2.1: Term and definition of Mukhadram.

The term is derived from the verb Khadrama, whose range of meanings

includes “To cut off the ear of a camel”, “To mix” and “To be wide or abundant”.

Some classical scholars have surmised the mukhadramun poets were thus named

because they had been cut off for disbelieving Islam (quti’a’an al-Kufrila al-Islam),

or because they had changed the method of cutting the ears of their camels. This

second explanation is related to a prophetic tradition (Hadith) in which Muhammad

S.A.S encouraged his followers to change the method of cutting the ears of their

camels to distinguish them from the non-Muslims. From this, some scholars

concluded that one who lived in both ears was a mukhadram because he knew both

ways of cutting (Li’anmahu adraka al-Khadramatayn). Other has suggested that the

semantic association of Khadrama with mixing implies that these individuals

merged two eras, the Jahili and the Islamic. Other link the term to the meaning

“wide, abundant” by nothing the extensive experience and old age of the

mukhadramun. Eleventh-century literary critic Ibn Rashiq quotes the grammarian

about al-Hasan al-Akhfash who relates the term mukhadram to abundant water

(Mukhidrim) explaining, “So, it follows that a man who has witnessed the Jahiliya

and Islam is called a Mukhadram, for he has fully experienced both periods”1

The term applied to persons living in the Jahiliyya and in the time of Islam. It

is derived from khadrama, ‘to cut the ear of one’s camel’, and signifies, according to

some lexicographers, ‘cut off from disbelief’: in literary classification, al-

mukhadramun constitute the generation of poets between the pagans (al-Jahiliyyun)

and the ‘Islamic poets’ (al-Islamiyyun). In their verses the development of Umayyad

38
poetry is anticipated in many respects. The designation was later extended to poets

of the second/eighth century, Mukhadramun al-Dawlatayn poets of the two dynasties

the Umayyads and the Abbasids.

Some classical scholar define the term mukhadram to include only those

poets whose composition were influenced by Islam, culminating those who did not

compose much after the rise of Islam, such as the poetess al-Khansa, For a

convincing argument that all poets who lived through both periods should be

considered mukhadramun.2 The term has been applied in particular to poets, al-

mukhadramun constituting the class of pagan poets who died after the proclamation

of Islam and embraced Islam. The meaning has been extended to poets living in the

Umayyad and the Abbasid period, who were refered to as mukhadramu’l-dawlatayn,

“poets of the two dynasties”. It is also a technical term in the science of Hadith,

where it signified a transmitter who accepted Islam but had not seen the Prophet

Muhammad S.A.S.3 The revelation of the Qur’an in seventh century western Arabia

set in motion a chain that radically altered the balance of political in the near east

and introduced a new faith to the family of monotheistic religions. There for, a class

of poets who live both the Pre-Islamic and the Islamic periods. Born and raised in

the Pre Islamic period (al-jahiliya), the Mukhadramun honed their poetic skills and

established their literary reputation in that distinctive cultured milieu. Following the

rise of Islam, the Mukhadramun responded to the new religion in a variety of ways.

Some greeted it with hostility and others with genuine acceptance.

39
2.2: The attitude of early Islam towards new poetry.

Verse was the register of the Arabs of the Pre-Islamic period and the tongue

of its clarification, which they (for example the Arabs) utilized expressively, when

the occurrence was seen by their faculties and when the equivalent was invigorated

in their souls from portrayal, sentiment, tribute, parody, epitaph, bragging and the

thing like this; and which portrayed their Bedouin life and strict conviction of icon

venerating. Their verse was the reflection of their sentiments and feelings of war and

fighting. The most ideal sorts of sonnets were those, which were made upon the

enormous number of relatives and the genealogical honorability.

Consequently in this free and enthusiastic traveling life the old verse was

conceived and developed. When the life changed with the incredible commotion

achieved by Islam the poetry additionally different. There showed up new

components in verse. Islam joined the entire nation into one fraternity, so the old

quarrels and disdain were changed into adoration. The clan fakhar became futile and

alongside the verse likewise different by and large.

