order diffraction angle, given the grating spacing and the
wavelength.
DEVELOP For light normally incident on a diffraction grating, maxima occur at angles
⎛ mλ ⎞
θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
(see Equation 32.1a) where m is the order number, and d is the grating spacing and is equal to the reciprocal of the
number of lines per meter:
1
d= = 3.3 μm
3000 cm −1

EVALUATE (a) In the first order,

⎛ 522 nm ⎞
θ1 = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 9.1°
⎝ 3.3 μm ⎠
(b) In the fifth order,
⎛ 5 × 522 nm ⎞
θ5 = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 52.3°
⎝ 3.3 μm ⎠
ASSESS One can see that the relationship between θ1 and θ5 is almost linear (θ5 ∼ 5 × θ1 ).

Section 32.4 Interferometry

19. INTERPRET This problem involves interference in a thin film. We want to find the minimum film thickness that
results in constructive interference for the given wavelength.
DEVELOP The condition for constructive interference from a soap film is Equation 32.7:
⎛ 1⎞
2nd = ⎜ m + ⎟ λ
⎝ 2⎠

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32-4 Chapter 32

The minimum thickness corresponds to the integer m = 0.

EVALUATE Substituting the values given, we get
1
2nd min = λ
2

λ 705 nm
d min = = = 132.2 nm
4n 4 (1.333)

Note that Equation 32.7 applies to normal incidence on a thin film in air.
ASSESS The typical thickness of a thin film is on the order of 100 nm. Thin-film interference accounts for the
bands of color seen in soap films or oil slicks.
20. INTERPRET This problem involves constructive interference. Given the thickness of the material, we are to find
the wavelength which results in constructive interference.
DEVELOP We shall use the result from Problem 32.19, which gives the minimum thickness for constructive
interference in a thin material. Thus, the minimum thickness of the wedge at which constructive interference occurs is
d min = λ ( 4n ) .

Solve this for λ to find the wavelength.

EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities gives
λ = 4 (1.52 )( 98 nm ) = 600 nm
where the result is precise to two significant figures.
ASSESS This is orange light and is within the visible range.
21. INTERPRET The enhanced reflection is a consequence of constructive interference, so we shall look for the range
of wavelengths that satisfies this condition.
DEVELOP Equation 32.7 gives the condition for constructive interference from a given thickness of glass
surrounded by air. Solving this equation for λ gives
4nd 4 (1.65 )( 450 nm ) 2970 nm
λ= = =
2m + 1 2m + 1 2m + 1
EVALUATE Integers giving wavelengths in the visible range (400 to 750 nm) are m = 2 and 3, which correspond
to λ = 594 and 424 nm, respectively.
ASSESS The wavelengths correspond to orange and blue colors, respectively.
22. INTERPRET We are to find the wavelength for which constructive interference makes it reflect most strongly
from the given thin material.
DEVELOP Apply the solution derived for Problem 32.20. Maximum constructive interference occurs for
λ = 4nd .
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities yields
λ = 4 (1.43)( 98 nm ) = 560.56 nm

ASSESS This is yellow-green.

23. INTERPRET The problem asks what portion of a soap film will appear dark because it is too thin for constructive
interference in reflected light.
DEVELOP The soap film is 20 cm high and goes from zero thickness at the top to 1 μm thick at the bottom.
See the figure below. White light shines on the film and the reflected light from the two soap-air surfaces will
constructively interfere when the thickness of the film satisfies Equation 32.7:

(
2nd = m + 2 λ ,
1
)
where the index of refraction is that of water ( n = 1.333) and the integer m = 0,1,2,3.... We are looking for the
region of the film that is too thin to support constructive interference, so we will define d min as the smallest

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-5

thickness for a bright band and ymin as the distance to this first band from the top, see figure. The region defined
by ymin will be dark.

EVALUATE White light is a combination of wavelengths from 400 to 700 nm, so there will be bright bands of
different colors coming from the soap film. Near the top of film, where it is thinnest, the bands will correspond to
the zeroth order ( m = 0 ) . At the top of this set of bands will be the blue band for λ = 400 nm, since this
corresponds to the thinnest part of the film that still supports constructive interference:

d min =
1
2n
( 1
m+ 2 λ = ) 1
2 (1.333)
( )
0 + 2 ( 400 nm ) = 75 nm
1

From the figure above, we can see that this minimum thickness occurs at
⎛ 20 cm ⎞
ymin = d min ⎜ ⎟ = 1.5 cm
⎝ 1 μm ⎠
Therefore, the top 1.5 cm of the film will be dark.
ASSESS What happens to the light in this dark region? It is fully transmitted, so if we were to look at the backside
of the soap film, the top portion would be bright, and we would see dark bands in transmission at the points
corresponding to the bright bands in reflection.
Section 32.5 Huygens’ Principle and Diffraction
24. INTERPRET This problem involves Huygens’s principle, which we can use to find the ratio a/λ that causes the
first diffraction minimum to occur at 90°.
DEVELOP Huygens principle leads to Equation 32.8 for a single slit of size a. We shall apply this equation to find
the ratio a/λ that corresponds to m = 1 and θ = 90°.
EVALUATE For the given conditions, Equation 32.8 takes the form
λ
sin θ =
a
which leads to
a
= cscθ = csc ( 90° ) = 1
λ
ASSESS This demonstrates that smaller slits will lead to wider diffraction maxima.
25. INTERPRET This problem involves a single-slit diffraction of light. We are interested in the angular width of the
central peak.
DEVELOP The condition for destructive interference in a single-slit diffraction is given by
Equation 32.8:
a sin θ = mλ , m = ±1, ± 2,...
The first minima ( m = ±1) occur at

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32-6 Chapter 32

⎛ λ⎞ ⎛ 615 nm ⎞
θ ±1 = sin −1 ⎜ ± ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ ± ⎟ ± 14.85°
⎝ a ⎠ 2.40 μm
⎝ ⎠
EVALUATE The total angular width of the diffracted beam is Δθ = θ1 − θ −1 = 29.7°.
ASSESS The case m = 0 is excluded in Equation 32.8 because it corresponds to the central maximum in which all
waves are in phase.
26. INTERPRET This problem involves the diffraction of electromagnetic radiation due to a slit – the window. We are
to find the angular width of the beam when it emerges from the slit.
DEVELOP Take the width of the diffracted beam to be the angular separation between the first minima. Using
Equation 32.8, a sin θ = mλ , these occur at θ = ± sin −1 ( λ a ) , so the angular width is 2θ. The wavelength is λ =
c/f, where f is the given frequency.
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities gives

