Module: Comparative Literature

Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
Lecture 1: Introduction to Comparative Literature

Objectives:
1. Develop Cross-Cultural Understanding
2. Enhance Critical Thinking and Analytical Skills
3. Understand Literature Beyond National Boundaries
4. Integrate Interdisciplinary Approaches
5. Gain Proficiency in Multiple Languages and Literatures
6. Foster Empathy and Global Awareness
7. Explore Universal Themes in Literature

Introduction
Throughout history, both ancient and modern approaches have been developed to
study literature and culture. These approaches have interpreted literature through various
lenses, including literary theory, linguistics, and aesthetics. Since the 19th century,
comparative literature has become a prominent method of literary analysis, complemented by
perspectives from sociology, psychology, structuralism, and other disciplines. These diverse
methods have contributed to the emergence of new literary forms and insights. As a result,
comparative literature has offered fresh ways of understanding literature's shape and meaning.
In this exploration, we aim to delve deeper into this evolving field.

1. Beginning of Comparative Literature

The formal development of Comparative Literature as a discipline began in the early 19th
century in Europe, particularly in France and Germany. Scholars of comparative literature
believe that the term was first introduced in the collection Course de littérature comparée
published in 1816 in France, and its use in Germany dates back to 1854. In this same period,
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe introduced the concept of Weltliteratur (World Literature),
advocating for the reading and study of literature beyond national boundaries. Goethe
recognized that literature from different cultures could share universal human themes while
reflecting distinct cultural contexts, thus laying the foundation for comparative literature.

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
Mathew Arnold, in 1818, later contributed to the development of comparative literature in
the English-speaking world by promoting the comparative study of literature. While Arnold's
contributions were significant, Goethe’s Weltliteratur concept is considered the earlier and
more foundational introduction to the comparative approach.

Comparative literature initially focused on studying how one national literature influenced
another, especially through translation, imitation, and adaptation. Scholars explored the
relationships between classical Greek, Roman, and later French and English literatures,
examining how these traditions shaped each other, which made early comparative studies
quite Eurocentric.

During this time, departments of comparative literature were established at universities,

lectures were given, and discussions and debates were organized, further defining the field. It
was not seen as a literary movement but rather as a method of studying more than one literary
tradition at once. However, despite its growing institutional presence, the discipline faced
criticism. In 1903, Benedetto Croce rejected comparative studies as an independent field,
claiming there was no fundamental difference between pure literary history and comparative
literature. Similarly, in the 1920s, Layne Cooper dismissed the term “comparative literature”
as a "bogus term" lacking sense or syntax.

While the discipline faced early skepticism, its core idea—the comparison of literature
across cultural and national boundaries—continued to evolve. Over time, the conclusions
drawn from the field helped clarify its nature, focusing not just on how one literature
influenced another, but also on how cross-cultural exchanges and universal themes could be
identified and explored across diverse literary traditions.

1.1 Definition and Objective:

Comparative Literature is an academic discipline that transcends the boundaries of a

single nation’s literature, analyzing texts from various linguistic, cultural, and historical
contexts. It seeks to explore relationships between literary works from different traditions in
terms of themes, forms, and aesthetics. According to Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
“Comparative Literature helps us understand "the necessity of linking together different
literatures with respect for their histories and with consideration of what makes their
difference" (Spivak 47). In this sense, Comparative Literature is not merely about finding
commonalities but also about appreciating the unique qualities of each text or tradition.

Paul Van Tiegem defines the objective of Comparative Literature as the study of
diverse literatures in relation to one another. Similarly, Guyard views it as “the history of
international literary relations.” J.M. Carre describes it as “a branch of literary history” that
examines spiritual international relations, emphasizing the influence that writers from
different literary traditions have on one another. Anna Saitta Revignas considers Comparative
Literature “a modern science” focused on the reciprocal influences between various
literatures. Sandra Bermann aptly notes that “Comparative Literature juxtaposes literary texts
from different languages and cultures, connecting, for example, a poem with dance, a film
with a novel, or photography with an essay.”

Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek expands on this by stating that Comparative Literature

requires knowledge of more than one national language and literature and, often, the
application of other disciplines to the study of literature. He also highlights Comparative
Literature’s inclusive nature, bringing attention to marginalized literatures (Comparative
Literature: Theory, Method, Application, 1998).

The rise of national awareness and consciousness, especially in the post-colonial

world, has contributed to the global development of Comparative Literature. While the field
has faced a period of decline in some Western countries, it has been employed constructively
in places like Brazil, China, India, and many African nations. These countries have used
Comparative Literature to explore both indigenous and foreign literary traditions. In The
Empire Writes Back, the emergence of cross-cultural criticism is described as “post-colonial,”
yet, as Susan Bassnett points out, this is essentially Comparative Literature under another
name (Bassnett 10).