Muhammad (PBUH) himself didn't cherish the artists. Their thoughtless

satisfaction in the day, their excessive bragging and magnification the clans, the

ideal of contention and endless extravagancy which they praised, were all

straightforwardly in opposition to his genuine soul. Due to this derogatory reference

has been made in the Holy Qur’an in relation to poets and poetry. As a matter of

fact, the word Shi’r “poetry” is mentioned in the Qur’an, in a verse which runs as

follows:

40
4
‫ان‬ ‫و‬ ‫ان ه إل ا‬ ‫و‬ ‫ا‬ ‫و‬

(i.e. we have not taught him poetry, nor is it met for his. It is nothing but a reminder

and a plain Qur’an)

As regard the words sha’ir “poet” and Ishu’are “poets” they occur in the following

verse:

5
‫ن‬ ‫ن‬ !" ‫ن و أ‬ " ‫ و اد‬%‫اء * "! ا وون ا ! ) ا أ "! (' آ‬ ‫ا‬

(i.e. And as to the poets, those who go astray follow them. Do you not see that they

wander about bewildered in every valley and that they say that which they do not

do).

It would seem that in order to shed more light on the real meaning of this

verse we have to recall-at least briefly, the general attitude of the Qur’an, and Islam

in general towards the poets and poetry at the time of Muhammad (S.A.S.). This

attitude was characterized by three main points:

First, the puritan tendency of the new religion was rather hostile towards the

poets chiefly because the latter indulged in physical beauty of women often in rather

licentious way.

Secondly, poets before Islam had dealt with most things connected with the

material and spiritual sides of their personal life and also of their tribe whereas

Muslims believed that preaching, philosophizing, moralizing and talking about all

important subjects of these kinds was too serious a matter to be treated, with

unbecoming levity, by poets accustomed to talk about anything and everything.

41
 The third and last trait which indicates the attitude of Islam towards poets

and poetry is the striving of Muhammad S.A.S. to draw the attention of the Arabs to

their inside world, to teach them introspection, to develop their individuality-

formerly absorbed by their tribes and to bring out, at the same time, their sense of

responsibility, for all their deeds, for all their speeches even for the minute words

they uttered. “Since I have been converted to Islam” said ‘Ubada bin al-Samit, the

Prophet’s companion, “allmy words have been tighty muzzled”.6

Therefore, neither the Prophet nor his companions hesitated to listen to

poems dealing with an important subject such as Hikma or Wisdom. Muhammad

(PBUH) actually admitted that:

7
‫ ا‬,- ‫ا ن‬ ‫ و إن‬. , ‫ا‬ ‫إن‬

(i.e. Eloquence might have the effect of magic and poetrymight contain wisdom)

He also admitted that “sooner camels would cease to yearn than the Arabs

wouldcease to cpmpose poetry”. He was once so absorbed in listening of the verse

of Umayya bin Abi-Salt, while riding on his journey, that the recite called al-Sharid

quoted one hundred lines of Umayya’s poetry.8

“Poetry” in the messenger’s view

9
‫م‬0 ‫ ا‬1 ‫ آ‬, ‫م و‬0 ‫ ا‬2,‫ آ‬23 ‫م‬0 ‫ ا‬. 4 5 ‫ا‬

(i.e. Poetry like any other form of speech might be good or bad)

42
 Muhammad (PBUH) and his companions used to enjoy its better specimen.

Once the Prophet gave order for the killing of Ka’b but he (i. e. Ka’b) composed the

famous Banat Su’ad for the Prophet, where he praised him in a verse:

10
‫ ل‬2 6‫ ف ا‬- 8" 5 ‫ ء‬9*2 ‫ر‬ ‫ ل‬- ‫إن ا‬

(i.e. Truly the Messenger is light whence illumination is sought a drawn Indian

sword from the swords of God).