−1 ⎛ c ⎞
Δθ = 2 θ = 2sin ⎜ ⎟ = 2sin
⎡
−1 ⎢
8
3.00 × 10 m/s ( ⎤
⎥ = 129°
)
⎝ fa ⎠ ⎣ (
⎢ 950 × 106 Hz ( 0.35 m ) ⎥
⎦ )
ASSESS The wavelength is ~0.32 m, so for more closely spaced windows (i.e., smaller slits), the angular width
would be larger.
27. INTERPRET We are to find the intensity of a diffraction maximum relative to the central peak. The second
secondary maxima is the second small maxima next to the central peak.
DEVELOP The intensity as a function of angle in single-slit diffraction is given by Equation 32.10:
2
⎡ sin (φ 2 ) ⎤
S = S0 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ φ 2 ⎦
The second and third minima lie at angles sin θ 2 = 2λ /a and sin θ3 = 3λ /a.
EVALUATE If we take the mid-value to be at sin θ = 5λ /2a, then the intensity at this angle, relative to the central
intensity, is
2
S ⎛ sin(5π /2) ⎞ 4
=⎜ ⎟ = = 1.62 × 10−2
S0 ⎝ 5π /2 ⎠ 25π 2
ASSESS The intensity at the second secondary maximum is only about 1.62% of the central-peak intensity.
Section 32.6 The Diffraction Limit
28. INTERPRET We are to find the minimum angular separation that can be resolved with 627-nm light through a
2.8-cm-diameter aperture. We will assume that the limiting factor is diffraction and use the Rayleigh criterion.
DEVELOP Apply the Rayleigh criterion for circular apertures (Equation 32.11b): θ min = 1.22λ / D. The
wavelength is λ = 627 × 10−7 cm, and the diameter is D = 2.8 cm.
EVALUATE The minimum angular separation is

( )
θ min = 1.22 627 × 10−7 cm / ( 2.8 cm ) = 2.7 × 10−5 rad = 0.0016°

ASSESS This angular resolution is equivalent to distinguishing two objects 2.7 millimeters apart from
100 meters away.
29. INTERPRET We shall use the Rayleigh criterion to determine how large an aperture is needed on a telescope to
resolve the given angle.
DEVELOP Apply the Rayleigh criterion for circular apertures (Equation 32.11b): θ min = 1.22λ / D. The
wavelength is λ = 515 nm, and the angular resolution needed is

( )
θ min = 0.41 arcseconds = 1.41× 10−6 ° = 1.99 × 10−6 rad

Solve for D.
EVALUATE The diameter needed is

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-7

1.22λ 1.22 ( 515 nm )

D= = = 0.32 m = 32 cm
θ min 1.99 × 10−6 rad

ASSESS Make sure that you always use radians for your angle measurements in this type of problem!
30. INTERPRET We shall use the Rayleigh criterion to determine the longest wavelength of light with which one is
able to resolve the given angle through the given aperture.
DEVELOP Apply the Rayleigh criterion for circular apertures (Equation 32.11b): θ min = 1.22λ / D. The angular
resolution necessary is θ min = 0.43 mrad, and the aperture is D = 1.8 mm. Solve for the wavelength.
EVALUATE The longest wavelength that can resolve this is

λ=
θ min D
=
( 0.43 mrad )(1.8 mm ) = 630 nm
1.22 1.22
to two significant figures.
ASSESS Using a short wavelength gives you a much better angular resolution. This is why an electron
microscope gives such high resolution, as we will discover later.
31. INTERPRET We’re asked to find the diffraction limit of the eye in bright light when the pupil has contracted.
DEVELOP The minimum angular resolution of a circular aperture is given in Equation 32.11b:
θ min = 1.22λ / D, where the result is in radians.
EVALUATE For the given pupil diameter and light wavelength, the resolution is
1.22λ 1.22 ( 550 nm )
θ min = = = 3 × 10−4 rad
D ( 2 mm )
In terms of degrees, this is about 0.02o, or about 1 arcminute.
ASSESS This says that on a bright day our eyes would be able to distinguish objects 3 mm apart at a distance of
10 m. This is a little unrealistic. Our eyes are not only limited by the diffraction through the pupil; their resolution
is also affected by the spacing of receptors (rods and cones) on the back of the retina.
EXAMPLE VARIATIONS
32. INTERPRET The concept behind the grating spectrometer is multiple-slit interference, so our job is to find the
angles to which the grating sends the given wavelengths. “First-order” means we have m = 1.
DEVELOP Like in the original example, we will use Equation 32.1a to find the angle for each wavelength using
the grating slit spacing, and determine the angular separation between them
EVALUATE Applying Equation 32.1a with m = 1 for the gamma and delta lines gives
⎛λ⎞ ⎛ 434.0nm ⎞
θγ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 15.10°
d⎝ ⎠ 1.667μm
⎝ ⎠

⎛λ⎞ ⎛ 410.0nm ⎞
θδ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 14.25°
d⎝ ⎠ 1.667μm
⎝ ⎠
Making the separation between these
Δθ = 0.85°
ASSESS In order to resolve these lines individually, the spectrometer’s detectors should have a pixel array capable
of distinguishing from signals separated by this amount of less.
33. INTERPRET The concept behind the grating spectrometer is multiple-slit interference, so our job is to find the
angles to which the grating sends the given wavelengths. “First-order” means we have m = 1. We are given angular
separation between two of the four visible lines of atomic hydrogen and are asked to determine which ones they
could be.
DEVELOP Like in the original example, we used Equation 32.1a in the previous problem to find the angle for
each wavelength using the grating slit spacing, and to determine the angular separation between them. Using these
four angles we can then determine which lines the given spacing of Δθ = 8.1° corresponds to.

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32-8 Chapter 32

EVALUATE Applying Equation 32.1a with m = 1 for all the lines resulted in the angles
θαβγδ = [ 23.2°,17.0°,15.10°,14.25°]
We determined spacing between Hα and Hβ lines in the original example, and between Hγ and Hδ lines in the
previous problem, so we can rule those out. Spacing between Hβ and Hγ, as well as Hβ and Hδ is too small to
correspond to the given separation. The only two possibilities are thus between Hα and Hγ, and Hα and Hδ. The
latter has a separation closer to 9° than 8°, meaning the given separation corresponds to the Hα line and the Hγ
line.
ASSESS If the spectrometer resolution is not very high, differentiation between the gamma and delta lines could
prove difficult, making this spacing hard to assign to specific lines.
34. INTERPRET The concept behind the grating spectrometer is multiple-slit interference, so our job is to find the
angles to which the grating sends the given wavelengths. “Third-order” means we have m = 3. We will determine
the spacing between two atomic sodium lines.
DEVELOP Like in the original example, we will use Equation 32.1a to find the angle for each wavelength using
the grating slit spacing, and determine the angular separation between them
EVALUATE Applying Equation 32.1a with m = 3 for the given sodium lines gives

⎛ mλ ⎞ −1 ⎛ 3 × 588.995nm ⎞
θ1 = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 23.978°
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ 4.348μm ⎠

