Chapter-1: Vector Analysis

Scalars
Scalars have magnitude only.
They are specified by a number with a unit ( 100 C ) and obey the rules of arithmetic and ordinary
algebra.
Examples: mass, temperature, charge, electric potential, work, energy etc.

Vectors
Vectors have both magnitude and direction (5m, north) and obey the rules of vector algebra.
Examples: displacement, velocity, force, momentum, torque, electric field, magnetic field etc
In diagrams, vector is denoted by arrow: the length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of
the vector, and the arrowhead indicates its direction.
 
In texts, we shall denote a vector by putting an arrow over the letter ( A, B , and so on).
 
The magnitude of a vector A is written A or more simply A .
Negative of a vector:
  
Minus A ( A ) is a vector with the same magnitude as A but of opposite direction [Figure 1.1].


A

A

Figure 1.1

Four Vector Operations

1) Addition of Two Vectors

    
 Place the tail of B at the head of A ; the sum, A+B , is the vector from the tail of A

to the head of B .

B 
B

A     
A+B A B A
  Triangle Law of Vector Addition
If two sides of a triangle taken in the same order represent the two vectors in
magnitude and direction, then the third side in the opposite order represents the
resultant of two vectors.

B

A
 
A+B

 Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a
parallelogram drawn from a point, then their resultant is given in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.

  
C Q  R  P+Q  P2 +Q2 +2PQcosθ
  
R=P+Q Qsinθ
 tanβ =
P+Qcosθ


P

   
 Addition is commutative: A+B = B  A
     
   
Addition is associative: A+B +C = A  B  C 
2) Multiplication by a Scalar
 Multiplication of a vector by a positive scalar a multiples the magnitude but leaves
the direction unchanged.( If a is negative, the direction is reversed)


2A

A

   
  
Scalar multiplication is distributive: a A+B = aA  aB
3) Dot Product (Scalar Product) of Two Vectors
 The dot product of two vectors is defined by
   
A B  AB cos   a scalar  W  F S 
 

where θ is the angle they form when placed tail-to-tail (Figure D-1).


A


B

Figure D-1
   
 The dot product is commutative: A B  B A
      
  
The dot product is distributive: A B  C  A B  AC
   
 Geometrically, A B is the product of B times the projection of A along B .
 
 A B  B( A cos  ) 
 
 
 If the two vectors are parallel, then A B  AB .
 
If two vectors are perpendicular, then A B  0.

 For any vector E ,
 
EE  E 2
 
 E  EE
Example 1:
  
Let C  A  B (Figure D-2), and Solution:
 
calculate C C      
 
C C  A  B  A  B 
        
 C  A A  A B  B A  B B
A
 C 2  A2  B 2  2 AB cos 

 This is the law of cosines.

B

Figure D-2
4) Cross Product (Vector Product) of Two Vectors

 The cross product of two vectors is defined by

   
A  B  AB sin nˆ  a vector    r  F 

 
where n̂ is a unit vector pointing perpendicular to the plane of A and B .

The direction of n̂ is determined by using right-hand rule: let your fingers point in
the direction of the first vector and curl around (via the smaller angle) toward the
second; then your thumb indicates the direction of n̂ .
   
In Figure V-1, A  B points into the page; B  A points out of the page.

Figure V-1
   
 The cross product is not commutative: A  B  B  A
      
  
The cross product is distributive: A  B  C  A  B  A  C
 Geometrically,
   
A  B gives the area of the parallelogram generated by A and B (Figure V-1).
 
 If the two vectors are parallel, then A  B  0 .
 
If two vectors are perpendicular, then A  B  AB.
Vector Algebra: Component Form

Let iˆ, ˆj, and kˆ be unit vectors parallel to x, y, and z axes respectively (Figure VA  1 ).

