ROMBLON STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MODULE 1
SEMICONDUCTOR
FUNDAMENTALS

ECE 301
(ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT DEVICES
AND ANALYSIS)

GROUP 1
JADE FALCO
GILBERT GADON
CHRIS RODICA
JUDEL ESCARILLA
BENEDICK TINAMBUNAN

INSTRUCTOR:
ENGR. JAY T. OLIVEROS,
REE RME, LPT

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 Semiconductor Fundamentals: Module

INTRODUCTION

This module will take students into the fascinating subject of

semiconductors, which are materials with electrical conductivity between
that of conductors and insulators. Semiconductors play a crucial part in
contemporary electronics, facilitating the operation of gadgets such as
computers, smartphones, and solar cells. These materials possess unique
electrical properties that can be precisely controlled by doping and the
formation of P-N junctions. A solid understanding of these principles is vital
for anyone involved in the design and optimization of electronic systems.
Their unique properties, including variable electrical conductivity, high
thermal conductivity, and light emission, allow them to perform essential
roles in rectification, amplification, switching, and energy conversion.

TOPIC OVERVIEW

This module aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of

semiconductor fundamentals, which are essential for various applications in
electronics and modern technology. It will cover the basic properties, types,
and applications of semiconductors. This module is designed for students
in electrical engineering, physics, or related fields.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

This module provides a principal foundation in semiconductor

fundamentals, equipping students with the knowledge and skills necessary
for further study and careers in electronics and related fields.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Understand the basic properties of semiconductors.
2. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
3. Explain the concept of charge carriers in semiconductors.
4. Describe the process of doping and its impact on semiconductor
properties.
5. Understand the principles of PN junctions and their applications.

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 TABLE CONTENTS

Semiconductor Fundamentals: Module Outline

 INTRODUCTIONi

 TOPIC OVERVIEW i
 LEARNING OUTCOMES i
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ii
 TABLE CONTENTS iii-iv

I. Introduction to Semiconductors 1
- Definition and Importance of Semiconductors and Historical Background
1

II. Properties of Semiconductors1

- Electrical Conductivity 1
- Variable Electrical Conductivity 1-2
- Heterojunctions 2
- Light Emission 2
- High Thermal Conductivity 2
- Thermal Energy Conversion 2

III. Functions and Applications of Semiconductors 3

- Rectification (Diodes) 3
- Switching (Transistors) 4
- Amplification (Transistors) 4
- Signal Modulation and Data Storage 5
- Energy Conversion (Photovoltaic Cells) 5
- Light Emission (LEDs) 6
- Sensing 6-7
- Voltage Regulation 8
- Data Storage 8-9
- Oscillation and Timing 9
IV. Types of Semiconductors 10
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- Intrinsic Semiconductors (Silicon, Germanium) 10
- Extrinsic Semiconductors 10-11
- N-Type Semiconductors 11-12
- P-Type Semiconductors 11-12

V. Doping and P-N Junctions 12

- Introduction to Doping 12-13
- N-Type and P-Type Doping 13-14
- Structure and Behavior 14
- Silicon Lattice 14
- P-N Junctions 14
- Formation 14
- Depletion Layer 14
- Forward Bias 15
- Reverse Bias 15

VI. Assessments 16
- Problem 1: Carrier Concentration in N-Type Silicon16
- Problem 2: Current Calculation in a Forward-Biased P-N Junction 16
- Problem 3: Depletion Width Calculation in a P-N Junction 16
- Answer and Solutions to Problem 1 17
- Answer and Solutions to Problem 2 17-18
- Answer and Solutions to Problem 3 18-19

VII. Reflective Analysis 20

- Importance of Semiconductor Fundamentals in Modern Technology 20
- Challenges and Innovations in Semiconductors 20

VIII. References 21
- List of sources for further reading and exploration 21- 22

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I. Introduction to Semiconductors

Definition and Importance of Semiconductors and Historical

Background

Semiconductor is a material that lies between conductors and

insulators its ability to conduct electric current. In its pure state, a
semiconductor is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. The
purpose of a semiconductor is, it controls and manages the flow of electric
current in electronic equipment and devices. As a result, it is a popular
component of electronic chips made for computing components and a
variety of electronic devices, including solid-state storage. Semiconductors
are the backbone of modern electronics, including computers,
smartphones, and solar cells. They are used in diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits, which are fundamental components of electronic
devices. They enable the development of a wide range of electronic
devices and systems due to their unique properties. Semiconductors can
be used to create components that act as switches, amplifiers, and energy
converters.