⎛ mλ ⎞ −1 ⎛ 3 × 589.592nm ⎞
θ 2 = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 24.004°
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ 4.348μm ⎠
Where we have used the grating spacing to calculate d = 1 / 2300cm −1 , making the separation between these
Δθ = 0.026°
ASSESS In order to resolve these lines individually, the spectrometer’s detectors should have a pixel array capable
of distinguishing from signals separated by this amount of less.
35. INTERPRET The concept behind the grating spectrometer is multiple-slit interference, and we are asked to find an
expression for the grating line spacing in terms of the angular separation between two wavelengths. We will
consider “first-order” meaning we have m = 1.
DEVELOP Like in the original example, we will use Equation 32.1a to find the angle for each wavelength using
the grating slit spacing, and determine the angular separation between them in terms of the lines spacing d, which
we can then solve for.
EVALUATE Applying Equation 32.1a with m = 1 for two wavelengths gives
mλi = d sin θ λi ≅ dθ λi
θ λi = λi d
Making the separation between these
λ1 − λ2
Δθ =
d
And the lines spacing equal to
λ1 − λ2
d=
Δθ
ASSESS Using this equation one can determine the necessary line spacing to resolve a separation between two
wavelengths, making it possible to design a spectrometer’s resolution for a given spectroscopic application.
36. INTERPRET This is a problem about the diffraction limit with a circular aperture. We’re after the minimum
physical size for the asteroid at a given distance. We identify D = 6.5 m as the aperture size and λ = 850 nm as the
wavelength of the light.

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-9

DEVELOP Like in the original example, we will use Equation 32.11b to define the minimum angular size that can
be resolved. For a small angle, we can relate it to the physical size of the asteroid l and the distance to the asteroid
L as θ min = l / L , allowing us to relate the size l using the wavelength and mirror size from Equation 32.11b.
EVALUATE Applying Equation 32.11b we find the minimum asteroid size which can be imaged is

l= =
6
(
1.22λ L 1.22 ( 850nm ) 20 × 10 km
= 3.2km
)
D 6.5m
ASSESS Although the light used is of longer wavelength, making it more difficult to image a smaller target, the
larger mirror diameter of the James Webb Space Telescope will allow scientists to image distant objects of smaller
size than currently possible with the Hubble Space Telescope.
37. INTERPRET This is a problem about the diffraction limit with a circular aperture. We’re after the necessary
mirror size to image an asteroid of a given size, at a given distance, with a particular wavelength of light.
DEVELOP Like in the original example, we will use Equation 32.11b to define the minimum angular size that can
be resolved. For a small angle, we can relate it to the physical size of the asteroid l and the distance to the asteroid
L as θ min = l / L , allowing us to relate the size l using the wavelength and mirror size from Equation 32.11b.
EVALUATE Applying Equation 32.11b we find the minimum mirror size is
1.22λ L 1.22 ( 535nm )(1.20Gm )
D= = = 22.4 m
l 35m
ASSESS Such a mirror would be twice the size of the current largest telescope mirrors being used in observatories
around the world.
38. INTERPRET This is a problem about the diffraction limit with a circular aperture. We’re after the minimum
physical size separating two bees observed through binoculars to be able to distinguish them as individuals. We are
given the size of the lenses, the distance to the bees, and the wavelength to consider for imaging
DEVELOP Like in the original example, we will use Equation 32.11b to define the minimum angular size that can
be resolved. For a small angle, we can relate it to the physical size of the asteroid l and the distance to the asteroid
L as θ min = l / L , allowing us to relate the size l using the wavelength and aperture size from Equation 32.11b.
EVALUATE Applying Equation 32.11b we find the minimum separation distance to be
1.22λ L 1.22 ( 550 nm )( 840 m )
l= = = 2.0cm
D 28mm
ASSESS Honey bees are approximately 1.5 cm in size, meaning they need to be separated by about 1.3 times their
size to be distinguishable from this distance with these binoculars.
39. INTERPRET This is a problem about the diffraction limit with a circular aperture. We’re after the diameter of the
mirror used by the WorldView-4 satellite. We are given its distance from earth, and its resolution at a particular
wavelength of light.
DEVELOP Like in the original example, we will use Equation 32.11b to define the minimum angular size that can
be resolved. For a small angle, we can relate it to the physical size of the asteroid l and the distance to the asteroid
L as θ min = l / L , allowing us to relate the size l using the wavelength and aperture size from Equation 32.11b.
EVALUATE Applying Equation 32.11b we find diameter of the mirror is equal to
1.22λ L 1.22 ( 460nm )( 610km )
D= = = 1.1m
l 31cm
ASSESS This result makes sense since we are dealing with a commercial satellite operating at short wavelengths
and imaging objects while orbiting a few hundred kilometers above Earth.
PROBLEMS
40. INTERPRET We are to find the angle at which the second-order (i.e., m = 2) bright fringe occurs in a double-slit
experiment with the given parameters.
DEVELOP Use Equation 32.1a to find the angle θ for the different wavelengths λ, with d = 1.5 μm.
EVALUATE (a) For λ = 640 nm, the angle is

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32-10 Chapter 32

⎛ mλ ⎞ −1 ⎛ 2 × 640 nm ⎞
θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 59°
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ 1.5 μm ⎠
(b) For λ = 580 nm,
⎛ 2 × 580 nm ⎞
θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 51°
⎝ 1.5 μm ⎠
(c) For λ = 410 nm,
⎛ 2 × 410 nm ⎞
θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 33°
⎝ 1.5 μm ⎠
ASSESS Notice the nonlinear behavior in the relation between θ and λ.
41. INTERPRET The concept behind this problem is double-slit interference. The object of interest is the phase
difference between the waves emanating from the different slits.
DEVELOP The path length difference for waves arriving from the two different slits is
y
Δr = d sin θ ≈ d tan θ = d
L
since λ << d and the small-angle approximation can be used (see derivation of Equations 32.2a and 32.2b). The
phase difference is
⎛ 2π ⎞ 2π yd
Δφ = ⎜ ⎟ Δr =
⎝ λ ⎠ λ L
EVALUATE The phase difference is

Δφ =
(
2π ( 0.0056 m ) 0.035 × 10−3 m ) = 1.6755 rad = 96°
( 490 ×10 −9
)
m (1.5 m )

ASSESS Constructive interference corresponds to Δφ = 2π m , or yd L = m , where m is an integer.