Figure VA  1
 
Vectors A and B can be expressed in terms of basis vectors iˆ, ˆj, and kˆ :
 
A  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ and B  Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ

1) Addition of Two Vectors

 
A  B  ( Ax  Bx )iˆ  ( Ay  By ) ˆj  ( Az  Bz ) kˆ
2) Multiplication by a Scalar

aA  (aAx )iˆ  (aAy ) ˆj  (aAz )kˆ
3) Dot Product of Two Vectors
 
A B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz  iˆiˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆkˆ  1 ; iˆ ˆj  ˆj kˆ  kˆiˆ  0 
 

For any vector A : A  Ax 2  Ay 2  Az 2

4) Cross Product of Two Vectors

A  B  ( Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ)  ( Bxiˆ  By ˆj  Bz kˆ)
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

 ( Ay Bz  Az By ) iˆ  ( Az Bx  Ax Bz ) ˆj  ( Ax By  Ay Bx ) kˆ

iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0 
 
iˆ  ˆj  kˆ, ˆj  kˆ  iˆ, kˆ  iˆ  ˆj 
 
 ˆj  iˆ  kˆ, kˆ  ˆj  iˆ, iˆ  kˆ   ˆj 
Triple products
  
Scalar triple product: A( B  C )
  
 For a parallelepiped generated by A, B and C .


A

C

B

    
A( B  C )  B  C  A cos  
 Area of the base of parallelepiped  Altitude of the parallelepiped
  
=Volume of the parallelepiped generated by A, B and C
     
 Geometrically, A( B  C ) is the volume of the parallelepiped generated by A, B and C .

        
 A( B  C )  B(C  A)  C ( A  B)
 In component form,
Ax A y A z
  
A( B  C )  Bx B y B z
Cx C y C z

 The dot and cross can be interchanged:

     
A( B  C )  ( A  B)C

  
Vector triple product: A  ( B  C )

 The vector triple product can be simplified by the BAC-CAB rule:

        
A( B  C )  B( AC )  C ( A B)
Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors

Position Vector:

 The location of a point in three dimensions can be described by listing its Cartesian
coordinates ( x, y, z ) .

 ˆ ˆ
Position Vector: r =xi  yj  zkˆ

  r = x2  y 2  z 2   x2  y 2  z 2  2
r 
r xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ
 r̂ = 
r x2  y 2  z 2

Infinitesimal Displacement Vector

 The infinitesimal displacement vector, from ( x, y, z) to (( x  dx, y  dy, z  dz ) , is


dl  dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzkˆ

Separation Vector

 In electrodynamics we frequently encounter problems involving two points  typically, a

 
source point, r  , where an electric charge is located, and a field point, r , at which we are
calculating the electric or magnetic field (Figure S-1).


r

r


r

Figure S-1

The separation vector from the source point to the field point is
 
r  (r-r)
 ( x  x)iˆ  ( y  y) ˆj  ( z  z )kˆ
The Operator 

 The vector differential operator del (nabla), defined in Cartesian coordinates as

  
  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ .
x y z

Of course, del is not a vector, in the usual sense. Indeed, it is without specific meaning until
we provide it with a function to act upon.

 There are three ways the operator  can act:

1. On a scalar function T : T (the gradient) ;

 
2. On a vector function v , via the dot product:  v ( the divergence) ;
 
3. On a vector function v , via the cross product:  v ( the curl) .

Gradient

Suppose that we have a function of three variables  say, the temperature T ( x, y, z ) in a room.
A theorem on partial derivatives states that
 T   T   T 
dT    dx    dy    dz …………….. (G-1)
 x   y   z 
This tells us how T changes when we alter all three variables by the infinitesimal amount dx, dy, dz.

Equation G-1 can be written as

 T ˆ T ˆ T 
dT  
 x
i
y
j
z 

kˆ   dx iˆ  dy ˆj  dz kˆ 

 
  T   dl
T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
where T  i j k is the gradient of T.
x y z
Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient:
 
 
dT   T   dl  T dl cos  ,

where  is the angle between T and dl .

Now, if we fix the magnitude dl and search around in various directions, the maximum change in T

evidently occurs when   0 (for then cos  1) . That is, for a fixed distance dl , dT is greatest when we
move in the same direction as T . Thus:

The gradient T points in the direction of maximum increase of the function T .

Moreover:

The magnitude T gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal direction.
Example 1
Suppose that the temperature T at the point ( x, y, z ) is given by the equation
T  x  y  xyz  273. In which direction is the temperature increasing most rapidly at  1, 2,3
2 2

and at what rate?

Solution:
Here, T  x2  y 2  xyz  273

T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
T  i j k
x y z
  
  x 2  y 2  xyz  273 iˆ   x 2  y 2  xyz  273 ˆj   x 2  y 2  xyz  273 kˆ
x y z
  2 x  yz  iˆ   2 y  xz  ˆj   xy  kˆ
 4iˆ  7 ˆj  2kˆ at  1, 2,3
The increase in temperature is fastest in the direction of this vector.