The development of semiconductor technology has been significantly

influenced by the contributions of several key scientists, including Thomas
Johann Seebeck, who first described semiconductor behavior in 1821, and
later figures like Michael Faraday and William Shockley, who helped lay the
groundwork for modern semiconductor devices.

II. Properties of semiconductor

The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor material is somewhere

between that of a conductor, such as metallic copper, and that of an
insulator, such as glass.

 Variable electrical conductivity - Because a current requires the

flow of electrons, semiconductors are poor conductors in their native
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 state because their valence bands are full, inhibiting the entire flow of
new electrons. Doping and gating are two ways that have been
discovered to make semiconducting materials act like conducting
materials. The n-type and p-type variants are the results of these
changes. These terms allude to an abundance or deficiency of
electrons. A current would run through the material if there were an
equal number of electrons.

 Heterojunction - When two semiconducting materials with distinct

dopants are connected, heterojunctions form. P-doped and n-doped
germanium, for example, could make up a configuration. The different
doped semiconducting materials exchange electrons and holes as a
result of this. There would be an excess of electrons in n-doped
germanium and an excess of holes in p-doped germanium.
Recombination, which causes the migrating electrons from the n-type
to come into touch with the migrating holes from the p-type, causes
the transfer to continue until an equilibrium is established.

 Light emission - Excited electrons in certain semiconductors can

relax instead of producing heat by radiating light. Light-emitting
diodes and fluorescent quantum dots are made with these
semiconductors.

 High thermal conductivity - Heat dissipation and improved thermal

management of electronics can be achieved using semiconductors
with high thermal conductivity.

 Thermal energy conversion - Semiconductors have high

thermoelectric figures of merit and large thermoelectric power factors,
making them ideal for thermoelectric generators and coolers.

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III. Functions of semiconductors

A semiconductor substance lies between the conductor and insulator.

It controls and manages the flow of electric current in electronic equipment
and devices. They are the foundation of modern computing, devices such
as smartphones and laptops rely on them. Semiconductor devices can
display a range of useful properties, such as showing variable resistance,
passing current more easily in one direction than the other, and reacting to
light and heat. Their actual function includes the amplification of signals,
switching, and energy conversion. Semiconductors serve a variety of
function in electronic devices, making them essential for modern
technology.

1. Rectification
Device: Diode
Function: Allows current to flow in one direction only, converting
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).
Mechanism: Utilizes a p-n junction that conducts current when
forward-biased and blocks it when reverse-biased.
Applications: Power supplies, signal demodulation, radio receivers.

https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Diodes-1.png

Figure 1. Diode

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2. Switching
Device: Transistor
Function: Acts as an electronic switch, enabling or disabling the flow
of current in a circuit.
Types: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT), Field-Effect Transistors
(FET).
Mechanism: In BJTs, current flow is controlled by a small current at
the base. In FETs, it’s controlled by voltage at the gate.
Applications: Digital circuits, microprocessors, memory devices,
power management.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Utsho-A-Arefin/publication/355483340/figure/fig2/
AS:1082095246028800@1635003019116/Transistor-pinout.jpg

Figure 2. Transistor

3. Amplification
Device: Transistor
Function: Amplifies weak electrical signals to stronger levels.
Mechanism: A small input current or voltage controls a larger output
current.

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 Applications: Audio amplifiers, radio transmitters, signal processing.
4. Signal Modulation
Device: Transistor, Diode
Function: Alters properties of a carrier signal based on the
information signal.
Mechanism: Varies amplitude, frequency, or phase of the carrier
wave.
Applications: Communication systems (AM/FM radios, television
broadcasting).