Throughout history, numerous critical thinkers—from Plato and Aristotle to Goethe,

Arnold, Voltaire, Dante, and others—have paved the way for the comparative study of

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
literatures. These figures have helped establish a window into the broader field of
Comparative Literature, which continues to evolve today.

2. Nationalism and the Rise of Comparative Literature

The relationship between national identity and comparative literature is rooted in the
political and cultural dynamics of Europe during the 19th century. Comparative literature
emerged as an intellectual discipline during a period when nationalism was intensifying
across the continent. Nationalism, at this time, was a driving force behind the political
agendas of various European nations, often leading to conflicts and wars as each nation
sought to assert its superiority and sovereignty. Comparative literature, by contrast, evolved as
a counterpoint to the exclusivity of national literatures, encouraging a more transnational
approach to cultural and literary study.

Nationalism in Europe, particularly in the 19th century, promoted the distinctiveness and
unique identity of each nation. National literatures became an expression of this identity,
showcasing the cultural achievements, history, and values of the nation. For instance, in both
France and Germany, nationalistic fervor was particularly strong, especially during conflicts
such as the Napoleonic Wars and the Franco-Prussian War. French and German intellectuals
promoted their national literatures as supreme cultural achievements, reinforcing national
pride. German thinkers like Johann Gottfried Herder emphasized the importance of national
identity through literature by promoting the concept of the Volksgeist (the national spirit).
However, against this rising nationalism, intellectuals such as Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe proposed an alternative approach to literary studies. Goethe’s concept of Weltliteratur
(world literature) in the early 19th century advocated for a global perspective on literature,
one that transcended national borders. Goethe admired literature from diverse cultures,
including Persian poetry by Hafez and Chinese and Indian literature, recognizing that these
works offered valuable insights into human experience that were not limited to any one
national identity. Goethe’s vision of world literature challenged the nationalist idea that
literature should exclusively serve the nation and instead encouraged literary exchange and
understanding across cultures.

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
2.1 The Tension Between National and Comparative Approaches

While national literature celebrated the uniqueness of a particular culture, comparative

literature promoted an outward-looking perspective that sought to connect different literary
traditions. This tension between the national and the comparative reflects broader ideological
divides in Europe at the time. Politically, nationalism was driving nations toward conflict, but
intellectually, scholars were beginning to recognize the importance of understanding the
broader, shared human experience across borders.

Madame de Staël, a prominent French writer and intellectual, is another key figure
who embodied this tension. In her work De l’Allemagne (On Germany), she introduced
French readers to German literature and philosophy, highlighting the richness of German
intellectual traditions at a time when France and Germany were political rivals. De Staël’s
advocacy for intellectual exchange through literature challenged the nationalist focus on
cultural superiority and insularity. Her work demonstrated how comparative literature could
foster greater understanding between nations, even when political tensions ran high.

Scholars of comparative literature were not rejecting national identity altogether but
were advocating for a more nuanced understanding of how different national literatures could
inform and enrich one another. Comparative literature emphasized the idea that literature
could serve as a bridge between cultures, fostering empathy and unity in a time of increasing
national partisanship.

2.2 Transcending Boundaries in a Time of War

The rise of nationalism in Europe culminated in violent conflicts, most notably the two
World Wars. In these periods of turmoil, the significance of comparative literature became
even more pronounced. While political discourse was dominated by ideas of national
superiority and division, comparative literature offered a vision of unity and shared humanity.
It allowed people to move beyond the political rhetoric of the time and engage with other
cultures on a deeper, more personal level.

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
The Russian literary scene provides an excellent example of this interplay between
nationalism and comparative literature. While Russian writers like Ivan Turgenev and Fyodor
Dostoevsky dealt with distinctly Russian themes, such as serfdom, social reform, and
Orthodox Christianity, they also drew heavily from Western European literary traditions.
Turgenev, for instance, spent considerable time in France and Germany, and his novel Fathers
and Sons reflects the influence of German philosophy and French realism, blending these
ideas with Russian concerns. Similarly, Dostoevsky, though focused on Russian moral
dilemmas, was influenced by European thinkers like Schiller and Dickens. Both writers
exemplified how comparative literature allows national concerns to be enriched by
transnational ideas, illustrating that national identity and broader literary exchange need not
be mutually exclusive.

Moreover, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, intellectuals could move relatively
freely across national borders, particularly within Europe. This facilitated cross-cultural
exchanges, such as the founding of Acta Comparationis Litterarum Universarum, the first
journal dedicated to comparative literature, by Hungarian scholar Hugo Meltzl in 1877.
Meltzl’s journal, published in multiple languages, emphasized the importance of studying
world literature to foster understanding between nations. In an era when nationalism was
reinforcing borders, Meltzl’s work promoted an alternative vision of intellectual collaboration
and cultural transcendence.

