Nursing Informstics

Nursing Informatics
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Outlines
• Introductie of computer
• Information technologie
• History of nursing informatics
• Definition of informatics, nursing informatics, pediatric
informatics.
• The main concepts in nursing informatics theory.
• Importance of nursing informatics
• The Role of Pediatric Nurse Informatics
• The Technological Challenges for Nursing Education
• Advantages of technology use in nursing education
• Disadvantages of technology usage in nursing education
• Application of nursing informatics
• Consideration to facilitate the application of nursing informatics in
pediatric care nursing.
• Application of information technology in hospitals (practice).
• Informatics Applications in Neonatology.
• Application of informatics in pediatric nursing education
• The impact of nursing informatics on the health care system.
• Impact of nursing informatics on the nursing profession
• Obstacles for application of nursing informatics.
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Introduction to Computer
Computer
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of
instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (input),
process the data according to specified rules, produce information
(output), and store the information for future use.
Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
Computer Components
Any kind of computers consists of HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE.
Hardware:
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes
a computer system. Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or
components of a computer such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard,
computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic
cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which
are physical objects that can be touched.
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Input Devices
Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to
provide data and control signals to an information processing system
such as a computer or other information appliance.
Input device Translate data from form that humans understand to one
that the computer can work with. Most common are keyboard and mouse
Example of Input Devices:-

1. Keyboard 2. Mouse (pointing device) 3. Microphone
4. Touch screen 5. Scanner 6. Webcam
7. Touchpads 8. MIDI keyboard 9.
10. Graphics Tablets 11. Cameras 12. Pen
Input
13. Video Capture Hardware 14. Microphone 15.
Trackballs
16. Barcode reader 17. Digital camera 18.
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Joystick
19. Gamepad 20. Electronic Whiteboard 21.
Note: The most common use keyboard is the QWERTY keyboard.

Generally standard Keyboard has 104 keys.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A CPU is brain of a computer. It is responsible for all functions and
processes. Regarding computing power, the CPU is the most important
element of a computer system.
The CPU is comprised of three main parts :

* Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical
operations. Arithmetic calculations like as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
Logical operation like compare numbers, letters, or special
characters * Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates
computer components.
1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.
2. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
3. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to
complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested
operation.
* Registers :Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage
area".
Primary Memory:-
1. RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is a memory scheme within
the computer system responsible for storing data on a temporary basis,
so that it can be promptly accessed by the processor as and when
needed. It is volatile in nature, which means that data will be erased
once supply to the storage device is turned off. RAM stores data
randomly and the processor accesses these data randomly from the
RAM storage. RAM is considered "random access" because you can
access any memory cell directly if you know the row and column that
intersect at that cell.
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2. ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a permanent form of storage.
ROM stays active regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on
or off. ROM devices do not allow data stored on them to be modified.
Secondary Memory:-
Stores data and programs permanently :its retained after the power is
turned off
1. Hard drive (HD): A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk
drive," "hard drive," or "hard disk drive," that store and provides
relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an
electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces.
2. Optical Disk: an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser
light as part of the process of reading or writing data to or from optical
discs. Some drives can only read from discs, but recent drives are
commonly both readers and recorders, also called burners or writers.
Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are common types of optical
media which can be read and recorded by such drives. Optical drive is
the generic name; drives are usually described as "CD" "DVD", or
"Bluray", followed by "drive", "writer", etc. There are three main types
of optical media: CD, DVD, and Blu-ray disc. CDs can store up to 700
megabytes (MB) of data and DVDs can store up to 8.4 GB of data.
Blu-ray discs, which are the newest type of optical media, can store up
to 50 GB of data. This storage capacity is a clear advantage over the
floppy disk storage media (a magnetic media), which only has a
capacity of 1.44 MB.
3. Flash Disk
A storage module made of flash memory chips. A Flash disks have no

mechanical platters or access arms, but the term "disk" is used because
the data are accessed as if they were on a hard drive. The disk storage
structure is emulated.
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Output devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to
communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information
processing system (such as a computer) which converts the electronically
generated information into humanreadable form.
Example on Output Devices:

1. Monitor 2. LCD Projection Panels
3. Printers (all types) 4. Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
5. Plotters 6. Speaker(s)
7. Projector
Note Basic types of monitors are a.Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). B. Liquid
Crystal Displays (LCD). c.light-emitting diode (LED).
Printer types: 1-Laser Printer. 2-Ink Jet Printer. 3-Dot Matrix Printer
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Software
Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and
instructions, often broken into two major categories: system software that
provides the basic nontask-specific functions of the computer, and
application software which is used by users to accomplish specific tasks.
Software Types
A. System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and

managing the individual hardware components of a computer system
so that other software and the users of the system see it as a
functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-level
details such as transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering
text onto a display. Generally, system software consists of an
operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk
formatters, file managers, display managers, text editors, user
authentication (login) and management tools, and networking and
device control software.
B. Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other than
just running the computer system. Application software may consist
of a single program, such as an image viewer; a small collection of
programs (often called a software package) that work closely together
to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet or text processing system;
a larger collection (often called a software suite) of related but
independent programs and packages that have a common user
interface or shared data format, such as Microsoft Office, which
consists of closely integrated word processor, spreadsheet, database,
etc.; or a software system, such as a database management system,
which is a collection of fundamental programs that may provide some
service to a variety of other independent applications.
Comparison Application Software and System Software
System Software Application Software
Computer software, or just
software is a general term Application software, also known
primarily used for digitally as an application or an "app", is
stored data such as computer computer software designed to
programs and other kinds of help the user to perform specific
information read and written by tasks.
computers. App comes under
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computer software though it has
a wide scope now.
Example: 1) Opera
(Web Browser)
2) Microsoft Word (Word
Processing)
1) Microsoft Windows
3) Microsoft Excel (Spreadsheet
2) Linux
software)
3) Unix
4) MySQL (Database Software)
4) Mac OSX
5) Microsoft PowerPoint
5) DOS
(Presentation Software)
6) Adobe Photoshop (Graphics
Software)
Interaction: Generally, users do not interact Users always interact with
application software while doing
with system software as it works
different activities.
in the background.
Dependency: System software can run Application software cannot run
independently of the application without the presence of the system
software. software.
Unit of Measurements
Storage measurements: The basic unit used in computer data storage is
called a bit (binary digit). Computers use these little bits,
which are composed of ones and zeros, to do things and talk
to other computers. All your files, for instance, are kept in the
computer as binary files and translated into words and
pictures by the software (which is also ones and zeros). This
two number system, is called a “binary number system” since
it has only two numbers in it. The decimal number system in
contrast has ten unique digits, zero through nine.
Computer Storage units
Bit BIT 0 or 1
Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 kilobytes
Gigabyte GB 1024
9
megabytes
Terabyte TB 1024
gigabytes
Size example
• 1 bit - answer to an yes/no question

• 1 byte - a number from 0 to 255.
• 90 bytes: enough to store a typical line of text from a book.

• 4 KB: about one page of text.
• 120 KB: the text of a typical pocket book.

• 3 MB - a three minute song (128k bitrate)
• 650-900 MB - an CD-ROM
• 1 GB -114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s •
8-16 GB - size of a normal flash drive
Speed measurement: The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is

measured by Hertz (Hz), Which represent a CPU cycle. The speed of
CPU is known as Computer Speed.
CPU SPEED MEASURES
1 hertz or Hz 1 cycle per second
1 MHz 1 million cycles per second or 1000 Hz
1 GHz 1 billion cycles per second or 1000 MHz
Computers classification***
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows,

though there is Considerable overlap:
• Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a

microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer
has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying information,
and a storage device for saving data.
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• workstation : A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a
personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a
higher-quality monitor.
• minicomputer : A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10
to hundreds of users simultaneously.
• mainframe : A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting
many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
• supercomputer : An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds
of millions of instructions per second.
Laptop and Smartphone Computers

LAPTOP: A laptop is a battery or AC-powered personal computer that
can be easily carried and used in a variety of locations. Many
laptops are designed to have all of the functionality of a
desktop computer, whichmeans they can generally run the
same software and open the same types of files. However,
some laptops, such as netbooks, sacrifice some functionality
in order to be even more portable.
Netbook: A netbook is a type of laptop that is designed to be even more
portable. Netbooks are often cheaper than laptops or desktops.
They are generally less powerful than other types of
computers, but they provide enough power for email and
internet access, which is where the name "netbook" comes
from.
Mobile Device: A mobile device is basically any handheld computer. It

is designed to be extremely portable, often fitting in the palm of
your hand or in your pocket. Some mobile devices are more
powerful, and they allow you to do many of
Tablet Computers: Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be

portable. However, they provide a very different computing
experience. The most obvious difference is that tablet computers
don't have keyboards or touchpads. Instead, the entire screen is
touch-sensitive, allowing you to type on a virtual keyboard and
use your finger as a mouse pointer. Tablet computers are mostly
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designed for consuming media, and they are optimized for tasks
like web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, and
playing games. For many people, a "regular" computer like a
desktop or laptop is still needed in order to use some programs.
However, the convenience of a tablet computer means that it
may be ideal as a second computer.
Smartphones: A smartphone is a powerful mobile phone that is
designed to run a variety of applications in addition to phone
service. They are basically small tablet computers, and they can
be used for web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books,
playing games and more.
Characteristics of Computer
Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of
the key characteristics of a computer. A brief overview of these
characteristics are
• Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions
of instructions per second. Some calculations that would have taken
hours and days to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few
seconds using the computer. For example, calculation and generation
of salary slips of thousands of employees of an organization, weather
forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data related to
temperature, pressure and humidity of various places, etc.
• Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example,
the computer can accurately give the result of division of any two
numbers up to 10 decimal places.
• Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does
not get tired or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations
with the same speed and accuracy from the start till the end.
• Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be
stored in the computer and also retrieved whenever required. A limited
amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory.
Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and compact disk can store
a large amount of data permanently.
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• Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different
types of tasks with the same ease. At one moment you can use the
computer to prepare a letter document and in the next moment you may
play music or print a document. Computers have several limitations
too. Computer can only perform tasks that it has been programmed to
do.
Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It