The Prophet was so pleased that he not only protected his life but also threw

his Burda (mantle) on the poet Ka’b bin Zuhayr and gave it to him as a gift. Banat

Su’ad was composed by the poet to praise the Prophet and Islam. This reconciliation

of Islam with poetry which started during the life of the Prophet, has endured to the

present day. It appears from these examples that though the Prophet himself did not

compose any verse, yet he indicated his liking for the best verses. With the rise of

Islam the liking for the poetry became lesser gradually, and oratore occupied its

place, because oratory was more beneficial than poetry for the dissemination and

spreding of Islam. It was due to these circumstances that the blessed poet, Labid,

who was one of the mua’llaqat poets left composing poetry for good. Once the

caliph Omar expressed his desire to hear Labid’s poetry from him after the latter had

embraced Islam. Labid thereupon sent him some lines from the Surah al-Baqara

with the comment:

11
‫نا‬ ‫م‬0- ‫ ه;ا(' ا‬6‫ ' ا‬85‫ا‬

(i.e. In Islam Allah has bestowed on me this in place of poetry).

43
 The outstanding excellence of the Qur’an’s eloquence and miraculous genre

startled the non-believers to the extent that some of them called the holy Prophet a

magician or a fortune-teller and some accused him of having gone mad. But when

they came to understand that this (Qur’an) is far from being a men’s work or

composition and that no one in the word could come out with even a single Surah of

that caliber, they began to embrace Islam gradually. And from now-onwards they

took to learning the Qur’an by heart and its recitation in place of poetry. They also

began to ponder over the meaning of the Qur’an. Ibn Abbas used to say:

12
‫ب‬ ‫(= د ان ا‬ ‫(' ا‬ > ( 6‫آ* ? ا‬ . ‫ أ‬2 ) !‫إذا أ آ‬

(i.e. If you find it difficult to interpret a verse from the book of Allah, then look for it

in three poetry because it is the register of the Arabs).

The Caliph Umar used to incite people to commit the Jahiliya poetry to memory

and he used to urge:

13
. ‫أ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫أروْوا‬

(i.e. Narrate chaste poetry).

He issued the following order to people living in various provinces:

14
%B ‫ا‬ ‫ر‬- !‫ و رووه‬. -‫م و ا و‬ ‫ا أو دآ! ا‬

(i.e. Teach your children swimming, riding, proverbs and good poetry).

But the interest of the Muslims in poetry was confined to serve the above

mentioned purpose (i.e. for the sake of better and exact interpretation of the Qur’an

44
and Hadith) and therefore if some poet did cross the limits he was punished.

Previously it was not considered bad to mention noble women’s names in the

prelude of the qasida. Umar (May God bless him) stopped and outlawed this

practice. The defaulters were held liable to punishment. On the other hand the

attitude of the Prophet and his first four successors to poetry was far from hostile.

They denounced that part of it which had inciting, glorifying, hyperbolic or satirical

content. It is with reference to the poets who composed this kind of poetry that the

Qur’an said: “The misguided follow the poets.”There is ample evidence to show that

he and they liked good poetry. Ala bin al-Hadrami, the future conqueror of al-

Bahrain, visited the Prophet and the two had a long talk. After it, the latter asked the

former whether he could recite some poetry. ‘Ala’ answered in the affirmative and

recited the following verses:

% ‫ا‬F 8 ( '5 ‫ ا‬G* ,) !5 ?2) ‫ ن‬CD‫' ذوى ا‬3

%2) ( H 8, ‫ ا‬G ‫وان (* ا‬ )I ( ‫ ا‬23‫وان د‬

% ! ‫و ا ;ى ( ا وراءك‬ - G K ‫( ن ا ;ى‬

“Greet those who bear you illwill as warmly as you great your relations. You will

thus cure their illwill and captivate their hearts, for the shoe is mended by

patching.”

“And if they intrigue against you, do forgive them, and if they conceal their

backbiting from you, don’t ask them to let you know of it.”

“For an unkind word uttered in your presence hurts you, but if uttered in your

absence, them it is not uttered at all.”