2.3 World War I and the Appeal for Cross-Cultural Understanding

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 marked one of the most intense periods of
nationalist fervor in European history. During the war, national literature often served as a
tool for promoting national propaganda, with writers emphasizing the unique virtues and
sufferings of their respective nations. In Britain, for example, poets like Wilfred Owen and
Siegfried Sassoon wrote about the horrors of war from a distinctly British perspective, while
German poets like Rainer Maria Rilke explored similar themes from the German viewpoint.
Literature became a reflection of the national trauma and pride that each country experienced
during the war.

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
Despite the intense nationalism of the war years, comparative literature continued to
advocate for cross-cultural understanding. In the aftermath of the war, there was a renewed
interest in comparative studies as a way to promote peace and empathy between nations.
Writers and scholars began to argue that reading and studying the literature of other nations
could foster greater understanding and help to heal the wounds caused by the conflict. Paul
Valéry, a French poet and essayist, called for a “European consciousness” that transcended
national divisions, emphasizing the importance of cultural unity in the wake of the war’s
devastation.

3. The Schools of Comparative Literature

Throughout its history, comparative literature has transformed from a primarily
Eurocentric discipline to a global field. It now examines literary and cultural phenomena from
a wide range of perspectives, reflecting the complexity and diversity of global literary
production and cultural exchange.

3.1 The French School

The French School of Comparative Literature, which emerged in the 19th century,
emphasized historical and cultural contexts in its literary analyses, focusing primarily on
identifying and tracing literary influences across national boundaries. A key concept of this
school was the study of "rapports de fait" (factual relationships), which involved analyzing
how literary works shaped and influenced one another over time and space. Scholars such as
Paul Van Tieghem and Fernand Baldensperger were instrumental in advancing this approach,
and the establishment of the Revue de Littérature Comparée in 1921 further cemented the
school’s focus on European, particularly Western European, literary traditions. This approach
sought to highlight universal human themes, assuming that great works of literature transcend
their specific cultural and linguistic origins. For instance, a comparison between Gustave
Flaubert’s Madame Bovary and Leo Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina would examine how Flaubert’s
depiction of Emma Bovary’s tragic love and societal constraints might have influenced
Tolstoy’s portrayal of Anna’s similar plight. Such comparisons reveal the thematic
universality in European literature, especially regarding the exploration of women’s struggles
against societal norms.

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
Despite its contributions, the French School has faced criticism for being overly
Eurocentric and for emphasizing Western literary traditions at the expense of others. Its focus
on classical European texts often limited its scope, neglecting the richness of literary
traditions from other regions of the world. Nonetheless, its method of tracing influence and
source studies has shaped the field of comparative literature by seeking to uncover the
interconnectedness of literary works and universal themes across national boundaries.

3.2 The German School

The German School of Comparative Literature, shaped by Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe’s concept of Weltliteratur (world literature), approached the field from a more
philosophical and theoretical perspective compared to the French School. Rather than
focusing on direct literary influences, the German tradition was concerned with the universal
nature of literature, emphasizing that literature, as an expression of the human spirit,
transcends national boundaries. This approach posits that literature reflects common human
concerns, and through comparative study, scholars can uncover universal themes shared
across diverse cultures. Figures like Thomas Mann, whose novel Joseph and His Brothers
(1933-1943) reimagines the biblical story of Joseph, exemplify this tradition. In Mann’s work,
German scholars might explore how he transformed ancient Middle Eastern narratives into a
modern European epic while addressing philosophical themes such as destiny, leadership, and
morality. This reflects the German School’s interest in creating dialogues between ancient and
modern storytelling traditions, highlighting the broader human experience.

The German School's methodology, deeply rooted in intellectual history

(Geistesgeschichte), is often more abstract, focusing on how literature reflects the
philosophical and ideological movements of its time. For instance, a comparative analysis of
Goethe’s Faust and the Indian epic Bhagavad Gita might explore how both texts grapple with
knowledge, morality, and the human struggle for meaning. While the Bhagavad Gita delves
into spiritual and moral dilemmas, Faust examines the pursuit of knowledge and the tension
between good and evil. This approach emphasizes the philosophical ideas embedded within
literary works, analyzing how these texts reflect their respective intellectual traditions and the
broader spiritual and philosophical currents of their time.

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
However, the German School has faced criticism for its tendency to be overly abstract,
sometimes focusing more on philosophical ideas rather than the material or social conditions
of literary production. Nonetheless, its focus on comparative intellectual history and global
philosophical currents has significantly shaped the understanding of world literature, fostering
an inclusive, philosophical view of literature’s universal and interconnected nature.