42. INTERPRET Our light source for the double-slit experiment has two wavelengths. For the lowest-order bright
fringe, we are to find the angular position where interference is constructive for one wavelength and destructive for
the other.
DEVELOP In a double-slit apparatus of the type described in the text, for a bright fringe of order m1 from
wavelength λ1 to have the same angular position as a dark fringe of order m2 from wavelength λ2, we must have
(see Equations 32.1a and 32.1b)
m1λ1 = ( m2 + 1 2 ) λ2

For λ1 = 550 nm and λ2 = 400 nm, one finds

11m1 = 8m2 + 4
EVALUATE By inspection, the smallest integer values satisfying this condition are m1 = 4 and m2 = 5; that is, the
fourth bright fringe of wavelength 550 nm coincides with the sixth dark fringe of wavelength 400 nm (recall that
the first bright fringe has m = 1, whereas the first dark fringe has m = 0).
ASSESS This problem demonstrates the role played by the wavelength in determining the nature of the
interference at an angular position.
43. INTERPRET This problem involves a multiple-slit apparatus. We are given the number of dark fringes between
two adjacent major maxima and are asked to find the number of slits in the apparatus. We are also to find the slit
separation given.
DEVELOP From Fig. 32.8, we see that an N-slit system has N − 1 minima between the major maxima. The
position of the maxima is governed by Equation 32.1a, which, for small angles, takes the form
dθ = mλ
The angular separation between adjacent maxima (i.e., between m = n and m = n + 1) is

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-11

d Δθ = λ
The angular separation is Δθ = π ( 0.80° ) / 180° = 0.014 rad.
EVALUATE (a) For seven minima, we have N − 1 = 7; we have N = 8 slits.
(b) The slit separation is
λ 656.3 nm
d= = = 46.9 μm = 47 μm
Δθ 0.014 rad

ASSESS The result is given to two significant figures because the angular separation Δθ is given to that precision.
44. INTERPRET You’re determining the slit (line) spacing needed for a new spectrometer.
DEVELOP You need at least an angular separation of θ min = 5° between the third-order ( m = 3) lines of hydrogen
and sodium, specifically: λHα = 656 nm and λNa = 589 nm. The angle of each these lines will satisfy Equation
32.1a:
d sin θ Hα = mλHα ; d sin θ Na = mλNa
We will use these equations and the fact that θ Hα ≥ θ Na + θ min to solve for the slit spacing, d. The number of slits
(or lines) per cm is just the inverse of this, 1 / d .
EVALUATE For the given pupil diameter and light wavelength, the resolution is
1.22λ 1.22 ( 550 nm )
θ min = = = 3 × 10−4 rad
D ( 2 mm )
In terms of degrees, this is about 0.02°, or about 1 arcminute.
ASSESS We first eliminate one of the unknown angles with a trig identity from Appendix A:
sin θ Hα = sin (θ Na + θ min ) = sin θ Na cosθ min + cosθ Na sin θ min

We can plug in sin θ Hα = mλHα /d and sin θ Na = mλNa /d , and use the fact that cosθ Na = 1 − sin 2 θ Na . With some
algebra, we arrive at:
m 2λ λ (1 − cosθ min )
d= ( λHα − λNa ) 1 + Hα Na
sin θ min ( λHα − λNa )2
3 2 ( 656 nm )( 589 nm )(1 − cos5° )
= ( 67 nm ) 1 + = 2.97 μm
sin 5° ( 67 nm )2
The inverse of this is 3370 lines/cm, so the coarsest grating you could use is the one with 3500 lines/cm.
ASSESS Notice that for a small minimum angle, the spacing equation simplifies to d sin θ min ≈ mΔλ , where
Δλ = λHα − λNa . This makes it clear that in order to increase the angular separation of two nearby spectral lines,
one must use a spectrometer with more slits or gratings per cm.
45. INTERPRET We are to find the diffraction order necessary to resolve (i.e., separate) two closely spaced spectral
lines.
DEVELOP From Equation 32.5, wavelengths can be resolved if
Δλ > λ /mN , or m > λ /NΔλ = (648 nm)/(4500)(0.09 nm)
where Δλ = 648.07 – 647.98 nm = 0.090 nm and N = 4500.
EVALUATE The requisite order is
647.98 nm
m> = 1.6
( 4500 )( 0.090 nm )
So the second or higher order is required to resolve these spectral lines.
ASSESS Note that N is a dimensionless number, so the dimensions work out in the expression for the minimum
order number.
46. INTERPRET This problem is about thin-film interference. Three media involved are toluene, water, and air. We
are to find the film thickness of toluene on water that results in the maximum reflectance of the given wavelength.

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32-12 Chapter 32

DEVELOP Since ntoluene > nwater > nair there is a 180° phase change for reflection at the air–toluene interface and
no phase change at the toluene–water interface (see Fig. 32.12). Equation 32.7 thus applies for constructive
interference (of normally incident rays):
⎛ 1⎞
2nd = ⎜ m + ⎟ λ
⎝ 2⎠

EVALUATE Solving for the thickness d, we get

⎛ 1⎞ λ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 460 nm
d = ⎜m + ⎟ = ⎜m + ⎟ = ( 2m + 1)( 77.2 nm )
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 n ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 (1.49 )

The minimum thickness is for m = 0, so dmin = 77.2 nm.

ASSESS The typical thickness of a thin film is on the order of 100 nm. Thin-film interference accounts for the
bands of color seen in a soap film or oil slick. Note that odd multiples of our result will also give the desired
maximum reflectance at 460 nm.
47. INTERPRET You’re assessing the feasibility of resolving Earth-sized planets with a single space telescope.
DEVELOP You can assume that resolving the planet means roughly that its angular extent in the sky is at least
equal to the diffraction limit of the proposed telescope. The angular extent of an Earth-sized planet at a distance of
L is 2 RE / L. Equating this to Rayleigh criterion in Equation 32.11b gives for the minimum telescope diameter:
1.22λ L
Dmin =
2 RE

EVALUATE Our equation says that the smaller the wavelength we use, the smaller the telescope has to be. So you
might as well choose the lower limit of the optical wavelengths: λ = 400 nm. As such, the telescope diameter
needed would be
1.22 ( 400 nm )( 5 ly ) ⎡ 9.46 × 1015 m ⎤
Dmin = ⎢ ⎥ ≈ 2 km
(
2 6.37 × 106 m )⎣ 1 ly ⎦
A 2-km-wide telescope in space, or even on the ground, is not feasible.
ASSESS NASA is considering ways to detect Earth-sized planets with a space telescope. However, the goal is not
to resolve the planet, but merely separate its light signal from that of its host star. In this case, the angle is not set
by the planet’s diameter but by its orbital radius. For a planet orbiting its star at the same distance as Earth is from
( )
the Sun rE = 1.50 × 1011 m , the minimum telescope diameter is less than 20 cm. However, this is largely
irrelevant. The real challenge in getting a direct image of a distant planet is not the angular resolution, but the fact
that the star is so much brighter than the planet. The starlight completely overwhelms the planet’s signal, so
astronomers are looking for ways to filter out the light coming from the star.
48. INTERPRET In this problem, we are asked to calculate the wavelength of the violet light and its order of
diffraction, given that it overlaps yellow light of order m = 2.
DEVELOP In a diffraction grating, for a bright fringe of order m1 from wavelength λ1 to have the same angular
position as a bright fringe of order m2 from wavelength λ2, we must have (see Equations 32.1a and 32.1b)
m1λ1 = m2λ2

EVALUATE For λ1 = 588 nm (yellow light) and m1 = 2, one finds

m1λ1 = 2(588 nm) = 1176 nm = m2λ2

Given that m2 is an integer and λ2 ranges between 390 nm and 450 nm, the only combination that satisfies the
condition is m2 = 3, and λ2 = 392 nm.
ASSESS The second and third orders overlap, whereas the only order where the visible spectrum does not overlap
itself is the first order.