45
 Thrilled by the verses, the Prophet exclaimed: “well done Ala! Some poetry,

indeed, contains gems of wisdom and some prose acts like magic.” 15Al-Khansa, the

famous elegiac poetess, was among her tribesmen when they visited the Prophet to

embrace Islam. With an air of vanity, they introduced her to him. The Prophet asked

her to recite her poetry. He found it so interesting that he said: “hihi ya khunas (go

on O Khansa) every time she paused after a recital.16 Jabir bin Samura says: “I have

been with the Prophet for over a hundred times in the company of his Companions at

the Mosque. They often exchanged poetic recitations and sometimes conversed on

Pre-Islamic topics while the Prophet listened and smiled with them.”17 During a

journey he is reported to have asked his companion, with whome he shared his

camel, to recite the deeply religious poetry of Umaiya bin Abi-Salt. The companion

recited some verses of the poet which thrilled the Prophet immensely. He asked for

more and continued to do so until as many as a hundred verses of the poet had been

recited. Then he remarked: “In his poetry Umaiya has almost become a Muslim.”18

About a dozen poets were attached to the Prophet. They championed the cause of

Islam and sometimes also praised him in simple and unexaggerated terms.

A tradition, emanating from the jurist al-Shabi (d. circa 103/721) declares

that all the first caliphs were poets, with ‘Ali the top.19 This tradition, if genuine, can

only mean that they composed one or a few verses amateurishly when an occasion

arose and were not professional poets. There is however, little doubt that like many

Arabs of means and culture, the first four caliphs found diversion in good poetry and

recited verses of other poets or their own to lend vigour and poignancy to their

46
words. By good poetry is meant that which was sober and commendable and did not

contain satire, hyperbole, glorification and incitement to war or dissension.

A military commander of the first caliph Abu Bakr sent an envoy to report a

victory and the latter, a chivalrous and gifted man, gave such an exciting account of

the victory that the Caliph was much impressed. He asked the envoy to let him know

his name. “Jandal”, said the man. Oh, what a wonderful Jandal! (wahan le Jandal)

exclaimed the Caliph and recited the following verse:

20
‫ا‬8 ‫وا‬ ‫و د) ا‬ L ‫ دت‬- ‫ م‬L N

The brave soul of Islam has won him chiefship and accustomed him to feats of

bravery and dash.

A number of anecdotes poiting to the interest taken by Umar, the second

caliph, in good poetry are on record. A delegation of the Ghatafan tribe, to a branch

of which belonged the famous mu’allaqa poet al-Nabigha, visited Umar. He asked

them who their best poet was. “You can judge better, Commander of the Faithful,”

they replied. “Who is the author of these verses?” asked Umar:

?‫ء ;ه‬ 6‫ وراءا‬N ‫و‬ . ‫ ر‬G ‫ ( ! أ) ك‬O 3

I swear by God, the most reliable witness (that I am innocent), thus leaving no

room for you to suspect me.

‫ ل ا ";ب‬P ‫ أى ا‬H Q ' ) R‫ أ‬S *2 5 O2 ‫و‬

You cannot keep up the friendship of a person if you do not connive at his faults and

can there be a man without fault?21

47
The delegation: “The verses are by al-Nabigha.” Umar: “And who is the author of

these?”

‫ ن‬U ‫' ا‬5 V) %P‫' و‬ '5 T R ‫ ر‬G* )‫أ‬

‫ ن‬W ‫ح‬ ‫ آ‬G ;‫آ‬ " W) ! . ‫ا‬O (

I came to you in rags and in fear, as you suspected my loyalty and innocence.

But I found that you have not betrayed the trust I reposed in you, as Noah would not

betray his.

The delegation: “The two verses belong to al-Nabigha.” Umar: “And who is the

author of the following?”

22
> 8Y % 8Y ‫;او‬3 >8 R‫;ا‬5 O2 ‫و‬

I am not going to set apart a portion of my food for tomorrow, for (I am certain) I

shall have a fresh quota next day.

