HYDROSPHERE & HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

“Total water present on the earth in solid,

liquid and gaseous form constitutes the
hydrosphere”
Hydrosphere
A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a
planet. The hydrosphere includes water that is on the
surface of the planet, underground, and in the air. A
planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice.
On Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the
form of oceans, lakes and rivers. It also exists below
ground—as groundwater, in wells and aquifers. Water
vapor is most visible as clouds and fog.

The frozen part of Earth's hydrosphere is made of

ice: glaciers, ice caps and icebergs. The frozen part of
the hydrosphere has its own name, the cryosphere.
 Hydrology
• Water distribution
–70% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water
–BUT 97.5% of this water is salt water
 Freshwater
Only 2.5% of the planet’s water is freshwater, and
only 1% of that exists on Earth’s surface
 1%=lakes, rivers
 20%=groundwater
 79%=ice caps and glaciers
 Estimated World Water Quantitites
96%

2% 1% Ocean-saline
1% Land - saline
Fresh - Liquid
Fresh - Frozen

For every Sq. cm. of earths surface there are 273 liters of water
 Properties of water

M.P. 0 0C
B.P. 100 0C
High Dipole Moment 1.84x10-3 esu
High Dielectric constant 80
Surface tension 73 dynes cm-1 at 20 0C
Viscosity 0.001 poise at 20 0C
Freezing point 0.001 0C at 20 0C

A diagram showing the partial

charges on the atoms in a
water molecule
Millions of molecules of water
make up 1 raindrop
 Amphoteric nature of water
Water acts as an acid with NH3 (ammonia) and as a base with H2S
(hydrogen sulfide). Water can act as an acid when it donates a
proton (H+) to ammonia (NH3), and it can act as a base when it
accepts a proton from hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

•Water as an acid with ammonia: Water acts as a Brønsted-Lowry acid when it

donates a proton to ammonia.
•Water as a base with hydrogen sulfide: When hydrogen sulfide is added to
water, it dissociates into H+, HS-, and S2- ions.
 Molecular Structure & Polarity
• Water is a "polar" molecule, meaning that there is an uneven
distribution of electrons resulting in a molecule with a both a
positively and negatively charged region.
• In other words, the electrons are not shared equally.

Covalent Bond
 O H H
Hydrogen bonding in water
H H O
Cohesion

• Due to water’s
polarity, water
molecules stick to
each other forming
hydrogen bonds!
Adhesion
• Due to polarity, water
sticks to other
surfaces as well
(unlike substances,
opposites attract).

Meniscus
Capillary action/Low Viscosity
• Due to polarity, water
is able to move
through small spaces,
against gravity.
• Cohesion and
adhesion are also
seen in this property.
• This helps move
water to the tops of
tall trees and through
veins in humans.
Surface tension
• Due to polarity,
hydrogen bonds form
at the surface of
water, forming an
“elastic film”.
• Things that are light
enough like water
bugs can live and
exist in an ecosystem
on top of the water.
Density
• Unlike most substances,
water becomes less
dense when it freezes.
• H bonds first condense
when water is cold but
then expands when
water freezes leaving air
pockets between the
water molecules.
• Ice floating acts as an
insulator to water in a
body of water so fish
don’t die in the winter.
 Density

• Most dense at 4oC

• Contracts until 4oC
• Expands from 4oC
•Cold water is more dense then hot water. to 0oC
•Cold water sinks (H bonds condense)
•Hot water floats (H bonds expand)
•Cause of currents in ocean; different life
found at bottom of ocean compared to top.
 Solubility/Universal Solvent
• Because of water’s polarity, it is a universal
solvent (can dissolve many things)
• Solute is the material being dissolved in a
solution.