The rate of increase is T   4   7    2  69

2 2 2

Note:

Gravitational Potential Energy near the Earth

U  mgz
where z is the height from some arbitrary reference level.
U ˆ U ˆ U ˆ
 U  i j k
x y z
  
  mgz  iˆ   mgz  ˆj   mgz  kˆ
x y z
 mgkˆ

 Gravitational force, F= mgkˆ    mg  kˆ  U

So, the maximum change in gravitational potential energy is vertically upwards the centre
of Earth.

Gradient of a scalar field T

T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ
T  i j k
x y z
 Grad =  , turns a scalar field into a vector field.
 T points in the direction of maximum increase of T .
 T is the rate of maximum increase.
The Divergence

 The divergence of a vector function v :
 
div v =  v  a scalar
   


=  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ   v xiˆ  v y ˆj  v z kˆ
 x y z 

v v v
= x y z
x y z

 Geometrical Interpretation:
  
The divergence of a vector function v ,   v is a measure of how much the vector v
spreads out (diverges) from the point in question.

For example,
The vector function in Figure D1 - a has a large positive divergence.

Figure D1 - a

The vector function in Figure D1 - b has zero divergence.

Figure D1 - b
  Imagine standing at the edge of a pond. Sprinkle some sawdust or pine needles on the
surface. If the material spreads out, then you dropped it at a point of positive divergence; if
it collects together, you dropped it at a point of negative divergence.

(The vector function v in this model is the velocity of water.)

 A point of positive divergence is a source, or “faucet”; a point of negative divergence is a

sink, or “drain”.

 If at some point P,
 
  v > 0, then v has a source at P.
 
  v < 0, then v has a sink at P.
 
  v = 0, then v is said to be solenoidal.

Example:

(1) Calculate the divergence of vector function v  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ.
Solution:
 v v y v z
v = x  
x y z
  
=  x    y   z
x y z
= 1+1+1
=3
 
(2) If A  x2 ziˆ  2 y3 z 2 ˆj  xy 2 zkˆ, find   A at point 1, 1,1 .
Solution:
   
  A =  x 2 z    2 y 3 z 2    xy 2 z 
x y z
=2xz  6y 2 z 2  xy 2
 2 11  6  1 1  1 1 2 at 1, 1,1
2 2

= 2  6 +1
= 3
The Curl

 The curl of a vector function v :
 
curl v =  v  a vector
   


=  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ   v xiˆ  v y ˆj  v z kˆ
 x y z 

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
=
x y z
vx v y vz
 v v y  v
ˆj  v z  v x   kˆ  y  v x 
 iˆ  z  
 y z   x z   x y 

 Geometrical Interpretation:
  
The curl of a vector function v ,  v is a measure of how much the vector v “curls
around” the point in question.

For example,
The vector function in Figure C  1 has a substantial curl, pointing in the z-direction, as the
natural right-hand rule would suggest.

Figure C  1

 Imagine you are standing at the edge of a pond. Float a small paddlewheel (a cork with
toothpicks pointing out radially would do); if it starts to rotate, then you placed it at a point

of nonzero curl. (The vector function v in this model is the velocity of water.)

A whirlpool would be a region of large curl.

 
 If  v = 0 , then v is irrotational.
Example:

1. Calculate curl of the vector function v  xjˆ  yiˆ.
Solution:

  v     xjˆ  yiˆ 

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
=
x y z
y x 0
        
 iˆ   0    x    ˆj   0     y    kˆ   x     y  
 y z   x z   x y 
 iˆ  0  ˆj  0  0  kˆ 1   1 
 2kˆ
 
2. If A  xz 3iˆ  2 x 2 yzjˆ  2 yz 4 kˆ, find  A at point 1, 1,1 .
Solution:


  v     xz 3iˆ  2 x 2 yzjˆ  2 yz 4 kˆ 
 
iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
=
x y z
xz 3 2 x yz 2 yz 4
2

        
 iˆ   2 yz 4    2 x 2 yz    ˆj   2 yz 4    xz 3    kˆ   2 x 2 yz    xz 3  
 y z   x z   x y 
 iˆ  2 z  2 x y   ˆj 0  3xz   kˆ  4 xyz  0
4 2 2

  2 z 4  2 x 2 y  iˆ  3xz 2 ˆj  4 xyzkˆ

  2 1  2 1  1  iˆ  3 11 ˆj  4 1 11 kˆ at 1, 1,1

4 2 2
 
=3jˆ + 4kˆ
Second derivatives

By applying  twice we can construct five species of second derivatives.