5. Energy Conversion
Device: Photovoltaic Cell (Solar Cell)
Function: Converts light energy into electrical energy.
Mechanism: Photons excite electrons to higher energy states,
creating a flow of electric current.
Applications: Solar panels, calculators, space satellites.

https://energyeducation.ca/wiki/images/1/11/Photovoltaiceffect.png

Figure 3. Photovoltaic Cell (Solar Cell)

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6. Light Emission
Device: Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Function: Emits light when an electric current passes through it.
Mechanism: Electrons recombine with holes, releasing energy in the
form of photons.
Applications: Display screens, indicator lights, lighting solutions.

https://www.electricalelibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/dentro-do-led-1.jpg

Figure 4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

7. Sensing
Devices: Various sensors (Photodiodes, Thermistors)
Function: Detect and measure physical parameters like light,
temperature, and pressure.
Mechanism: Changes in physical conditions alter the electrical
properties of the semiconductor.
Applications: Environmental monitoring, healthcare devices,
automotive systems.

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 https://www.electricaltechnology.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Photodiode-Symbol-Construction-
Working-Applications.png

Figure 5. Photodiodes

https://cdn.automationforum.co/uploads/2023/03/Screen-Shot-2023-03-18-at-9.20.27-AM.png

Figure 6. Thermistors

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8. Voltage Regulation
Device: Zener Diode
Function: Maintains a constant output voltage despite variations in
input voltage or load conditions.
Mechanism: Operates in reverse breakdown region to provide stable
reference voltage.
Applications: Power supplies, voltage reference circuits.

https://www.ntchip.com/UploadImg/Figure%202%20-%20Zener%20diode%20Symbol.jpg

Figure 7. Zener Diode

9. Data Storage
Device: Memory Chips (e.g., DRAM, Flash)
Function: Stores digital information.
Mechanism: Uses arrays of transistors and capacitors to represent
binary data.
Applications: Computers, smartphones, digital cameras.

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 https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTLn_85JQ-VhCl-sTOuAl7TXUIoFnqtOZ-
TlawM8MYUYegsBJ2a

Figure 8. Memory Chips (e.g., DRAM, Flash)

10. Oscillation and Timing

Device: Crystal Oscillator
Function: Generates precise time-keeping signals.
Mechanism: Uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal
(often quartz) to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency.
Applications: Clocks, watches, microcontrollers, communication
systems.

http://www.kynixsemiconductor.com/upload/image/20180317/6365689781935765109522733.jpg

Figure 9. Crystal Oscillator

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IV. Types of Semiconductors

1. Intrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductor materials without

any significant impurities. Their electrical properties are solely determined
by the material itself, with the number of electrons in the conduction band
equal to the number of holes in the valence band.

Materials: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)

https://chemistrypage.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Intrinsic-Semiconductor.jpg

Figure 10. Intrinsic Semiconductors

2. Extrinsic Semiconductors

Extrinsic semiconductors are created by doping intrinsic

semiconductors with impurities to alter their electrical properties. They are
further classified into two types:

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 https://chemistrypage.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Extrinsic-Semiconductors.jpg

Figure 11. Extrinsic Semiconductors

a. N-Type Semiconductors

N-type semiconductors are formed by doping intrinsic

semiconductors with pentavalent impurities, which introduce
additional free electrons into the conduction band, making electrons
the majority charge carriers.

Materials: Doped with Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb)

b. P-Type Semiconductors

P-type semiconductors are formed by doping intrinsic

semiconductors with trivalent impurities, which create holes in the valence
band, making holes the majority charge carriers.

Materials: Doped with Boron (B), Gallium (Ga), Indium (In)

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 https://static.javatpoint.com/difference/images/difference-between-n-type-and-p-type-
semiconductors5.png

Figure 12. N-Type Semiconductors and P-Type Semiconductors

V. Doping

Doping is adding impurities to semiconductors to enhance their

electrical conductivity and their control whether they conduct positive or
negative charges. It’s crucial for making electronic devices like transistors
and solar cells work efficiently.