Due to polarity, water’s opposite charges attract to the opposite

charged ions in salt.
 High Specific Heat Capacity
(Temperature Moderation)
• Water takes a long time to
heat up and cool down.
• This is because heat energy is
first used to break H bonds,
leaving less heat energy to
increase movement of the
molecules which is necessary
to increase temperature.
• This property helps maintain
homeostasis (body
temperature) and prevents
bodies of water form changing
drastically, effect life in it.
 This is called an Eigen cation,
with chemical formula H₉O₄⁺. I
believe it’s named after the
Nobel-prize-winning
chemist Manfred Eigen

Natural water contains mixture of following:

H216O H217O H218O
HD16O HD17O HD18O
D216O D217O D218O

Simple water H2O

Heavy water D2O [FP 3.8 0C, BP 101.4 0C, Density 1.1059 g/cc at 20 0C]

Super heavy water T2O MP +9 0C, BP 104 0C, Density 1.33 g/cc
 Components of Hydrosphere

•Oceans: Most of the water on the planet Earth is salt

water, and the vast majority of this salt water is held in the
oceans.
•Fresh water: Fresh water is much less abundant than salt
water, and is held in a variety of different places.
• Surface water: Surface sources of freshwater
include lakes, rivers, and streams.
• Ground water: Fresh water held beneath ground
makes up a small portion of the fresh water on Earth.
•Glacial water: Water that melts off of glaciers.
•Atmospheric water vapour
Composition

Surface water: The surface water like ponds, lakes,

streams and rivers are not linked one another. These have
their separate chemical entities which are, however, not
much different. Surface water contains anionic contents like
carbonate, sulfate and calcium. Average chemical
composition of river and lake water in % weight is as:

CO32- 35.5 NO3- 0.9 K+ 2.1

SO42- 12.1 SiO2 11.7 (Fe/Al)2O3 2.7

Cl- 5.7 Ca2+ 20.4 Mg2+ 3.4

Sea water:
Rich in chloride and cation sodium. On the
whole sea water contains ~2000 times more
dissolved salts then fresh water. Chemically
sea water is a solution of 0.5M NaCl and
0.5M MgSO4 plus traces of all conceivable
matter in the universe. Ocean water is more
or less mixed. Major constituents of sea
water are almost the same over the globe
although the salinity is variable from place
to place. The pH of sea water is in the range
of 8.1-8.2.
Common ingredients in sea water:
1. Electrolytes
-Na, Cl and Mg constitute 90% of the matter in sea water.
-K, Ca and S (SO42-) is about 3%.
-Other elements are 7%.

The composition of the ocean is usually expressed in terms of “salinity (S)”.

Following table presents the contribution to salinity due to various inorganic
salt. The salinity of all ocean or sea is about 35%, however, it may drop to 34.5%
due to heavy rainfall.

Salt Salinity (%)

NaCl 23
MgCl2 5
Na2SO4 4
CaCl2 1
KCl 0.7
Others 1.3
Total 35

Salinity: Total amount of solid material dissolved in 1 Kg of sea water when

alii CO3- has been converted to oxide, all iodide & bromides have been
replaced by clorides and organic matter has been completely oxidized.
2. Gases:
In addition to above, sea water contains number of dissolved gases like O2,
N2 and CO, noble gases and also traces of NH3, CH4 and H2.
3. Nutrients:
Mostly contains dissolved phosphates and nitrates. Normally the N:P ratio of
sea water stands constant at 16:1. This is due to phytoplankton and marine
plants.
4. Bio-materials:
Carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, lipids, enzymes and vitamins are
present in sea water.
5. Suspended matter:
It is usually small compared to dissolved constituents. It may be biotic or
abiotic e.g. biological debris, cell fragments, bio-skeleton, pollen grains.
Abiotic components are mainly minerals like kaolite (Al2Si2O3(OH)4), talc
(3MgO.4SiO2.H2O), quartz (SiO2) etc.
6. Radio isotops:
Both natural and artificial radioactive materials are present. Most important
are K-40 (90%), Rb-87 (1%), U-238, Th-230, Ra-226.
Oceans
•There are five Oceans namely:
1. Pacific Ocean 2. Atlantic Ocean 3. Indian Ocean 4. Arctic Ocean & 5.
Southern Ocean
The Earth System interacts with the Hydrosphere in the following ways:
 Hydrologic Cycle

• Water exists on the earth in all its three

states, viz. liquid, solid, gaseous and in
various degrees of motion.
 Matter Recycling in Ecosystems
• Law of Conservation of Matter: matter is
neither created nor destroyed.
– Just moved around and transformed.

