Lesson 4

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Physiology of

high-level
nervous activity
Lesson 4
Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD)
CONTENTS

Lesson 4: Neural Communication and Synaptic


Transmission
1. Neuronal Excitation Mechanisms.
2. Synaptic Transmission.
3. New Discoveries.
4. Case Study.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 2


1. Neuronal Excitation Mechanisms

3
1. Neuronal Excitation Mechanisms
1.1 Action Potentials as the Language of Neurons
Neurons communicate via action potentials,
which are electrical impulses.
Generation of Action Potentials:
• Starts when a neuron receives a sufficient
stimulus to reach its threshold potential.
• Voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channels
open, allowing Na+ ions to enter the
neuron, causing depolarization.
• The depolarization travels along the
axon, propagating the action potential to
the neuron’s terminals.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 4


1. Neuronal Excitation Mechanisms
1.1 Action Potentials as the Language of Neurons

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 5


1. Neuronal Excitation Mechanisms
1.2 Ionic Basis of Action Potentials
• Ionic movement is critical for
action potential regulation.
• Depolarization: Caused by Na+
influx into the neuron, making the
membrane potential less negative.
• Repolarization: Triggered by
potassium (K+) channels opening,
allowing K+ ions to exit, restoring
the resting membrane potential.
• Timing of ion movements is
essential for the proper function of
neurons.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 6


1. Neuronal Excitation Mechanisms
1.3 Depolarization, Repolarization, and Refractory Periods
Depolarization occurs due to
Na+ influx.
Repolarization occurs when
K+ ions exit the neuron,
restoring the membrane
potential.
The refractory period
(absolute and relative)
ensures that action potentials
propagate in one direction
and limit how frequently
neurons can fire.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 7


2. Synaptic Transmission

8
2. Synaptic Transmission
2.1 Chemical Synapses
Neurotransmitters mediate
communication between neurons.
An action potential arriving at the axon
terminal triggers neurotransmitter
release.
Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft
and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic
neuron, generating postsynaptic
potentials (either excitatory or inhibitory).

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 9


2. Synaptic Transmission
2.2 Electrical Synapses

Direct electrical
communication
between neurons via gap
junctions.
Faster than chemical
synapses, used in regions
requiring synchronized
activity, such as in
rapid reflexes.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 10


2. Synaptic Transmission
2.3 Steps in Synaptic Transmission

Neurotransmitter Release:
• An action potential triggers the
opening of voltage-gated
calcium channels, allowing
Ca2+ to enter the presynaptic
terminal.
• This calcium influx causes
synaptic vesicles to release
neurotransmitters into the
synaptic cleft.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 11


2. Synaptic Transmission
2.3 Steps in Synaptic Transmission

Receptor Binding:
Neurotransmitters bind to specific
receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane, inducing postsynaptic
potentials:
• EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic
Potential) = Depolarization.
• IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic
Potential) = Hyperpolarization.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 12


2. Synaptic Transmission
2.3 Steps in Synaptic Transmission

Postsynaptic
Potential Generation:
The summation of
EPSPs and IPSPs
determines if the
neuron will generate
its own action
potential.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 13


2. Synaptic Transmission
2.4 Synaptic Plasticity in Learning and Memory
Synaptic plasticity:
• Synapses can strengthen or
weaken over time depending on
their activity levels.
• Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
strengthens synapses with repeated
stimulation, critical for learning
and memory.
• Long-term Depression (LTD)
weakens synapses, another process
vital for memory storage and brain
adaptation.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 14


3. New Discoveries

15
3. New Discoveries
3.1 Orexin
Regulates arousal,
wakefulness, and
appetite.
Disruptions in orexin
signaling are linked to
sleep disorders like
narcolepsy.
Orexin receptors are
promising targets for new
treatments for insomnia
and other sleep-related
conditions.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 16


3. New Discoveries
3.2 Endocannabinoids
Bind to cannabinoid receptors
in the brain.
Involved in mood regulation,
appetite control, and pain
sensation.
Endocannabinoid-based
treatments offer new approaches
for treating anxiety, depression,
and chronic pain.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 17


3. New Discoveries
3.3 Targeting Neurotransmitters in New Treatments
• Insomnia: Orexin receptor
antagonists regulate sleep-wake
cycles, providing alternatives to
traditional sedatives.
• Anxiety: Enhancing
endocannabinoid signaling is a
potential treatment for anxiety
disorders, offering relief without
the risks of dependence associated
with traditional anxiolytics.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 18