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 https://mdashf.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/doping-in-semiconductors_httpswww-scienceabc-
cominnovationwhat-are-semiconductors-and-how-do-they-work-html-e1541615704809.jpg

Figure 14. Doping in Semiconductors

N-type Doping
This involves adding donor atoms (such as phosphorus or arsenic)
that have more valence electrons than the semiconductor material (typically
silicon). These extra electrons become free to move through the material,
enhancing its conductivity. The formula for the concentration of free
electrons in an N-type semiconductor is:

n=N D

where n is the concentration of free electrons and N D) is the donor

concentration.

P-type Doping
This involves adding acceptor atoms (such as boron or gallium) that
have fewer valence electrons than the semiconductor. This creates "holes"
or positive charge carriers, which can move through the material and

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conduct current. The formula for the concentration of holes in a P-type
semiconductor is:
p=N A

where p is the concentration of holes and N A is the acceptor concentration.

Structure and Behavior

Silicon Lattice
Silicon atoms form a stable crystal lattice, with each silicon atom
sharing its four valence electrons with neighboring atoms to form strong
covalent bonds. This structure can be modified by introducing impurities
(doping), creating N-type or P-type semiconductors depending on the type
of impurity added.

P-N Junction
A P-N junction is formed by joining P-type and N-type semiconductor
materials. This junction is fundamental to many semiconductor devices:

 Formation
When P-type and N-type materials are joined, electrons from the N-
type region diffuse into the P-type region and recombine with holes,
creating a depletion region around the junction. This region is
devoid of free charge carriers and acts as an insulator.

 Depletion Layer
The region around the junction where free electrons and holes have
recombined, creating a potential barrier that prevents further
charge carrier movement.

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  Forward Bias
When a positive voltage is applied to the P-side of the junction and a
negative voltage to the N- side, the potential barrier is reduced,
allowing current to flow. The current through a forward- biased P-N
junction can be described by the equation:

V
I =I s ( nVT
−1)
e

where I is the current, I s is the saturation current, V is the applied

voltage, n is the ideality factor, and VT is the thermal voltage.

 Reverse Bias
When the polarity is reversed, the potential barrier increases, and the
depletion region widens, preventing current flow. The current in
reverse bias is approximately:

I ≈−I s

VI. ASSESSMENTS
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Problem 1: Determining Carrier Concentration in N-type Silicon

An N-type silicon semiconductor is doped with phosphorus at a

concentration of 1016 atoms per cm³. Assuming complete ionization,
calculate the electron concentration in the doped silicon.

Problem 2: Calculating Current in a Forward-Biased P-N Junction

A silicon diode is forward biased with a voltage of 0.7 V at room

temperature (300 K). The saturation current (I ¿¿ s)¿ of the diode is 10−12 A.
Calculate the forward current (I ) through the diode using the ideal diode
equation.

Problem 3: Understanding Depletion Width in a P-N Junction

Given a P-N junction with an acceptor concentration (N ¿¿ A)¿ of 1017cm-3 and
a donor concentration (N ¿¿ D)¿ of 1015 cm-3, calculate the depletion width (W )
if the built-in potential (V ¿¿ bi)¿ is 0.7 V at room temperature (300 K).
Assume permittivity of silicon (ε ¿¿ si)¿ is 11.7ε and ε 0=8.85 ×10−14 F /cm
0

1. Solution:

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In N-type silicon, the electron concentration (n) is approximately equal to
the donor concentration (N ¿¿ D) ¿ because each phosphorus atom donates
one free electron.

Given:
16
N D=10 atoms/cm3

Since n=N D

Therefore:

n ≈ N D=10
16
electrons/cm3

Answer:
The electron concentration in the N-type silicon is 1016 electrons/cm3

2. Solution:
The ideal diode equation is:

V
I =I s ( nVT
−1)
e
where:

I s=10 A
−12

V =0.7 V
n=1(assumimg ideal diode)
kT
V T = ≈ 26 mV at 300 K
q

Substitute the values:

−12 0.7
I =10 ( 0.026
−1)
e
−12 26.92
I =10 (e −1)

Since e 26.92 is very large, -1 can be approximated as negligible:

−12 26.92
I ≈ 10 ×e

−12 11
I ≈ 10 × 4.91× 10

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 I ≈ 0.491 A

Answer:
The forward current through the diode is approximately 0.491 A.