The gradient T is a vector.

1. Divergence of gradient:   T   a scalar

2. Curl of gradient:   T   a vector

The divergence   v is a scalar.

3. Gradient of divergence:    v   a vector

The curl  v is a vector.

4. Divergence of curl:    v   a scalar

5. Curl of curl:    v   a vector

Laplacian

 Laplacian Operator:    2

 The Laplacian of a scalar T is a scalar.

 2T  2T  2T
The Laplacian of T :    T    2T  2  2  2
x y z

 The Laplacian of a vector v is a vector.
 
The Laplacian of v : 2 v   2 v x  iˆ   2 v y  ˆj   2 v z  kˆ

   
The Laplacian of v : 2 v =    v     v 
 Summary

 Gradient
 Grad =  ,
T ˆ T ˆ T
T  iˆ j k [ T = a scalar function]
x y z
 T is a vector quantity.
 The gradient T points in the direction of maximum increase of the
function T .

r    
x 2  y 2  z 2  rˆ

1 rˆ r
    2   3
r r r

(r )  nr rˆ  nr n2 r
n n 1

 The Divergence:
 div =  ,
 v v v
v  x  y  z
x y z

   v is a scalar.
 
   v is a measure of how much the vector v spreads out from the point
in question.
2
  r̂  .
r

 The Curl:
 Curl =   ,
iˆ ˆj kˆ
     v v y  ˆ  v z v x  ˆ  v y v x 
 v   iˆ  z   j  k  
x y z  y z   x z   x y 
vx v y vz
 
  v is a measure of how much the vector v “curls around” the point
in question.

rˆ r
   0 .
r2 r3

Laplacian
 2T  2T  2T
 The Laplacian of T :  T  2  2  2
2

x y z
 2
 The Laplacian of v :  v    v x  iˆ   2 v y  ˆj   2 v z  kˆ
2
 Problems

(1) Calculate the gradient of the function f ( x, y, z )  e x sin y ln z .

Solution:
f f f
f  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
x y z
  
 iˆ  e x sin y ln z   ˆj  e x sin y ln z   kˆ  e x sin y ln z 
x y z
 1
 e
sin y ln z  iˆ   e x cos y ln z  ˆj   e x sin y  kˆ
x

 z

(2) Let r be the position vector and r be its length. Show that

1 rˆ r
(a)      2   3 .
r r r
n2 
(b) r  nr r  nr n1rˆ .
n

Solution:
1   
(a)     iˆ  r 1   ˆj  r 1   kˆ  r 1 
r x y z
 r   r   r 
 iˆ (1)r 2   ˆj (1)r 2   kˆ (1)r 2 
 x   y   z 
 r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2 
  x  ˆj (1)r 2  y    kˆ (1)r 2  z    
 iˆ (1)r 2    
  r 

  r 
 
  r 
  r  x 
 x r 


 xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ 
r3

1 r rˆ
     3   2
r r r

r n = iˆ
 n
    r 
r   ˆj  r n   kˆ  r n   iˆ  nr n 1   ˆj  nr n 1 r   kˆ  nr n 1 r 
(b)
x y z x   y   z 
 
 r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2 
  x  ˆj  nr n 1  y    kˆ  nr n 1  z    
 iˆ  nr n 1    
  r 

  r 
 
  r 
  r  x 
 x r 

 nr n 1
 xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ 
r
n2  n 1
 r  nr
n
r  nr rˆ
 
(3) Calculate the divergence of vector function v  xyz ( xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ).
Solution:
 v v v
v = x  y  z
x y z
  
=  x 2 yz    xy2 z    xyz 2 
x y z
= 2xyz+2xyz+2xyz
= 6xyz
 2
(4) If r is the position vector, then show that   r̂  .
r
Solution:

r 1  1 
  r =      r       r
ˆ
r r r
1    
=  3   ( 1) r 1 2 r   r    r  3; r n  nr n  2 r 
r
3 1  
=   r  r  r 2 
r r
2

r


(5) Calculate the divergence and curl of the vector function v  y 2iˆ   2 xy  z 2  ˆj  2 yzkˆ.
Solution:

 v v v
(a)   v = x  y  z
x y z
  
=  y2    2 xy z 2    2 yz 
x y z
= 0+2x+2y
= 2(x+y)