• Biogeochemical cycles: the movement of

chemicals through the components of the
Earth system.
– These components are also called
“biogeochemical reservoirs”.
28
components of the Earth SYSTEM

• Lithosphere: the solid Earth; land

components of the Earth SYSTEM
• Lithosphere: the solid Earth; land
• Hydrosphere: the liquid Earth; water
components of the Earth SYSTEM
• Lithosphere: the solid Earth; land
• Hydrosphere: the liquid Earth; water
• Atmosphere: the gaseous Earth; air
components of the Earth SYSTEM

• Lithosphere: the solid Earth; land

• Hydrosphere: the liquid Earth; water
• Atmosphere: the gaseous Earth; air
• Biosphere: living things (organisms)and the
parts of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere in which things live
components of the Earth SYSTEM

• Lithosphere: the solid Earth; land

• Hydrosphere: the liquid Earth; water
• Atmosphere: the gaseous Earth; air
• Organisms: living things
• Cryosphere: frozen or solid water such as ice
caps, glaciers, snow and permafrost
 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

• Hydrologic cycle
– Cycling of water in and out of atmosphere
and between all the earth’s components.
– All of the water on our planet is recycled
and a given molecule of water is used over
and over throughout time.
– Water is the primary medium by which
energy and matter move are circulated
through the Earth system components.
34
0.007%
The Water Cycle
 The hydrologic cycle
• Water enters the atmosphere by evaporation and by transpiration from
leaves.

• It condenses and falls from the atmosphere as precipitation.

• When water falls as precipitation on land, it has two possible pathways:

1. Returns to the hydrosphere by flowing as runoff from the land surface

into streams, rivers, lakes, and eventually the ocean.

2. Returns to the lithosphere by infiltration into the ground becoming soil

water or ground water.
Hail
Hail Hail Precipitation
Hail
Hail Hail -
Any form of
water that falls
to Earth from
the atmosphere
fog fog
fog fog
fog fog
 Water appears in all 3 of its phases at
different times during the hydrologic cycle
1. Solid
• Ice, hail, snow, glaciers, ice caps etc.
2. Liquid
• Water droplets, including clouds, lakes, streams
etc.
3. Gas
• Water vapor
Water Vapor
Water Condensation
 FIVE PROCESSES OF THE HYDROLOGIC
CYClE
1. Precipitation: Any form of water falling from the atmosphere to the
ground.
2. Condensation: The process of changing from a gas to a liquid
3. Evapotranspiration:
– Evaporation: the transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as
it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying
atmosphere.
• The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation

– Transpiration: the release of water vapor from plants into the

atmosphere.
• Evaporation + transpiration = Evapotranspiration
 Infiltration and run-off
4. Run-off: variety of ways water moves across the land
 Snowmelt: run off from melting of snow on mountain
tops
 Water can flow to rivers, lakes, reservoirs, oceans or
infiltrate into soil
5. Infiltration: flow of water from surface into the ground
 Once in ground can become soil water or ground water
 Hydrologic Cycle Powered By:

• Gravity Solar Energy

(precipitation)
(e vaporation)

A fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is

that it has no beginning an it has no end.
So, where does water go when it
falls on earth?
• about 74% lost to evaporation
• 32% run-off
• small percent infiltrates into
groundwater
Remaining goes to stream flow, Approximate breakup is:
• 8% for irrigation
• 2% for domestic
• 4% for industrial
• 12% for electrical utilities
LE 3-16

Food for thought…

Where does the hydrological cycle
begin and end? Atmosphere
13,000

Evaporation Precipitation
71,000 111,000 Ice caps, glaciers,
425,000 and snowfields
33,000,000
Precipitation
385,000 Evaporation
Rivers Transpiration
Extraction
Runoff
40,000
Land plants