4. Case Study

19
4. Case Study
4.1 Neuronal Excitation Mechanisms
1. Case Study on Epileptic Seizures: A patient has been diagnosed with
epilepsy, characterized by abnormal, excessive neuronal firing. Based on
your understanding of action potential generation and propagation,
explain how an imbalance in ionic movements might contribute to the
condition. Discuss possible treatments aimed at restoring normal neuronal
activity.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 20


4. Case Study
4.1 Neuronal Excitation Mechanisms
2. Case Study on Multiple Sclerosis: Multiple sclerosis is a
neurodegenerative disorder that affects the myelin sheath of neurons.
Analyze how damage to the myelin sheath impacts the generation and
propagation of action potentials, leading to the neurological symptoms
of the disease. Discuss the role of ion channels in this context.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 21


4. Case Study
4.2 Synaptic Transmission
3. Case Study on Synaptic Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease: A
patient in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease is experiencing memory
loss and cognitive decline. Based on your knowledge of synaptic
transmission and synaptic plasticity, explain how disruptions in
neurotransmitter release or receptor function may contribute to the
cognitive deficits seen in this disease. Propose potential therapeutic
strategies targeting synaptic transmission.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 22


4. Case Study
4.2 Synaptic Transmission
4. Case Study on Parkinson's Disease: A patient with Parkinson's
disease exhibits motor symptoms like tremors and rigidity. Analyze how
disruptions in dopaminergic synapses within the basal ganglia affect
motor control. Discuss the role of long-term depression (LTD) in this
neurodegenerative disease and suggest potential therapeutic approaches.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 23


4. Case Study
4.2 Synaptic Transmission
5. Case Study on Reflexes and Electrical Synapses: A patient exhibits
extremely fast reflexes and synchronized muscle movements. Explain
how electrical synapses might be contributing to the rapid, synchronized
activity. Compare the efficiency of chemical synapses versus electrical
synapses in contexts requiring fast communication.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 24


4. Case Study
4.3 Synaptic Plasticity in Learning and Memory
6. Case Study on Learning Disabilities: A student with a learning
disability shows difficulties in retaining new information despite repeated
practice. Using your understanding of synaptic plasticity (including
long-term potentiation and long-term depression), explain how
disruptions in these processes might contribute to learning difficulties.
Discuss potential strategies for enhancing synaptic plasticity in the brain
to improve learning outcomes.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 25


4. Case Study
4.3 Synaptic Plasticity in Learning and Memory
7. Case Study on Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A patient
with PTSD experiences recurrent, intrusive memories of a traumatic
event. Analyze how excessive long-term potentiation (LTP) at synapses
in the amygdala and hippocampus could contribute to the persistence of
these memories. Discuss therapeutic approaches that might reduce LTP to
help alleviate the symptoms of PTSD.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 26


4. Case Study
4.4 New Discoveries in Neurotransmitters
8. Case Study on Narcolepsy: A patient with narcolepsy experiences
sudden bouts of sleep during the day. Based on your understanding of the
newly discovered neurotransmitter orexin, explain how disruptions in
orexin signaling could lead to narcolepsy. Discuss the potential of orexin
receptor antagonists in the treatment of sleep disorders.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 27


4. Case Study
4.4 New Discoveries in Neurotransmitters
9. Case Study on Chronic Pain and Endocannabinoids: A patient
suffering from chronic pain has found little relief with traditional pain
medications. Analyze how the endocannabinoid system might be
involved in modulating pain. Discuss the potential benefits and challenges
of using endocannabinoid-based therapies to treat chronic pain without
the side effects associated with opioids.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 28


4. Case Study
4.4 New Discoveries in Neurotransmitters
10. Case Study on Anxiety and Mood Regulation: A patient suffering
from anxiety is exploring alternative treatments to traditional medications.
Evaluate how enhancing endocannabinoid signaling could help regulate
mood and alleviate anxiety symptoms. Compare the effectiveness of this
approach with other treatments, such as benzodiazepines or SSRIs, in
terms of potential risks and benefits.

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) 29


Thank you

Dr. NGUYEN Truong-Thanh Hai (PhD) | 0932.620.260 | ntthai@hcmussh.edu.vn

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