(b)   v     y 2iˆ   2 xy  z 2  ˆj  2 yzkˆ 

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
=
x y z
y2 2 xy  z 2 2 yz
        
 iˆ   2 yz    2 xy  z 2    ˆj   2 yz    y 2    kˆ   2 xy  z 2    y 2  
 y z   x z   x y 
 iˆ  2 z  2 z   ˆj  0  0  kˆ  2 y  2 y 
0
(6) Calculate the Laplacian of the following functions:

(a) Ta  sin x sin y sin z (b) Tb  e5 x sin 4 y cos3z (c) v  x2iˆ  3xz 2 ˆj  2 xzkˆ

Solution:

 2Ta  2Ta  2Ta

(a) 2Ta   2  2
x 2 y z
2 2 2
=  sin x sin y sin z    sin x sin y sin z    sin x sin y sin z 
x 2 y 2 z 2
=  sin x sin y sin z  sin x sin y sin z  sin x sin y sin z
=  3sin x sin y sin z

 2Tb  2Tb  2Tb

(b) 2Tb   
x 2 y 2 z 2
 2 5 x  2 5 x  2 5 x
=
x 2
 e sin 4 y cos 3 z  
y 2
 e sin 4 y cos 3 z  
z 2
 e sin 4 y cos 3z 
=25e5 x sin 4 y cos 3 z  16e 5 x sin 4 y cos 3 z  9e 5 x sin 4 y cos 3z
=0


(c) 2 v    v  iˆ   v  ˆj   v  kˆ
2
x
2
y
2
z

=   x   iˆ    3 xz   ˆj    2 xz   kˆ

2 2 2 2 2

 2 2 2 2 2 2  ˆ  2 2 2 
=  2  x   2  x   2  x   i   2  3 xz   2  3 xz   2  3 xz 2   ˆj
2 2

 x y z   x y z 
 2
 2
 2

  2  2 xz   2  2 xz   2  2 xz   kˆ
 x y z 
  2  0  0  ˆi+  0  0  6x  ˆj   0  0  0  kˆ
ˆ ˆ
 2i+6xj
 The curl of a gradient is always zero:   T   0

Hint:

iˆ ˆj kˆ
     2T  2T  ˆj   T   T   kˆ   T   T   0
2 2 2 2
   T    iˆ   
x y z  yz zy   xz zx   xy yx 
T T T
x y z
  2T  2T 
 
 xy yx 
 


 The divergence of a curl is always zero:     v   0

Hint:
iˆ ˆj kˆ
     v v  v
ˆj  v z  v x   kˆ  y  v x 
  v   iˆ  z  y  
x y z  y z   x z   x y 
vx vy vz

        v v  ˆ  v z v x  ˆ  v y v x 
    v  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ   iˆ  z  y
 j   k  
 x y z    y z
  x z   x y 
  v v y    v z v x    v y v x 
=  z       
x  y z  y  x z  z  x y 
   v z    v z  
=0     
 x  y  y  x  
Integral Calculus

a) Line Integrals:
 
 If F is a vector, a line integral of F is written
b  
  dl ,
a
F
C

where C is the curve along which the integration is performed, a and b the initial

and final points on the curve, and dl is the infinitesimal displacement vector along
the curve C .
 The line integral is a scalar.
 
 Line integral over a closed curve:  F  dl
 
C

 Example of a line integral: The work done by a force F : W   F  dl
 
 For conservative force:   F  dl  0

b) Surface Integrals:
 
 If F is a vector, a surface integral of F is written
 
  da ,
F
S

where S is the surface over which the integration is to be performed, and da is an
infinitesimal patch of area, with direction perpendicular to the surface.
  
 Example: The flux of E through a surface S :  E   E  da
S
 
 Surface integral over a closed surface:   S F  da
  
 If v describes the flow of a fluid (mass per unit area per unit time), then  v  da
represents the total mass per unit time passing through the surface [or flux].

c) Volume Integrals:
 A volume integral is an expression of the form
 T d
V
where T is a scalar function and d is an infinitesimal volume element.

 Total charge q : q    d where  is the volume charge density.

V
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Suppose f ( x) is a function of one variable.
The fundamental theorem of calculus states:
b df
a dx dx  f (b)  f (a) . …………………(F-1)

 df 
Here,   dx is the infinitesimal change in f when you go form ( x) to ( x  dx) .
 dx 
The fundamental theorem (F-1) says that there are two ways to determine the total change in
the function: either subtract the values at the ends or go step-by-step, adding up all the
tiny increments as you go. You’ll get the same answer either way.