The delegation: “Al-Nabigha is the author of his verse” Umar: Al-Nabigha is your

best poet.23

During his walks and journeys, Umar often diverted himself with poetry

either by reciting himself or by listening to the recitation of his companions. We

have already read his letters urging the narration and cultivation of good poetry. It is

reported that the third caliph Uthman, in a speech, deprecating him maligners,

recited the following verses hinting at ‘Ali, one of his principal critics:

(QZ ) ‫ ) ى‬O2 ( ? *Q‫ وا‬O ‫آ‬ 5‫ آ و أ‬8 )

48
24
ْ‫ ى‬O ‫ى ا آ‬8) ‫و‬ Q‫و‬ Q‫ أ‬G ‫دو‬ ْ ‫ ا‬9 ([ )

Burn and blaze like fire wherever you be but no one can cure you of your malady.

You will be soon far away and those competent will decide the matter and you will

not be asked to take part in the decision.

During the siege of his house by the malcontents, the Caliph is said to have

addressed a message to ‘Ali to come and turn away the malcontents. The message

ended with this verse of a Pre-Islamic poet:

25
‫ق‬4 ‫أ‬ ‫وا ( درد ' و‬ %‫ اآ‬O ‫أ‬ ( ‫ آ‬O‫( آ‬

If I am to be killed then kill me yourself or come to my rescue before I am torn into

places.

During the construction of the congregational mosque at Medina after

emigration, the Prophet and his companions did manual work by transporting bricks

to the mosque-site. Uthman, neatly dressed shook his hands each time he put down

his brick, checked his dress and brushed off dust. This provoked ‘Ali into

improvising the following rajaz:

‫ا‬8 ‫أب ( " ىْ و‬8 ‫ا‬8P 2 ‫ا‬ ‫* ى‬2

26
‫ا‬8ْ‫ ى‬3 ‫ا * ب‬ ‫ى‬ ‫و‬

One who builds the mosque and toils in it standing and sitting cannot be on a par

with one who is seen avoiding the dust.

49
This is an example of ‘Ali’s poetry when he was a young man of about twenty two

years. Here is another one belonging to the last years of his life as Caliph:

27
‫اد‬ G R ‫; ك‬ ' * 8 ‫ و‬3 8 ‫أر‬

I want to be kind to him, but he wants to kill me.

Could any one exonerate your friend from Murad?

There is, however no firm evidence that ‘Ali was a regular or gifted poet

though it might be conceded that he quoted other poets more often than his three

predecessors to render his words effective. In 37/657, when ‘Amr bin al-As, playing

a trick on ‘Ali’s representative at the arbitration (tahkim), declared Mu’awiya caliph,

‘Ali was much disturbed. In an impassioned speech he criticized his army

commanders for no listening to his advice to reject the arbitration offer. To press his

point, he recited this verse of a Pre-Islamic poet:

28
8 ‫' ا‬,C ‫ ا‬8Q ‫ا ا‬ *2 ! ( ‫جا ى‬ 5 ‫أ )"! أ ى‬

I gave them order at the bend of the winding sand, but they did not recognize its

truth before the forenoon of the morrow (when it was too late)

However, the first four caliphs did not patronize professional poets who

thrived on panegyric and satire. They did not want the Muslims to earn by poetry

and as far as we know, did not attach poets to their court. ‘Umar is said to have

reduced the annual stipend of a professional poet by five hundred dirhams (Rs 250)

and added them to that of Labid who had given up professional poetry.29 In 36/656

when ‘Ali was staying at al-Basra after the battle of al-Jamal, Ghalib brought his

50
young son al-Farazdaq, who later became a gross satirist, to the Caliph, and proudly

spoke of his son’s poetic talent. But instead of complimenting Ghalib or bearing his

son’s poetry, ‘Ali turned a cold face and bade him teach al-Farazdaq the Qur’an.30

2.3: Distinguished poets of Mukhadram:

The Mukhadram authors have what is going on among the authentic background of

Arabic composition, show a high and liberal excellent capacity and what is more

huge, their enduring stanza is in such broad measure as to source a sensible and

changed examination of their smooth craftsmanship feasible. In various ways, their

lives impression of those of their non-craftsman partners: all wandered to reevaluate

their characters and to expect huge parts in this new world. The apparent part of the

Mukhadram, regardless, is their course of exchange between old, new and saved

straight up until right now in their refrain assortment. There sonnet give an

extremely strong record of the in show between getting chronicled change and the

reaction liberated from people to such change. Some of them embraced Islam in

Medina while some embraced it after the victory of Mukkah. A few artists had a

place with both Pre-Islamic (500-622) and Islamic period (622-661). They arrived at

the highest point of their abstract virtuoso by creating sonnets and obtained

popularity, notoriety and fortune.

Here we shall deal at some length with many poets and poetess, namely, Hassan bin

Thabit(553-673 A D.). an Arabian poet who following his conversion to Islam, rose

to the status of the “poet laureate” of the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.S.), Ka’b bin

Zuhayr (d. 647 AD.) su’ad has Departed ode is one of the most notable examples of

odes praising the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.S.) called one of the most eloquent of

51
Arabic poems, it also serves as a historical document of the early Islamic periods

Ka’ab bin Malik (598-670/73) as a poet became a famous figure after he recited his

Burdah ode for Prophet Muhammad (S.A.S.), Abdullah bin Rawaha (580-629AD.),

Al-Huitai’ah (605-680AD.), Umaiyah bin Abi Salt (d.2/624), Labid bin Rabiah

(d.611AD.), Layla Al-Akhyaliya, Al-Asha (d.629AD.), Abu Mihjan Al-Thaqafi,

Nabighah Al-Zadi, Amr Ibn Ma’dikarib, Abu Zubair Al-Huzli, Shamakha Ibn

Zarara, Ma’an bin Aus, Abu zuib Huzli, Ibn Qais Al-Rukiyat, Abdullah Ibn Rawahat

al-Sahadi and specially Al-Khansa were the most prominent, enthusiastic and

constant defenders of Islam and its Holy Prophet.

References

1. Muhammad ibn Mukarram ibn Manzur, Lisan al-Arab, 12:185

2. Al-Hasan ibn Rashiq al-qayrawani, Kitab al-Umda fi Mahazin al-Shi’rwa-

Adabihi wa-naqdihi, 1:113

3. Cf. w.Marcais, Le Taqrib de En-Nawawi.

4. Qur’an, XXXVI, p. 69

5. Qur’an, XXXVI, p. 224

6. Jahiz, Al-Bayan al-Tabyin, Vol-I, p. 169

7. Berhan, January, 1958, p. 30

8. A.Kh. Kinany, The development of Ghazal in Arabic Literature, pp. 127-128

9. Burhan January, p. 30

10. Diwan K’ab bin Zuhayr, p. 23.

11. Burhan, January, p. 32

12. Ibid

52
13. Ibid, p. 33

14. Ibid.

15. Qutaiba, Uyun, Vol-II, p. 18, Kanz, Vol-II, p. 178

16. Khiznat al-Adab, Vol-I, p. 293

17. Kanz, Vol-II, p. 178, Isa’d, Vol-I, p. 372

18. Aghani, Vol-III, p. 192

19. Kanz, Vol-VI, p. 392

20. Tabari, Vol-IV, p. 11

21. K.A. Fariq, History of Arabic Literature, p. 108

22. Kanz, Vol-VI, p.392

23. Ibid, Vol-II, p. 176, Aghani, Vol-IX, pp. 169-70

24. I’.A. Hadid, Vol-II, p. 394

25. I’.A.Rabbih, Vol-III, p. 93, IbnQutaiba, Imama, Vol-I, p. 34

26. Ibn Rusta, p. 65

27. Ibn Sa’d, Vol-III, p. 34

28. Tabari, Vol-VI, p. 43

29. Kanz, Vol-II, p. 176

30. Aghani, Vol-XIX, p. 6

53