Course Content

Basic Characteristics, Identification and Classification of Viruses, Bacteria and Fungi

A generalized Survey of the Plant and Animal Kingdoms based mainly on the Study of
Similarities and Differences in the External Features.
Ecological Adaptations
Briefs on Physiology to include Nutrition, Respiration, Circulation, Excretion, Reproduction,
Growth and Development

What are viruses?

Viruses are tiny infectious agents that replicate inside the cells of an organism. They are made up
of a protein coat called a capsid, which surrounds a core of genetic material (either DNA or
RNA).

Characteristics of Viruses
1. Small size: Viruses are much smaller than bacteria, with diameters ranging from 20-400
nanometers.
2. Not considered living cells: Viruses don't have cellular structures or metabolic processes like
living cells do.
3. Replicate inside host cells: Viruses hijack the host cell's machinery to produce more viral
particles.
4. Can infect various organisms: Viruses can infect animals, plants, fungi, and even bacteria.

Types of Viruses
1. DNA viruses: Have DNA as their genetic material (e.g., herpesviruses, poxviruses).
2. RNA viruses: Have RNA as their genetic material (e.g., influenza, HIV).
3. Retroviruses: Convert RNA into DNA during replication (e.g., HIV).
4. Viruses with reverse transcription: Can convert RNA into DNA and vice versa (e.g., HIV).

Spread of Virus
1. Airborne transmission: Through respiratory droplets or aerosols (e.g., influenza).
2. Close contact: Through touching or shaking hands (e.g., norovirus).
3. Vector-borne transmission: Through insects like mosquitoes (e.g., Zika).
4. Contaminated food and water: Through fecal-oral transmission (e.g., rotavirus).
5. Bloodborne transmission: Through blood transfusions or needle sharing (e.g., HIV).

Impact of Viruses on hosts

1. Cause diseases: Ranging from mild to severe, like common colds or life-threatening
conditions.
2. Trigger immune responses: Activate the host's immune system to fight the infection.
3. Alter host cells: Can modify host cell behavior or lead to cell death.

Treatment and prevention of Viral Infection

1. Vaccines: Available for some viruses, providing immunity.
2. Antiviral medications: Can treat or prevent viral infections.
3. Public health measures: Include quarantine, sanitation, and education.
4. Personal protective equipment: Like masks and gloves.

Ecological Adaptations of Viruses

1. Host range: Viruses can infect specific hosts or a wide range of hosts, from bacteria to animals
and plants.
2. Transmission strategies: Viruses use various transmission methods, such as airborne,
waterborne, vector-borne, or direct contact.
3. Replication strategies: Viruses can replicate quickly or slowly, depending on the host and
environmental conditions.
4. Latency: Some viruses can remain dormant in hosts for extended periods, allowing them to
survive adverse conditions.
5. Mutation and evolution: Viruses can rapidly evolve and adapt to changing environments and
host populations.
6. Symbiotic relationships: Some viruses form symbiotic relationships with their hosts, providing
benefits like protection or nutrients.
7. Genetic manipulation: Viruses can manipulate host genetics to enhance their own survival and
replication.
8. Immune evasion: Viruses have developed strategies to evade host immune systems, such as
antigenic variation or immune suppression.
9. Environmental persistence: Viruses can survive in environments outside hosts, allowing them
to persist and spread.
10. Horizontal gene transfer: Viruses can transfer genes between hosts, influencing evolution and
adaptation.
11. Phage-bacteria interactions: Viruses that infect bacteria (phages) play crucial roles in
bacterial ecology and evolution.
12. Ecological niches: Viruses occupy specific ecological niches, influencing ecosystems and
host populations.

Bacteria
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are tiny, single-celled microorganisms that belong to the domain
Bacteria. They are prokaryotic cells, meaning they lack a true nucleus and other membrane-
bound organelles. Bacteria are the most abundant organisms on Earth. They can survive in
extreme environments (e.g., high temperatures, high pressures). Some bacteria can form biofilms
(complex communities)
- Bacteria have been used in biotechnology and bioremediation

Characteristics of Bacteria
- Small size (typically 0.5-5.0 μm) Escherichia coli (2-4 μm), Staphylococcus aureus (0.5-1.0
μm)
- Simple cell structure
- No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles
- Cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (also known as murein) in both Gram-negative and
Gram-positive bacteria and Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) present in Gram-negative bacteria
- Can be spherical (Cocci) e.g. Staphylococcus aureus; rod-shaped (Bacilli) e.g. Escherichia coli
or spiral (Spirilla) e.g. Helicobacter pylori and Comma-shaped (Vibrio) e.g. Vibrio cholerae
- Can be gram-positive (retain crystal violet dye) e.g. Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis or
gram-negative (do not retain crystal violet dye) e.g. E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Can be aerobic (oxygen-loving) e.g. E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus or anaerobic (oxygen-
avoiding) e.g.Clostridium difficile, Bacteroides fragilis
- Can be autotrophic (produce their own food) e.g. Rhodopseudomonas palustris or heterotrophic
(obtain food from external sources) e.g. E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus
- Can be non-motile (cannot move) e.g. Staphylococcus aureus or motile (can move) e.g. E. coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
- Can be mesophilic (grow best at moderate temperatures) e.g. E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus or
thermophilic (grow best at high temperatures) e.g. Thermus aquaticus or psychrophilic (grow
best at low temperatures): Psychrobacter arcticus
Types of Bacteria
1. Autotrophic Bacteria (produce their own food)
- Rhodopseudomonas palustris (photosynthetic)
- Nitrosomonas europaea (oxidizes ammonia)
2. Heterotrophic Bacteria (obtain food from external sources)
- Escherichia coli
- Staphylococcus aureus
3. Saprophytic Bacteria (obtain nutrients from dead organic matter)
- Pseudomonas putida
- Bacillus subtilis
4. Parasitic Bacteria (obtain nutrients from living hosts)
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae
5. Pathogenic Bacteria (cause disease in hosts)
- Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Haemophilus influenzae
6. Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria (convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms)
- Rhizobia (e.g., Rhizobium leguminosarum)
- Frankia
7. Phototrophic Bacteria (use light energy to produce food)
- Cyanobacteria (e.g., Synechocystis)
- Green sulfur bacteria (e.g., Chlorobium tepidum)
8. Chemolithotrophic Bacteria (use inorganic compounds as energy sources)
- Thiobacillus ferrooxidans (oxidizes sulfur)
- Nitrobacter winogradskyi (oxidizes nitrite)
9. Psychrophilic Bacteria (grow best at low temperatures)
- Psychrobacter arcticus
- Colwellia psychrerythraea
10. Thermophilic Bacteria (grow best at high temperatures)
 - Thermus aquaticus
- Pyrococcus furiosus