Figure F-A

The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients

Suppose we have a scalar function of three variables f ( x, y, z ) .
The total change in f in going from a to b is

 
b
 a
f  dl  f (b)  f (a)

Geometrical Interpretation:
Suppose you want to determine the height of the Eiffel Tower. You could climb the stairs,
using a ruler to measure the rise at each step, and adding them all up, or you could
place altimeters at the top and the bottom, and subtract the two readings; you should get
the same answer either way (that’s the fundamental theorem)


a  f   dl is independent of path taken from a to b .
b
Corollary 1:

Corollary 2:  f   dl  0
The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences [Gauss’s Theorem]
The fundamental theorem for divergences states that:
  
   v  d   v  da
V S
................(F 2)

Geometrical Interpretation:
 
If v represents the flow of an incompressible fluid, then the flux of v (the right side of
Eq.(F-2) ) is the total amount of fluid passing out through the surface, per unit time. Now,
the divergence measures the “spreading out” of the vectors from a point – a place of high
divergence is like a “faucet,” pouring out liquid. If we have lots of faucets in a region filled
with incompressible fluid, an equal amount of liquid will be forced out through the
boundaries of the region.

  faucets within the volume    flow out through the surface 

The Fundamental Theorem for Curls [Stoke’s Theorem]
The fundamental theorem for curls states that:
   
 (
S
 v)  da    dl
v
P
................(F 3)

Geometrical Interpretation:

The curl measures the “twist” of the vectors v ; a region of high curl is a whirlpool  if
you put a tiny paddle wheel there, it will rotate. Now, the integral of the curl over some
surface represents the “total amount of swirl,” and we can determine that swirl just as well
by going around the edge and finding how much the flow is following the boundary (Figure
F-B).

Figure F-B Figure F-C

You may find this a rather forced interpretation of Stokes’ theorem, but it’s a helpful
mnemonic, if nothing else.

For a closed surface da points in the direction of the outward normal; but for an open

surface, the direction of da is given by right-hand rule: If your fingers point in the direction

of the line integral, then your thumb fixes the direction of da (Figure-F-C)

 
   v   da depends only on the boundary line, not on the particular surface
b
Corollary 1:
a
used.
 
  v   da  0 for any closed surface, since the boundary line, like the
Corollary 2: 
mouth of a balloon, shrinks down to a point, and hence the right side of
Eq. (F-3) vanishes.
Spherical Polar Coordinates

The spherical polar coordinates (r , ,  ) of a point are defined in Figure S-A.

Figure S-A

r  the distance from the origin (the magnitude of the position vector)
  the polar angle (the angle down from the z axis)
  the azimuthal angle (the angle around from the x axis)
Figure S-A also shows unit vectors, rˆ,ˆ, ˆ , pointing in the direction of increase of the corresponding
coordinates. They constitute an orthogonal basis set just like (iˆ, ˆj, kˆ) .

For a vector A :

A  Ar rˆ  Aˆ  Aˆ

where Ar , A , and A are the radial, polar, and azimuthal components of A .

Figure S-1 Figure S-2 Figure S-3

An infinitesimal An infinitesimal An infinitesimal

displacement in displacement in displacement in
the r̂ direction: dlr  dr the ˆ direction: dl  rd the ˆ direction: dl  r sin  d
The general infinitesimal The infinitesimal The surface element:
displacement vector: volume element:

dl  dlr rˆ  dlˆ  dlˆ d  r 2 sin  dr d d da  r 2 sin  d d

 dr rˆ  r d ˆ  r sin d ˆ

r  0 to    0 to    0 to 2

Example S-A:
Find the volume of a sphere of radius of R.

Solution:
V   d

  r 2 sin  dr d d

 
r 0
R
r 2 dr  
 0

sin  d   d 
2

 0

R  3
    2  2 
 3 
4
  R3
3
Potentials:
 
[1] If the curl of a vector field ( F ) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be written as the
gradient of a scalar potential (V):
 
 F  0  F  V

The minus sign is purely conventional.

Curl-less (or “irrotational”) fields:

The following conditions are equivalent:


  F  0 everywhere.
b  
 a F  dl is independent of path, for any given end points.
 