3.3 The American School

In the United States, Comparative Literature gained significant momentum after
World War II with the establishment of comparative literature programs at major universities.
The American School of Comparative Literature is characterized by its broad,
interdisciplinary approach, incorporating insights from philosophy, sociology, political
theory, and psychology. Unlike earlier European models, the American approach expanded
beyond a Eurocentric focus, including non-Western literatures from Africa, Asia, Latin
America, and Indigenous traditions in its analyses. This shift was partly influenced by the rise
of postcolonial theory, which explored how colonized cultures resisted European literary and
cultural domination and responded to colonial legacies in their literary productions.

In the American context, Comparative Literature also became a means of exploring

how literature interacts with other forms of art and reflects broader social, political, and
cultural dynamics. For instance, translation studies became a key component, examining how
literary works were transformed through translation and how this process influenced the
transmission of ideas and cultural values across borders.

A good example of this approach would be a comparison between Harper Lee’s To

Kill a Mockingbird and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun. Such an analysis
would examine how both novels address themes of racial prejudice and the struggle for
justice, but in vastly different cultural and historical contexts. Lee’s work explores racism in
the American South during the 1930s, while Adichie’s novel examines the effects of the
Biafran War on Nigerian society. By comparing these two works, scholars in the American
School would focus on how the specific socio-political and cultural environments shape the
characters’ experiences and reflect broader societal attitudes toward race, justice, and identity.

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche
This cultural studies approach, integral to the American School, allows for a more
inclusive and nuanced understanding of global literature. It highlights how literature serves
not only as an artistic expression but also as a reflection of cultural, historical, and political
struggles, broadening the scope of Comparative Literature to encompass global,
interdisciplinary perspectives.

3.4 Colonialism and Comparative Literature

In the early development of Comparative Literature, European scholars often held the
view that literary comparison was only valid between works of a similar "level," leading to
the exclusion of literature from colonized regions. They argued that European literature alone
could claim universal relevance, while the literature of the colonies was considered inferior
and incapable of reaching the same heights. This imperialistic attitude, as expressed by figures
like Thomas Macaulay, who declared European civilization and thought as superior, was
reflected in early comparative literary studies. European scholars like Edward Fitzgerald, who
translated Omar Khayyam’s Ruba’iyat, shared the belief in the superiority of European
literature, deeming non-European cultures as “primitive” and in need of European civilizing
influence. Comparative literature at this time reinforced these power dynamics by focusing on
written texts, dismissing the value of oral traditions, which were prominent in many colonized
regions, particularly in Africa and the Middle East.

Despite this Eurocentric dominance, a new form of nationalism arose in the colonies,
reshaping the field of Comparative Literature. This colonial resistance produced two distinct
arguments. First, nationalists in colonized regions argued that their literary traditions, such as
Persian or Arabic classical works like the Shahnameh or The Arabian Nights, were equal to,
and in some respects superior to, European literature. This perspective brought to the forefront
the rich intellectual heritage of non-Western cultures, challenging the previously accepted
notions of European superiority. Second, even as some colonial intellectuals acknowledged
European literary dominance—exemplified by the widespread admiration for Shakespeare—
they positioned their own cultural icons, such as Hafez or Al-Mutanabbi, as equals. These
poets, like Kalidasa in the Indian context, were seen as comparable to great European figures,
showing how colonized peoples began asserting the value of their literary traditions on the
global stage.

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche

The rise of postcolonial theory further transformed Comparative Literature, shifting

the focus to how colonial histories and power structures have influenced literary production.
This approach emphasizes how texts from colonized regions respond to, resist, or reinterpret
colonial narratives, often critiquing the Eurocentric representations of non-Western cultures.
An exemplary comparison is Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Chinua Achebe’s
Things Fall Apart. Achebe critiqued Conrad’s novel for its dehumanizing portrayal of Africa,
presenting it as a dark, uncivilized place through a Eurocentric lens. In contrast, Things Fall
Apart offers a nuanced representation of Igbo society, portraying its complexities before and
during European colonization. By comparing these two works, scholars can explore themes of
colonialism, power, and identity, highlighting how European literature often reinforced
colonial ideologies, while literature from the colonized world resisted and redefined these
narratives.

While postcolonial comparative literature has been critiqued for sometimes

overemphasizing political readings at the expense of other literary aspects, it plays a crucial
role in decentering Western perspectives and amplifying the voices of previously
marginalized or colonized peoples. By focusing on colonial power dynamics, cultural
representation, and resistance to imperialism, this approach broadens the scope of
Comparative Literature, providing a more inclusive and globally relevant framework for
literary analysis.

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Module: Comparative Literature
Level : Master 2
Teacher: Dr. Nassima Amirouche

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