Human use Uptake Infiltration

<11,000 Water
table
Extraction Soil water 122,000
Oceans
1,350,000,000
Aquifer
Groundwater
15,300,000
 Average reservoir residence times

Reservoir Average residence time

Antarctica 20,000 years
Oceans 3,200 years
Glaciers 20 to 100 years
Seasonal snow cover 2 to 6 months
Soil moisture 1 to 2 months
Groundwater: shallow 100 to 200 years
Groundwater: deep 10,000 years
Lakes (see lake retention time) 50 to 100 years
Rivers 2 to 6 months
Atmosphere 9 days
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE &
CLIMATE
Climate Concepts: rise or sink
• Warm air rises
– Open the oven, you feel the heat on
your face
• Cold air sinks
– Open the freezer, you feel the cold at
your feet
Precipitation
 Warm moist air
 Warm weather
 Cooling of air above mountain
[Warm & Moist air]
 Warmer Equal Air Cooler
Air Temp Air

Cooler Warmer
Air Air
Equal Air
Temp

Statically unstable Statically neutral Statically stable

http://science.howstuffworks.com/hot-air-balloon.htm
 Climate Concepts: rise or sink

• When air rises, it cools

– Top of mountain is cooler than the base of the
mountain.
• When air sinks, it warms
– The base of the mountain is warmer than the
top of the mountain.
 Climate Concepts: warm or cold

• Warm air holds more water

• Cold air holds less water
 Climate Concepts: water in air

• As air rises, it cools

• Cooler air holds less water vapor.
• If it gets even cooler, then it rains
• RISING AIRRAIN
 Climate Concepts: water in air

• As air descends, it dries

• warmer air holds more water vapor.
• As air dries, it is less likely to rain
• DESCENDING AIRDRY
 Climate Concepts: water in air

• The temperature to which the air had to

cool to become totally saturated is
called:
• Dew point: the temperature at which
the relative humidity = 100%
 Dew Point

• The temperature at which dew (condensation) begins to

form
• Dew is the water you find on your grass or car early in the
morning.
• Frost is when water is deposited as small ice crystals.
• Frozen dew is liquid dew that freezes.
• If the temperature reaches the dew point temperature, then
dew (or frost) will form.
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/id
m3020/tut_folder/nick_tutorial/
 Climate Concepts: Review

• Warm air holds (more or less?) water

vapor; cold air holds (more or less?)
water vapor.
• As air cools down, the chance of rain
increases or decreases?
• As air rises, the chance of rain increases
or decreases?
 What causes Precipitation?

Rain = moisture + cooled down air

No Rain = low moisture and/or heated up

air
The Water Cycle and Climate Change

Water is always on the move. Rain

falling today may have been water in a
distant ocean days before. And the
water you see in a river or stream may
have been snow on a high mountaintop.
Water is in the atmosphere, on the
land, in the ocean, and underground.
It moves from place to place through
the water cycle, which is changing as
climate changes. Below are examples of
some changes that are happening as
global temperatures rise.
Climate change affects evaporation and precipitation.
• Climate change is likely causing parts of the water cycle to
speed up as warming global temperatures increase the rate of
evaporation worldwide.
• More evaporation is causing more precipitation, on average.
We are already seeing impacts of higher evaporation and
precipitation rates, and the impacts are expected to increase
over this century as climate warms.
• Higher evaporation and precipitation rates are not evenly
distributed around the world. Some areas may experience
heavier than normal precipitation, and other areas may become
prone to droughts, as the traditional locations of rain belts
and deserts shift in response to a changing climate.
• Some climate models predict that coastal regions will become
wetter and the middle of continents will become drier. Also,
some models forecast more evaporation and rainfall over
oceans, but not necessarily over land.
• Warmer temperatures associated with climate change and
increased carbon dioxide levels may speed plant growth in
regions with ample moisture and nutrients. This could lead to
increased transpiration, the release of water vapor into the
air by plants as a result of photosynthesis.
Climate change impacts the water cycle in many ways,
Impacts of climate change on the water
including:
•Evaporation:
cycle Rising temperatures increase the rate of
evaporation, which dries out the soil and makes it less
permeable.
•Precipitation: Warmer oceans cause more water to
evaporate into the air, which can lead to more intense
precipitation like heavier rain and snow.
•Sea level rise: Melting ice caps can cause sea levels to
rise.
•Floods: More extreme weather events, like floods, can
occur due to global warming.
•Droughts: Areas away from storm tracks are likely to
experience less precipitation and increased risk of
drought.
•Groundwater: Increasing evapotranspiration can limit the
amount of water that reaches the soil profile and
replenishes groundwater.
Retreat of the glacier Waggonwaybreen at Magdalenfjord on Svalbard.
Sahara Desert receiving unexpected rainfall. How is the
rare event unfolding?