  F  dl  0 for any closed loop.

 F is the gradient of some scalar, F  V

 
[2] If the divergence of a vector field ( F ) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be expressed as

the curl of a vector potentials ( A ):
  
 F  0  F   A

Divergence-less (or “solenoidal”) fields:

The following conditions are equivalent:


   F  0 everywhere.
 
   da is independent of surface, for any given boundary line.
F

  F  da  0 for any closed loop.
 
 F is the curl of some vector, F   A .


In all cases (whatever its curl and divergence may be) a vector field F can be written as the
gradient of a scalar plus the curl of a vector:
 
F  V   A (always).
 Summary
PRODUCT OF VECTORS
 
Scalar Product: A B  AB cos
 
Vector Product: A  B  AB sin nˆ

Ax A y A z
        
Scalar Triple Product: A( B  C )  B(C  A)  C ( A  B)  Bx B y Bz
Cx C y C z
        
Vector Triple Product: A( B  C )  B( AC )  C ( A B)

VECTOR DERIVATIVES
Cartesian

The Infinitesimal displacement vector: dl  dxiˆ  dyjˆ  dzkˆ

T ˆ T ˆ T
Gradient: T  iˆ j k
x y z

 v v v
Divergence: v  x  y  z
x y z

iˆ ˆj kˆ
     v v y  v
ˆj  v z  v x   kˆ  y  v x 
Curl:  v   iˆ  z  
x y z  y z   x z   x y 
vx vy vz

 2T  2T  2T
Laplacian:  2T   
x 2 y 2 z 2

2 v   2 v x  iˆ   2 v y  ˆj   2 v z  kˆ

Spherical

The Infinitesimal displacement vector: dl  dr rˆ  r d ˆ  r sin d ˆ

An element of surface area on the sphere of radius R: da  R 2 sin  d d

f 1 f ˆ 1 f ˆ
Gradient: f  r̂   
r r  r sin 
VECTOR IDENTITIES

Product Rules
1) ( fg )  f (g )  g (f )
  
2)  ( fA)  f ( A)  (f )  A
     
3)  (A  B)  B  ( A)  A  ( B)
    
4)  ( fA)  f ( A)  (f )  A = f ( A)  A  (f )

Second Derivatives

5)   ( A)  0
6)  (f )  0
  
7)  ( A)  ( A)  2 A

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS
b 
Gradient Theorem: a
(f )  dl  f (b)  f (a)

  
Divergence Theorem:  (  v) d   v  da
V S
[Gauss’s Theorem]

   
Curl Theorem:  ( v)  da   v  dl
S P
[Stokes’ Theorem

Notes:
 Divergence of gradient:   T   2T  a scalar
 Curl of gradient:   T   a vector

 Gradient of divergence:     v   a vector

 Divergence of curl:    v   a scalar

 Curl of curl:    v   a vector

 
 F  0  F is solenoidal
    
  F  0 &    G  F can be written as curl of a vector  F    G 
  
 F  0  F is irrotational
  
 F  0 &   T   0  F can be written as gradient of a scalar function  F  T 
Notes:

 Which one of the following properties of a vector F does not allow us to get the identity,
 
 
  F  2 F ?

[a] F is solenoidal .

[b]   F is a non-zero constant.

[c] F is expressible to the curl of another vector.

[d] F is expressible to the gradient of some scalar function.
  
Hints: [d]    
   F     F   2 F 
 
 ˆ
 The vector function v  yziˆ  zxjˆ  xyk is solenoidal as well as irrotational.
 
Hints:  v = 0 and  v = 0 .
    
 In two vectors V1   F and V2   , V1 is solenoidal and V2 is irrotational.


rˆ r
 ( 2 )  ( 3 )  0
r r
 
 A vector field A is conservative if A  

2  r xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ 

   rˆ   rˆ =  
r  r x2  y 2  z 2 


r 2  x2  y 2  z 2
 2 

x
 r    x2  y 2  z 2 
x
 r
 r2   2x
r x
r
 2r  2x
x
r x
 
x r
 Do Yourself
Chapter 1: Vector Analysis

1. If the curl of a vector function is zero, then the vector function can be expressed as
[a] the gradient of a scalar function.
[b] the curl of some other vector function.
[c]the divergence of some other vector field.
[d] the gradient of another vector function.