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-13

49. INTERPRET This problem is about X-ray diffraction in a crystal. We are interested in the spacing between the
crystal planes, which we can find using Bragg’s law.
DEVELOP Constructive interference in X-ray diffraction is given by the Bragg condition (Equation 32.6):
2d sin θ = mλ , m = 1,2,3,…

Solve this for d to find the spacing between crystal planes.

EVALUATE From the Bragg condition, one finds

d=
mλ
=
(
(1) 97 × 10−12 m
= 3.3 Å
)
2sin θ 2sin ( 8.5° )
ASSESS The spacing between crystal planes is typically a few angstroms, so this result seems reasonable.
50. INTERPRET This problem involves interference from a thin film. In particular, we are to analyze a film to find the
minimum thickness for which a reflectance of light in the visible regime still occurs.
DEVELOP Apply Equation 32.7, which gives the condition for constructive interference from a thin film with
index n higher than that of its environment. The minimum thickness dmin occurs for m = 0, which gives
λmin
d min =
4n
EVALUATE The minimum wavelength that is visible to humans is normally taken to be 400 nm. Using this result
and n = 1.33 and in this expression gives a minimum thickness of
λmin 400 nm
d min = = = 75.2 nm
4n 4 (1.33)

ASSESS Film thicknesses are typically around 100 nm, so the result seems reasonable because it is slightly less
than 100 nm.
51. INTERPRET This problem involves constructive interference from a thin film. We are to find the number of times
the condition for constructive interference is met for 630-nm light in a thin film that varies in thickness within the
given range.
DEVELOP In a thin film of oil between air and water ( nair < noil < nwater ), there are 180° phase changes for
reflection at both boundaries (i.e., for both rays 1 and 2 in Fig. 32.7). These phase changes cancel each other,
leaving only the film thickness to give the difference in path length. Therefore, for normally incident light, the term
½ in Equation 32.7 cancels due to a similar term on the left-hand side, leaving
2nd = mλ
The thickness d varies in the range 0.80 μm ≤ d ≤ 2.1 μm , so we can find the integers m that satisfy this range for
λ = 630 nm.
EVALUATE The thickness range implies
mλ
0.80 μm ≤ ≤ 2.1 μm
2n
2n ( 0.80 μm ) 2n ( 2.1 μm )
≤m≤
λ λ
3.17 ≤ m ≤ 8.33
Since m is an integer, it can range from 4 to 8, inclusive.
ASSESS For 630 nm, this film will exhibit 5 bright fringes; for m = 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8.
52. INTERPRET This problem is about diffraction gratings. We are given the data of the angular positions of bright
fringes as a function of order m, and asked to find the wavelength of the light.
DEVELOP The grating condition is sin θ = m(λ d ) . Therefore, plotting sinθ vs. m will result in a straight line
with slope equal to λ/d. Knowing the spacing d allows us to deduce λ.
EVALUATE The plot is shown below.

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32-14 Chapter 32

The slope of the best-fit line is 0.182. With d = 3.2 μm = 3200 nm, we find the wavelength to be
λ = 0.182(3200 nm) = 582.4 nm.
ASSESS The wavelength corresponds to yellow light.
53. INTERPRET This problem involves constructive interference from a thin film—in this case, a film of air between
two glass plates. The index of air is less than that of glass, so there is a 180° phase change at the bottom interface
(air–glass interface) instead of at the top interface (glass–air).
DEVELOP Although the phase change occurs at the second interface as opposed to the first interface as is
assumed in deriving Equation 32.6, the net effect is the same—the path difference 2d must be an odd-integer
multiple of half wavelengths. The thickness of the film varies between 0 and 0.065 mm, so we can apply Equation
32.6 to find the corresponding range of m.
EVALUATE The minimum value for m is 0. The maximum value is
2nd 1 2 (1.00 )( 0.065 mm )
m= − = − 0.5 = 242.49
λ 2 535 nm

or m = 242. Thus, the observer will see 243 bright bands.

ASSESS The first bright band is at zero thickness, which corresponds to m = 0. This band is added to the
242 remaining bands to give the total of 243 bright bands.
54. INTERPRET This problem concerns constructive interference for normally incident light on the thin, wedge-
shaped film of arbitrary medium between glass surfaces. We are to derive an expression giving the number of
bright fringes that appear given that N bright bands are visible for air serving as the film medium.
DEVELOP With N bright bands visible for an air wedge, the maximum value for m in the condition for
constructive interference is mmax = N – 1, and this corresponds to the maximum film thickness dmax. Inserting this
into Equation 32.6 and solving for the ratio dmax/λ gives
d max1⎛ 1⎞
= ⎜N − ⎟
λ 2⎝ 2⎠
When liquid of refractive index n′ fills the wedge, there is still a 180° phase change at only one surface
(regardless of whether or not n′ > nglass ). Thus, we can apply Equation 32.6, which gives
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
2n′d max = ⎜ m′max + ⎟ λ = ⎜ N ′ − ⎟ λ
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
where N ′ is the number of fringes in the new film. We can thus solve for N ′ in terms of N and n′ .
EVALUATE The new number of bright fringes is thus
d 1
N ′ = 2n′ max +
λ 2
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1⎞ 1
= 2n′ ⎜ ⎟⎜ N − ⎟ +
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2⎠ 2
1
= n′N + (1 − n′ )
2
ASSESS This result is independent of the index of the enclosing material (the glass in this case).

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-15

55. INTERPRET We are asked to find the distance that corresponds to the passage of 527 bright fringes in an
interferometer. Thus, as one arm of the interferometer moves, the path length in that arm changes, causing
alternating constructive and destructive interference (or alternating bright and dark fringes) to occur at the output
of the interferometer.
DEVELOP In each arm of the interferometer, light must travel down and back, or twice the length of the arm (see
Fig. 32.16). Thus, the path-length difference corresponding to 527 bright fringes is twice the distance moved by the
mirror, and each successive fringe corresponds to the distance of one wavelength. This gives
2ΔL = 527 λ

which we can solve for ΔL.

EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities gives
527λ
ΔL = = 263 ( 486.1 nm ) = 128.1 μm
2
ASSESS This distance is greater than a single wavelength, which is the minimum distance this type of apparatus
can detect.
56. INTERPRET This problem is similar to the previous one, except that we are given the distance moved by the
interferometer and asked to find the wavelength of light used.
DEVELOP Applying the same logic as for the previous problem gives
2ΔL = 570λ
where we have used 570 because that is the number of fringes observed for this problem. The distance moved by
the mirror is ΔL = 155 μm.
EVALUATE The wavelength is
2ΔL 2 (155 μm )
λ= = = 544 nm
570 570
ASSESS This wavelength is in the visible spectrum and corresponds to yellow light.
57. INTERPRET This problem involves an interferometer, which is used to measure the refractive index of air.
Initially, one arm of the interferometer contains air. This air is gradually pumped out, which reduces the index of
refraction in the arm proportionally. When no air is left, 388 bright fringes have been observed at the
recombination point of the interferometer. We are to calculate the index of refraction of the air.
DEVELOP When the interferometer arm contains air, its length 2L in wavelengths is N = 2 L λair = 2nair L λ ,
where λair = λ nair is the wavelength in air and λ = 641.6 nm (the factor 2 arises because the light must travel
down and back in the interferometer arm, so measures twice the actual length L). When the interferometer arm is in
vacuum, its length in wavelengths becomes N ′ = 2 L λ .
EVALUATE The difference between the air length and the vacuum length, in number of wavelengths, gives the
number of bright fringes observed. Therefore, we can solve for the index of refraction of air as follows:
2nair L 2L
N − N ′ = 388 = −
λ λ
⎛ 388λ ⎞ ⎛ 388 ( 641.6 nm ) ⎞ −4
nair =⎜ + 1⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1 + 2.93 × 10
⎝ 2L ⎠ ⎝ 2 ( 42.5 cm ) ⎟⎠

ASSESS This result agrees with published results dating from 2003.
58. INTERPRET This problem is about interference between incoming waves and reflected waves, resulting in a
varying signal strength for a given radio frequency. We would like to know the time it would take to drive between
minimum and maximum signal strengths when traveling at a given speed.
DEVELOP If the incoming waves are roughly perpendicular to the bridge, the will reflect and have a slight offset
from the incoming waves reaching the vehicle directly. The sum of these two waves will result in a signal with a
frequency equal to the original signal, meaning the maxima (peak and troughs of the wave) will be separated by

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32-16 Chapter 32

λ 2 . Since we are interested in the time between signal strength maximum and minimum, we want the
displacement between the locations with the largest magnitudes and zero, that is λ 4 . We can use the given
frequency to calculate this displacement, and use the given vehicle speed to determine the time it takes to travel
between them.
EVALUATE The distance between the maximum signal strength and the following minimum signal is equal to
λ c 3.00 × 108 m/s
Δx = = = = 140 m
4 4f 4 ( 535 kHz )
Making the time to travel between these
Δx 140 m
Δt = = = 7.75s
v 65.0km/h
ASSESS The interference between the incoming and reflected signals is constructive when the path difference is
an integer multiple of a wavelength, and destructive when it is an odd-integer multiple of a half wavelength.
59. INTERPRET This problem concerns the diffraction limit of an optical system. The system has circular symmetry,
so we can use the Rayleigh criterion for circular apertures.
DEVELOP To resolve a spot of size l = 6.0 m in diameter at a distance d = 66 Mm away, the necessary minimum
angle to resolve is very small, so we can approximate
θ min = l / d
We can insert θmin into Equation 32.11b and solve for the minimum aperture diameter.
EVALUATE The minimum aperture diameter is
1.22λ 1.22λ d 1.22 (1.06 μm )( 66 Mm )
Dmin = = = = 14.2 m
θ min l 6.0m

ASSESS We find that the size of this aperture is proportional to the distance d, and inversely proportional to the
resolved spot size l.
60. INTERPRET This is a problem about the diffraction limit with a circular aperture.
DEVELOP If one of the Keck telescopes were diffraction limited while observing with 550-nm light, its
maximum resolution would be
1.22 λ 1.22 (550 nm)
θ min = = = 6.71 × 10−8 rad
D 10 m
At the distance of San Francisco, resolving objects requires a separation of at least
( )
Δ x = θ min r = 6.71 × 10−8 ( 3400 km ) = 22.8 cm

We will assume that letters that are bigger than this can be read with the telescope.
EVALUATE (a) A newspaper headline might be a few centimeters high, so it would not be possible to read
anything like that with a single Keck telescope.
(b) A billboard may have letters that are 50 cm tall or more, so it might be possible to read the sign.
(c) The effective aperture is 5 times wider, so the minimum angle is reduced by a factor of 5. That means letters
that are about 4.6 cm tall can be resolved, so it might be possible to read very large headlines in San Francisco
from Hawaii.
ASSESS We’re assuming the telescope is diffraction limited, but atmospheric turbulence would reduce the
resolving power.
61. INTERPRET We are to find the smallest spot that can be focused by the given lens system. Because the lens is
circular, we shall apply the Rayleigh criterion for circular apertures.
DEVELOP The diffraction limit for a lens opening of diameter D, focusing light of wavelength λ, is given by
Equation 32.11b (the Rayleigh criterion for circular apertures):
1.22λ
θ min =
D

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-17

The radius of a spot at the focal length of the lens with this angular spread is r = f θ min (the spot radius equals the
distance between the central maximum and first minimum; see Fig. 32.7 and accompanying discussion). The
minimum spot diameter is, therefore, d = 2r = 2θ f min .
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities gives
2 f (1.22 ) λ
d = 2 f θ min = = 2 (1.4 )(1.22 )( 610 nm ) = 2.1 μm
D
where we have used f / D = 1.4, as given in the problem statement.
ASSESS This resolution is good enough for most commercial cameras.
62. INTERPRET You want to estimate the size of a spy satellite given the smallest features it can resolve on the
ground.
DEVELOP The altitude of the satellite, h, is so high that the angular separation between two objects on the ground
is just: θ = Δx / h. You can therefore estimate the minimum diameter of the camera’s mirror or lens to be:
1.22λ 1.22λ h
D> =
θ Δx
EVALUATE Assuming λ = 550 nm, the minimum diameter is
1.22 ( 550 nm )(100 km )
D= = 1.3 m
( 5 cm )
Because of the uncertainties, the most that you can probably say is that the satellite’s mirror or lens is slightly more
than 1 m wide.
ASSESS Most optical systems this big use mirrors rather than lenses as the primary light collector. Lenses have
chromatic aberration due to the wavelength dependence of the refractive index. Moreover, a meter-wide lens
would weigh much more than a similar-sized mirror, which is a big consideration for anything going up into space.
63. INTERPRET We are to determine the largest distance at which humans can resolve a pair of automobile
headlights. Because human pupils are circular, the Rayleigh criterion for circular apertures applies.
DEVELOP If we use the Rayleigh criterion (Equation 32.11b for small angles) to estimate the
diffraction-limited angular resolution of the eye, at a pupil diameter of 3.1 mm and with light of wavelength
550 nm, we obtain
1.22λ 1.22 ( 550 nm )
θ min = = = 2.1 × 10−4 rad
D 3.1 mm

EVALUATE This angle corresponds to a linear separation of y = 1.6 m at a distance of

y 1.6 m
r= = = 7.4 km
θ min 2.1 × 10−4 rad
ASSESS Actually, the wavelength inside the eye is different ( λ ' = λ / n ) because of the average index of
refraction of the eye. Even though other factors determine visual acuity, this is a reasonable ballpark estimate.