Rare rainfall transforms Sahara Desert in Morocco, creating

blue lagoons amid the sand dunes
TIMES OF INDIA.COM/ Created : Oct 9, 2024, 10:00 IST
 Hydrologic cycle & climate

Solar radiation is most intense at the equator for two

reasons:
1) the sun’s rays are concentrated in a smaller area
2) the sun moves through less atmosphere
 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE & CLIMATE
CHANGE
Scientists have measured an intensification of the
hydrological cycle due to global warming:
 Globally, the average atmospheric water vapor concentrations
have increased.
 It is predicted that this will lead to increased precipitation rates
in some areas.
 The largest increases in precipitation are expected to occur near
polar regions, for two reasons.
 One, observations and climate models indicate that the warming rate
has been and will continue to be the highest there, and warmer air can
hold more water vapor.
Two, the warming will reduce the extent of sea ice , thereby allowing
more evaporation from open water.
Cycles of wet and dry periods are normal, however,
When the hydrological cycle is out of balance (or intensified due
to climate change), these can lead to more extreme flooding and
drought cycles
It refers to the volume of water required to fulfill various human activities and sustain ecologica
requirements.
Understanding Water Demand
In engineering, we define water demand as the total volume of water
required for various purposes, encompassing both human activities and
ecological needs. This fundamental concept is central in planning,
allocating, and managing water resources efficiently and sustainably.

Components of water demand

Pertains to the quantity of water

used by households for daily
Residential water demand
activities such as drinking, cooking,
bathing, and washing
Relates to water usage in
Industrial and commercial water
manufacturing processes,
demand
businesses, and institutions.
Represents the water needed for
Agricultural water demand irrigation, livestock, and crop
production.
 Water Demand Calculations

Population-based calculations
Per capita water demand (PCWD) – This formula calculates the
average water demand per person, typically expressed in gallons per
person per day (GPCD) or liters per person per day (LPCD). It
provides a baseline for residential water demand.
PCWD (GPCD) = Total water use (gallons) / Population / 365
PCWD (LPCD) = Total water use (liters) / Population / 365