3. Solution:
The depletion width ( W ) is given by:

W=
√ 2 ε si V bi 1
q
( +
1
N A ND
)

where:
−14
ε si =11.7× 8.85 ×10 F /cm
V bi =0.7 V
−19
q=1.6 ×10 C
N A =10 cm-3
17

N D=10 cm-3
15

First, calculateε si:

−14 −12
ε si =11.7× 8.85 ×10 =1.035× 10 F /cm

Substitute the values into the depletion width formula:

W=
√ 2 ×1.035 ×10−12 ×0.7 1
1.6 × 10
−19
1
( 17 + 15 )
10 10

Calculate the sum of reciprocals:

1 1 1 1 −17 −15 −15

+ = 17 + 15 =10 +10 =1.01 ×10
N A N D 10 10

Substitute this back into the equation:

W=
√
2 ×1.035 ×10−12 ×0.7
1.6 × 10
−19
×1.01 ×10−15

√
−12
1.449 ×10 −15
W= −19
× 1.01× 10
1.6 ×10
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 W =√ 9.15 ×10−9

−5
W ≈ 9.57 × 10 cm

Answer:
The depletion width of the P-N junction is approximately 9.57 × 10−5cm or
0.957 μm.

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VII. REFLECTIVE ANALYSIS

Semiconductor fundamentals form the cornerstone of modern

electronics, essential for devices ranging from microprocessors to solar
cells. This module explores how semiconductors, by controlling electrical
conductivity through doping and P-N junctions, enable innovations like
high-speed transistors and efficient solar panels.

Practically, this knowledge drives advancements in computing power

and renewable energy, enhancing device performance and energy
efficiency. Ongoing challenges, such as scaling transistors and improving
manufacturing processes, highlight the need for continuous research.

In conclusion, a deep grasp of semiconductor principles not only

powers current technology but also fuels future innovations in electronics
and beyond, addressing global challenges with smarter, more sustainable
solutions.

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VIII. REFERENCES

Semiconductor Fundamentals (Part 1). (n.d.). Semiconductor

Fundamentals (Part 1). https://circuitcellar.com/research-design-
hub/semiconductor-fundamentals-part-1/

Purdue University. (n.d.). ECE 30500 - Semiconductor Fundamentals.

https://engineering.purdue.edu/ECE/Academics/Undergraduates/UG
O/AboutUs/CourseI nfo/courseInfo?
courseid=748&show=true&type=rgrad

LibreTexts. (n.d.). Semiconductor Devices - Theory and Application.

https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electrical_Engineering/Electron
ics/Semiconductor_Devices_Theory_and_Application_(Fiore)/01%3A
_Semiconductor_Fundamentals

Schubert, E. F. (2006). Light-Emitting Diodes. Springer.

https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-00710-1

https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Diodes-1.png
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Utsho-A-
Arefin/publication/355483340/figure/fig2/AS:1082095246028800@16
35003019116/Transistor-pinout.jpg
https://energyeducation.ca/wiki/images/1/11/Photovoltaiceffect.png
https://www.electricalelibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/dentro-do-
led-1.jpg
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/wp-
content/uploads/2022/06/Photodiode-Symbol-Construction-Working-
Applications.png
https://cdn.automationforum.co/uploads/2023/03/Screen-Shot-2023-03-18-
at-9.20.27-AM.png

https://www.ntchip.com/UploadImg/Figure%202%20- %20Zener
%20diode%20Symbol.jpg

https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTLn_85JQ-VhCl-
sTOuAl7TXUIoFnqtOZ-TlawM8MYUYegsBJ2a

http://www.kynixsemiconductor.com/upload/image/20180317/63656897819
35765109522733.jpg

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https://chemistrypage.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Intrinsic-
Semiconductor.jpg
https://chemistrypage.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Intrinsic-
Semiconductor.jp
https://static.javatpoint.com/difference/images/difference-between-n-type-
and-p-type-semiconductors5.png

https://mdashf.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/doping-in-
semiconductors_httpswww-scienceabc-cominnovationwhat-are-
semiconductors-and-how-do-they-work-html-e1541615704809.jpg

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