Bacterial Growth and Reproduction

- Binary fission (splitting into two identical daughter cells)
- Budding (formation of new cells from existing cells)
Budding in bacteria is a process of asexual reproduction, where a new cell is formed from an
existing cell. Here's a step-by-step explanation of how budding takes place in bacteria:

1. Cell preparation: The parent cell prepares for budding by replicating its DNA and organizing
the cell's contents.

2. Bud formation: A bud, or a small outgrowth, appears on the surface of the parent cell. This
bud is a new cell that will eventually separate from the parent cell.

3. Cell division: The parent cell's DNA is divided, and a copy is transferred to the bud.

4. Growth and maturation: The bud grows and matures, developing its own cell wall and cellular
components.

5. Separation: The bud separates from the parent cell, forming a new, independent cell.

6. Repeat: The process can repeat multiple times, allowing bacteria to rapidly reproduce and
colonize new environments.
- Spore formation (dormant, highly resistant cells)

Importance of Bacteria
1. Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling: Bacteria like Pseudomonas putida and Bacillus subtilis
break down organic matter, recycling nutrients for plants and other organisms.
2. Nitrogen Fixation: Rhizobia and Frankia convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms for
plants, essential for agriculture and ecosystems.
3. Gut Health: Gut bacteria like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium maintain our digestive health,
boost our immune system, and produce vitamins.
4. Food Production: Bacteria like Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc mesenteroides are used in
fermentation to create yogurt, cheese, bread, and other food products.
5. Bioremediation: Bacteria like Pseudomonas putida and Dehalococcoides mccartyi clean up
environmental pollutants, such as oil spills and toxic chemicals.
6. Antibiotics and Pharmaceuticals: Bacteria like Streptomyces coelicolor produce antibiotics,
while others are used to develop vaccines and medications.
7. Biotechnology: Bacteria like E. coli and Bacillus subtilis are used in genetic engineering,
biofuel production, and other industrial applications.
8. Climate Change: Bacteria like Methanococcus jannaschii and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans play
roles in the carbon cycle, methane production, and sulfur reduction.
9. Soil Health: Bacteria like Azospirillum brasilense and Pseudomonas fluorescens promote plant
growth, improve soil structure, and suppress plant diseases.
10. Human Health: Bacteria like Wolbachia and Lactobacillus rhamnosus have been used to
control mosquito populations and maintain vaginal health.

FUNGI
What are Fungi?

Fungi (singular: fungus) are a group of organisms that obtain their nutrients by decomposing
organic matter or forming symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In the five kingdom
system of classification, the fungi are treated as a separate kingdom. The body of fungi is very
simple and in majority of cases consists of network of branched filaments called hyphae. The
tangled mass of hyphae is the mycelium. The mycelium attaches to a food source, and the
hyphae although microscopic present a large surface area through which food can be absorbed.

Characteristics
- Eukaryotic cells (cells with a nucleus)
- Non-motile (cannot move on their own)
- Cell walls made of chitin (a polysaccharide)
- Obtain nutrients by decomposing organic matter or forming symbiotic relationships
- Can be single-celled (yeasts) or multicellular (molds and mushrooms)

Types of Fungi
- Yeast: Single-celled fungi that reproduce by budding (e.g., baker's yeast, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae)
- Mold: Multicellular fungi that form a network of branching hyphae (e.g., Aspergillus,
Penicillium)
- Mushroom: Fruiting bodies of fungi that produce spores for reproduction (e.g., button
mushrooms, Amanita)

Roles in Ecosystems
- Decomposers: Break down organic matter, recycling nutrients
- Symbionts: Form relationships with plants (mycorrhizae), algae (lichens), or insects (fungus-
growing ants)
- Pathogens: Cause diseases in plants and animals

Growth and Reproduction

- Fungi grow by extending their hyphae (branching filaments)
- They reproduce by producing spores, which can be sexual or asexual
- Some fungi have a complex life cycle involving multiple stages

Importance
- Ecological balance: Fungi play a crucial role in decomposing organic matter and cycling
nutrients
- Food source: Many fungi are edible and considered delicacies (e.g., truffles, morels)
- Medicine: Fungi are a source of antibiotics (e.g., penicillin) and other pharmaceuticals
- Research: Fungi are used in scientific research, particularly in genetics and molecular biology
Most fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Fungi are classified into divisions.
Basidiomycota: These are the Basidiomycetes or Club Fungi. They produce sexual spores termed
basidiospores
Deuteromycota: These are the Deuteromycetes or Fungi imperfecti. They lack perfect or sexual
stages
Ascomycota: These are the Sac Fungi. The ascocarp is multicellular and complex, bearing the
asci
Zygomycota: These are the zygote forming fungi. The zygote is unicellular and simple