Agricultural water demand

Crop water requirement – This calculation estimates the
water needs of crops, a critical component of irrigation
planning. Factors considered include crop
type, evapotranspiration rates, and cultivation area.
Industrial water demand
Water intensity – This formula calculates the amount of
water required per unit of production, often expressed as
gallons per unit or liters per unit.
Water intensity (gallons per unit) = Total water use
(gallons) / Total units of production
Water intensity (liters per unit) = Total water use (liters) /
Total units of production
Our civil engineers, environmental consultants, and
water resource managers use these calculations to
ensure a reliable and sustainable water supply while
considering social, economic, and environmental factors.
Factors Influencing Water Demand
1. Population growth
The increasing population, as we’ve observed at Cypress, puts upward
pressure on water demand as more people require water for drinking,
sanitation, and daily activities. Effective water resource management must
consider population growth projections when planning for future water needs.
2. Urbanization
Urbanization is a significant driver of increased water demand. As more
people move to urban areas, the need for water supply, sanitation, and
industrial activities escalates. Urban planning must incorporate strategies for
efficient water use in this context.
3. Climate and weather patterns
Climate and weather conditions greatly influence water demand. Droughts
and prolonged dry spells can intensify water demand for irrigation, while
heavy rainfall can create surges in urban water use for flood control and
drainage.
4. Socioeconomic factors
Socioeconomic factors, such as income levels and living standards, play a
role in water demand. Higher-income communities may use more water for
lawns and leisure activities. Understanding these social dynamics aids in
tailored water demand management.
Water Demand Management Strategies
Effective water demand management is crucial to safeguard
our limited water resources, adapt to changing climate
conditions, and achieve cost savings. It involves a range of
strategies aimed at reducing water consumption and improving
efficiency. Here’s an overview of these strategies:
1.Water conservation – Encourage water-saving behaviors and
the use of efficient fixtures in homes and businesses.
2.Leak detection and repair – Regularly monitor and fix leaks in
water distribution systems to reduce water losses.
3.Smart irrigation practices – Utilize technology like soil
moisture sensors and weather-based controllers for efficient
landscape irrigation.
4.Wastewater reuse – Treat and reuse treated wastewater for
non-potable purposes like irrigation and industrial processes.
1.Water-efficient landscaping – Design landscapes with
native plants and efficient irrigation to minimize outdoor
water usage.
2.Industrial and commercial practices – Promote water-
efficient processes and technologies in industries and
businesses.
3.Improved agricultural practices – Implement precision
irrigation and crop selection aligned with local water
resources.
4.Pricing and tariffs – Utilize tiered pricing structures to
incentivize responsible water consumption.
5.Rainwater harvesting – Collect rainwater for non-potable
uses, reducing reliance on municipal water supplies.
6.Legal and regulatory measures – Enact and enforce laws
and regulations that promote water conservation and
 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE SUMMARY
Cycling of water in and out of the atmosphere and
between all the earth’s components.
Water evaporates from the surface of the earth, rises and cools,
condenses into rain or snow and falls again to the surface. The water
falling on land collects in rivers and lakes, soil, and porous layers of
rock, and much of it flows back into the ocean.

Plays an important role in

 determining climatic patterns
 plant growth
 heat energy transfer
 erosion rates
 rates of rock weathering
Human Impacts on Hydrosphere
In recent history humans have drastically changed the hydrosphere.
Water pollution, river damming, wetland drainage, climate change,
and irrigation have all changed the
hydrosphere. Eutrophication caused by the release of fertilizers and
sewage into water storage areas has caused aquatic environments
to be artificially enriched with nutrients. The excessive algal blooms
can result in harmful hypoxic conditions in the water. Acid rain
from SOx and NOx emissions from fossil fuel combustion has
resulted in the acidification of components of the hydrosphere,
harming surrounding ecosystems.
Finally, when humans change the natural flow of water in the
hydrosphere by diverting and damming rivers it harms surrounding
ecosystems that rely on the water source. This can also result in the
drying out of some aquatic areas and excessive amounts of
sediment entering streams and rivers.
Hydrologic cycle & climate

90°N
60°N
30°N Tropics
Equator are
30°S hot
60°S
90°S
Hydrologic cycle & climate

90°N
60°N
30°N
Equator Hot air
30°S rises
60°S
90°S
Hydrologic cycle & climate

90°N
60°N
30°N
Air cools as
Equator it rises; sinks
30°S 30°N and S
60°S
90°S
Hydrologic cycle & climate

90°N
60°N
30°N Each convection
Equator cell is called a
30°S Hadley Cell
60°S
90°S
Hadley cells
Hydrologic cycle & climate
90°N
60°N
Descending
30°N
air at
Equator
30°N & S is
30°S warm
60°S and dry
90°S
 30th Degree Latitude Deserts

30th degree N & S are areas of sinking air / areas of high pressure