2. The vector function v  yziˆ  zxjˆ  xykˆ is
[a] solenoidal but not irrotational. [b] irrotational but not solenoidal.
[c] solenoidal as well as irrotational. [d] neither solenoidal nor irrotational.

3. The Laplacian of the vector function v  x 2 yiˆ  ( x 2  y)kˆ is
[a] zero [b] 2 yiˆ  2kˆ [c] 2( y  1) [d] 2 yiˆ

4. The Laplacian of the function v  xy 2iˆ  yz 2 ˆj  zx 2 kˆ is
[a] 6 [b] 2iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ [c] 2 x  2 y  2 z [d] 2 xiˆ  2 yjˆ  2 zkˆ
5. Which of the following statements is NOT CORRECT?
[a]The gradient T points in the direction of maximum increase of the function T .
[b]The curl of a gradient is always zero.
[c]The divergence of a curl is always zero.
[d]The curl of a curl is always zero.
6. Which one of the following statements is NOT CORRECT?
[a] the divergence of gradient is a scalar. [b] the gradient of divergence is a vector.
[c] the Laplacian of a vector is a scalar. [d] the curl of curl is a vector.
7. The Laplacian of the function T  x( x  2 y)  3z  4 is
[a] 2iˆ [b] 2 [c] 2(2 x  y)  3 [d] 2( x  y)iˆ  2 xjˆ  3kˆ
 
8. If F1  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ and F2  yziˆ  zxjˆ  xykˆ , then
   
[a]   F1  0 and   F2  0 [b]   F1  0 and  F2  0
   
[c]  F1  0 and   F2  0 [d]  F1  0 and  F2  0
 
9. If A and B are two vectors, then which of the following expression does not have any
physical meaning?
       

[a]  A  B  
[b]   A  B  
[c]  A  B  
[d]  A  B

10. A vector field A is conservative if
   
[a]  A  0 [b]  A  0 [c] A   [d]  A  1

11. Which one of the following properties of a vector F does not allow us to get the identity,
 
 
  F  2 F ?

[a] F is solenoidal .

[b]   F is a non-zero constant.

[c] F is expressible to the curl of another vector.

[d] F is expressible to the gradient of some scalar function.
 
12. The divergence of the vector function F  xe xiˆ  yjˆ  xzkˆ is
[a] ( x  1)(1  e x ) [b] (1  x)(1  e x ) [c] (1  x)(1  e x ) [d] (1  x)(e x  1)
 
13. Given that F and G are vector fields and f is a scalar field, which of the following
statement is NOT TRUE?
   
[a]   ( F )  0 [b]  ( G)  ( G)  2G
     
[c]  (f )  0 [d]  ( F  G)  G  ( F )  F  ( G)

14. If the curl of a vector field ( F ) vanishes (everywhere), then which one of the following
conditions is NOT CORRECT?
 
 F  dl  0 for any closed loop
[a] 
b  
[b]  F  dl is independent of path, for any given end points
a
 
[c] F is the gradient of some scalar, F  V

[d]   F  0 , everywhere

Fill in the blanks.

1. The gradient of the function f  sin x  cos x ……

2. The gradient of the function t  x 2 y  e z at the point p(1,5, 2) is ……….

3. The divergence of the vector function D  e x sin yiˆ  e x cos yjˆ is …….

4. The curl of the vector function A  ( y cos ax )iˆ  ( y  e x )kˆ is ……
5. The Laplacian of the function T  sin x sin y sin z is ……..

6. The Laplacian of the function v  xy 2iˆ  yz 2 ˆj  zx 2 kˆ is ……..
7. For a function T  e5 x sin 4 y cos3z ,  T is……..
  k̂ 
8. For a position vector r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ ,     is ……..
r 

9. The curl of curl of a vector function v = -x 2 kˆ is ……….
 1 
10. If r is the position vector, then r = …,    = …,  r = ….,   r̂ = ….. ,
r
r̂
(r n )  …, (ln r ) =………., and   2 =……
r
 1 
 
11. If A  0nI  zjˆ  ykˆ , then  A  ……….
2

12. The divergence of a vector v  xyz ( xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ) is ………..
 
13. If F  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ , then F can be written as ………
14. If the divergence of a vector function is zero, then the vector function can be expressed
as.………..
    
15. In two vectors V1   F and V2   , V1 is ………………… and V2 is ………………
16. The fundamental theorem for divergences states that: …………..
The fundamental theorem for curls [Stokes’ theorem] states that……..