64. INTERPRET We are to compare the diffraction-limited resolution at 550 nm with the given limit due to
atmospheric turbulence.
DEVELOP Apply the Rayleigh criterion for circular apertures (Equation 32.11b), using
π
θ min = 1′′ = = 4.85 × 10−6 rad
180 × 3600
EVALUATE The aperture satisfying the Rayleigh criterion at the given wavelength is
1.22λ 1.22 ( 550 nm )
D= = = 14 cm
θ min 4.85 × 10−6 rad

ASSESS The resolution of all larger-diameter ground-based telescopes is limited by atmospheric conditions at this
wavelength.

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32-18 Chapter 32

65. INTERPRET The question is whether a microscope using ultraviolet light can resolve rhinovirus.
DEVELOP Suppose the minimum object size that your current optical microscope can resolve is
1.22λ L
Δx = Lθ min =
D
where L is the distance between the lens and the sample, and D is the microscope aperture. You can assume that
the sales rep’s UV microscope has roughly the same geometry, in which case Δxmin ∝ λ .
EVALUATE You can assume your optical microscope uses the characteristic visible wavelength of λ = 560 nm.
Therefore, the UV microscope using λ = 280 nm will have about a factor of 2 better resolution:
λUV 1
ΔxUV = Δxopt ≈ Δxopt
λopt 2
So, yes, the sales rep is essentially correct, but even the UV microscope won’t resolve rhinoviruses.
ASSESS In general, you can only resolve objects as big as the wavelength of the light that you are using.
Rhinoviruses are typically only 50 nm, so the studies would require using X-ray diffraction with wavelengths of
the order 50 nanometers or smaller.
66. INTERPRET We are to calculate the index of refraction of air by comparing the number of fringes in a wedge-
shaped film of air trapped between two glass plates with the number of fringes with the air evacuated. The fringes
are caused by alternating constructive and destructive interference as the film thickness varies along the wedge-
shaped film.
DEVELOP As shown in the solutions to Problems 32.53 and 32.54, the number of bright bands is the largest
integer N less than or equal to 2nd λ + 1 2 , where d is the maximum wedge width. For air, this gives
N air = 10,003 = 2nair λ + 1 2
For vacuum, this gives
N vac = 10,000 = 2 λ + 1 2
Where we have used nvac ≡ 1 .
EVALUATE Solving this system of equations for nair gives
10,003 = 2nair ( 5,000 − 1 4 ) + 1 2
10,003 − 1 2
nair = = 1.0003
10,000 − 1 2

ASSESS Within the limit imposed by the precision of the data, this result agrees with published results.
67. INTERPRET We are to find an expression for the refractive index of a gas that is measured using a Michelson
interferometer. We are given the difference in optical path length (i.e., the difference in the number of bright
fringes) between a column of gas and an equal length of vacuum.
DEVELOP The index of refraction in vacuum is defined to be unity. For light traveling through a gas, the
wavelength of light depends on the gas through which it is traveling ( λgas = λ ngas ; λ is the vacuum wavelength).
Thus, there is a difference in the number of wave cycles in the enclosed interferometer arm when the
cylinder is evacuated or filled with gas. The light travels the length of the arm twice, out and back, and each cycle
of difference results in one fringe shift. Thus, the number of fringes in the shift is
2L 2L 2L
m=
λgas
−
λ
=
λ
( ngas − 1)
EVALUATE From the above equation, the refractive index is
mλ
ngas = 1 +
2L
ASSESS The interferometer allows for the determination of the refractive index of a gas.

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-19

68. INTERPRET In this problem we want to verify the condition for maximum intensity when light is incident on a
diffraction grating at an arbitrary angle.
DEVELOP Consider the sketch below, which shows light incident on a grating at an angle α with respect to
normal incidence. The path difference between the two rays incident on adjacent slits of the grating (A and B, with
spacing AB = d) at an angle α with respect to the grating normal is PA = d sin α . The path difference between
corresponding outgoing rays making an angle θ on either side of the normal is AQ = BQ′ = d sin θ . The total path
difference is the sum (or difference) of these, depending on whether θ is on the same (or opposite) side of the
normal as α (since we chose both angles to be positive).

EVALUATE A maximum intensity occurs when the total path difference is an integral number of wavelengths, or
when
PA + AQ = mλ ⎫
⎬ d ( sin θ ± sin α ) = mλ
PA − BQ′ = mλ ⎭

ASSESS When α = 0, we recover the usual condition given in Equation 32.1a.

69. INTERPRET As one arm of the interferometer moves, the path length in that arm changes, causing alternating
constructive and destructive interference (or alternating bright and dark fringes) to occur at the output of the
interferometer. We are to calculate the effective path length change due to the presence of gravitational waves, and
the shift in the interference pattern resulting from this arm length change.
DEVELOP In each arm of the interferometer, light must travel down and back multiple times. Thus, we can
calculate the path length difference corresponding to 280 reflections when a displacement of 1.2 attometers
increases one arm’s length. We can then determine what fraction of an interference fringe spacing this shift
corresponds to.
EVALUATE The effective shift is equal to
( )
ΔL = ( 280 ) 1.2 × 10−18 m = 0.34 × 10−15 m = 0.34fm

Using the given wavelength, we find the fraction of the fringe spacing this corresponds to
ΔL 0.34fm
F= = = 6.3 × 10−10 m
λ 2 (1064nm ) 2

ASSESS This shift corresponds to a distance on the order of a single proton diameter, showing how impressive the
detection of these signals has been.
70. INTERPRET We are to derive Equation 32.10 using calculus and geometry. We shall base our derivation on
Fig. 32.21.
DEVELOP The electric field due to the light coming from a section of slit of width dy at position y in the slit will
be the electric field at that portion of the slit multiplied by the phase factor. There are two contributors to the phase
factor: the oscillation of the field in time and the distance the light has traveled from the section of slit. So
dy
dE = E p sin ⎡⎣ωt + φ ( y ) ⎤⎦
λ
where the term E p dy λ is the field originating at point y, and φ ( y ) is the phase angle due to the distance. We
will find φ ( y ) and integrate over the entire slit to derive Equation 32.10.

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32-20 Chapter 32

EVALUATE (a) The path length difference δ for different rays in Fig. 32.21, as a function of y, is δ = y sin θ .
This path length difference is to the wavelength as the phase difference φ is to 2π, so
δ φ 2π y
= ⇒ φ ( y) = sin θ
λ 2π λ
which is what we were to show.
(b) We integrate dE from − a 2 to a 2 :
a2
Ep ⎛ 2π y ⎞
E=
a ∫ sin ⎜ ωt +
⎝ λ
sin θ ⎟ dy
⎠
−a 2
a2
Ep ⎡ ⎛ 2π y ⎞ ⎛ 2π y ⎞ ⎤
= ∫⎢
a −a 2 ⎣
sin ωt cos ⎜
⎝ λ
sin θ ⎟ + sin ⎜
⎠ ⎝ λ
sin θ ⎟ cos ωt ⎥ dy
⎠ ⎦
a/2
⎡ ⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ 2π y ⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ 2π y ⎞⎤
= E p ⎢sin ωt ⎜ − ⎟ sin ⎜ sin θ ⎟ + cos ωt ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ sin θ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2π a sin θ ⎠ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎝ 2π a sin θ ⎠ ⎝ λ ⎠⎦ −a / 2
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛φ ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛φ ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ φ ⎞⎤
= E p ⎢sin ωt ⎜ − ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟ + cos ωt ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟ − sin ωt ⎜ − ⎟ sin ⎜ − ⎟ − cos ωt ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ φ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ φ
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ φ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ φ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦

=
Ep ⎡
−2sin ω t sin
⎛ φ ⎞⎤
= − E( sin ω t
sin φ2
)
()
⎜ ⎟⎥
φ ⎢⎣
p φ
⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ 2

Where we have defined φ ≡ 2π a (λ sin θ ) . The light intensity is proportional to the square of the electric field, so
2
⎡ sin (φ 2 ) ⎤
S = S0 ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ φ 2 ⎦
ASSESS The function ( sin x ) x is also called the “sinc” function: sinc ≡ ( sin x ) x . You will frequently see things
written in this form in more advanced optics texts, should you have opportunity to study this field further.

71. INTERPRET In this problem, we will use the Rayleigh criterion to determine what angular spacing can be allowed
between communications satellites. With this value of the angle, we can find the number of satellites allowed in
geosynchronous orbit before their signals begin to overlap.
DEVELOP The Rayleigh criterion for circular apertures (Equation 32.11b) is θ min = 1.22λ / D, where the
wavelength is

c 3.00 × 108 m / s
λ= = = 2.5 cm
f 12 GHz
and the diameter of the satellite receiver is D = 47 cm. The number of satellites that can fit in a circle with this
angular spacing between satellites is N = 2π / θ min .
EVALUATE The maximum number of satellites is
2π 2π D 2π ( 47 cm )
N= = = = 96
θ min 1.22λ 1.22 ( 2.5 cm )

when rounded down to the nearest integer.

ASSESS This seems rather low, but calculating θmin directly gives us an angle of 3.7°, which is consistent. We can
pack more in by using shorter wavelengths or larger antennae.
72. INTERPRET You are trying to estimate the thickness of an oil spill from the interference pattern that you measure
in reflected light.
DEVELOP Some of the light reflects off the air-oil interface, where it experiences a 180° phase change, since the
index of refraction is going from lower (nair 1) to higher ( noil = 1.39). Some of the light also reflects off the oil-
water interface, but in this case, there is no 180° phase change, since the index of refraction is going from higher

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 Interference and Diffraction 32-21

( noil 1.39) to lower (nwater 1.333). Therefore, the situation is the same as in Fig. 32.12, and constructive
⎛ 1⎞
interference will occur when 2nd = ⎜ m + ⎟ λ (Equation 32.7).
⎝ 2⎠
EVALUATE If the brightest wavelength in reflection is λ = 555 nm, and you assume this corresponds to
m = 1, then the oil film’s thickness must be
⎛ 1⎞
⎜ m + ⎟ λ 3( 555 nm )
d= ⎝ 2⎠
= = 299.5 nm
2n 4 (1.39 )

ASSESS This might seem too thin, but it’s a reasonable thickness for an oil spill. At this thickness, one can
estimate how much area a gallon of oil would cover:
V 1 gal ⎡ 3.8 × 10−3 m3 ⎤ 2
A= = ⎢ ⎥ = 12,688 m
d 299.5 nm ⎣ 1 gal ⎦
This is about three football fields!
73. INTERPRET We explore how interferometry can increase angular resolution in astronomy.
DEVELOP We are told that interfering the signal of two telescopes will give the resolution of a single telescope
with aperture equal to the distance between the two telescopes, that is, θ min = 1.22λ / Δx, where Δx is the telescope
separation.
EVALUATE Doubling the distance between the two telescopes should reduce by half the minimum angular
separation that can be resolved.
The answer is (c).
ASSESS Astronomers use arrays of radio telescopes with individual elements separated by 10s of meters to 1000s
of kilometers. The largest arrays can obtain milliarcsecond angular resolution, which is less than a millionth of a
degree.
74. INTERPRET We explore how interferometry can increase angular resolution in astronomy.
DEVELOP The amount of light collected will be proportional to the sum of the areas of the individual telescopes.
EVALUATE Doubling the distance between the two telescopes does not have any effect on the areas of the
telescopes, so there will be no change in the light-collecting power.
The answer is (a).
ASSESS Interferometry does not generally allow astronomers to see objects fainter than can be observed with a
single telescope. It only gives them better angular resolution of relatively bright objects in the sky. To see deeper
into space, the telescope collecting area has to be increased.
75. INTERPRET We explore how interferometry can increase angular resolution in astronomy.
DEVELOP For a point source directly above an interferometer, the light path to each telescope will be the same.
EVALUATE The phase difference is proportional to the path length difference, which in this case is zero.
Therefore, the electromagnetic waves will be in phase.
The answer is (a).
ASSESS This answer is independent of the telescope separation or the wavelength being observed. The signals
from a source on the bisector between two telescopes will always be in phase. It’s a bit like the fact that the zeroth
( m = 0 ) order of a double-slit is always a bright fringe, since the path lengths from the two slits are equal along the
bisector between them.
76. INTERPRET We explore how interferometry can increase angular resolution in astronomy.
DEVELOP In this case, the path length difference to each telescope will be Δx sin 45°, where Δx is the telescope
separation. This leads to a phase difference in the electromagnetic wave signals received by each telescope:
2πΔx
φ = k ( Δx sin 45° ) =
λ
where we have used k = 2π / λ and sin 45° = 1 / 2.

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32-22 Chapter 32

EVALUATE Without knowing the separation and the wavelength, we can’t say what the phase difference is.
The answer is (d).
ASSESS If the radio telescopes can receive multiple wavelengths, then it is likely that the two signals will be in
phase (constructively interfere) for some wavelengths and 180° out of phase (destructively interfere) for others.
Note too, that as the Earth rotates, the angle at which the source is located will change, so even at a fixed
wavelength, the relative phase difference (and resultant interference pattern) will be changing with time.

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