executes instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own
decisions.
Computer Viruses*
Viruses: A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real

programs. For example, a virus might attach itself to a program
such as a spreadsheet program. Each time the spreadsheet
program runs, the virus runs, too, and it has the chance to
reproduce (by attaching to other programs) or wreak havoc.
•E-mail viruses: An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-mail

messages, and usually replicates itself by automatically mailing
itself to dozens of people in the victim's e-mail address book.
Some e-mail viruses don't even require a double-click -- they
launch when you view the infected message in the preview
pane of your e-mail software [source: Johnson].
•Trojan horses: A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The

program claims to do one thing (it may claim to be a game) but
instead does damage when you run it (it may erase your hard
disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate automatically.
•Worms: A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer

networks and security holes to replicate itself. A copy of the
worm scans the network for another machine that has a specific
security hole. It copies itself to the new machine using the
security hole, and then starts replicating from there, as well.
What are some tips to avoid viruses and lessen their impact?*
• Install anti-virus software from a reputable vendor. Update it and
use it regularly.
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• In addition to scanning for viruses on a regular basis, install an "on
access" scanner (included in most anti-virus software packages)
and configure it to start each time you start up your computer. This
will protect your system by checking for viruses each time you run
an executable file.
• Use a virus scan before you open any new programs or files that
may contain executable code. This includes packaged software that
you buy from the store as well as any program you might
download from the Internet.
• If you are a member of an online community or chat room, be very
careful about accepting files or clicking links that you find or that
people send you within the community.
• Make sure you back up your data (documents, bookmark files,
important email messages, etc.) on disc so that in the event of a
virus infection, you do not lose valuable work.
•
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INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND ITS COMPONENTS 3.3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the past few centuries, the world has moved on from connection amongst
individuals to more of connection amongst systems. We now have systems that are
constantly exchanging information about various things and even about us, many
a times without human intervention. This inter-networking of physical devices,
vehicles, smart devices, embedded electronics, software, sensors or any such device
is often referred to as IoT (Internet of Things).
What is interesting about various emerging technologies is that at its core we have
some key elements, namely, People, Computer Systems (Hardware, Operating
System and other Software), Data Resources, Networking and Communication
System. In this chapter, we are going to explore each of those key elements.
3.2 INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Information System (IS) is a combination of people, hardware, software,
communication devices, network and data resources that processes (can be storing,
retrieving, transforming information) data and information for a specific purpose.
The system needs inputs from user (key in instructions and commands, typing,
scanning) which will then be processed (calculating, reporting) using technology
devices such as computers, and produces output (printing reports, displaying
results) that will be sent to another user or other system via a network and a
feedback method that controls the operation.
The main aim and purpose of each Information System is to convert the data into
information which is useful and meaningful. An Information System depends on
the resources of people (end users and IS specialists), hardware (machines and
media), software (programs and procedures), data (data and knowledge bases), and
networks (communications media and network support) to perform input,
processing, output, storage, and control activities that transform data resources
into information products. The Information System model highlights the
relationships among the components and activities of information systems. It also
provides a framework that emphasizes four major concepts that can be applied to
all types of information systems. An Information System model involves following
steps well depicted in the Fig. 3.2.1:
♦ Input: Data is collected from an organization or from external environments
and converted into suitable format required for processing.
© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

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3.4 ENTERPRISE INFORMATION SYSTEMS
♦ Processing: A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve desired

outcome or goal. Information Systems are becoming more and more
integrated with organizational processes, bringing more productivity and
better control to those processes.
♦ Output: The system processes the data by applying the appropriate
procedure on it and the information thus produced is stored for future use or
communicated to user.
♦ Storage: The storage of data shall be done at the most detailed level
possible. Regular backups should be stored in a geographically different
locations to avoid impact on both the original data storage and the backup
data storage due to any major disasters such as flooding or fires etc.
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT
(Business problems in the (Software, Programs, (Solution to problems in
form of data, information, people, the form of reports,
instructions, opportunities) communication, graphics, calculations,
equipment) voices)
STORAGE
(Memory for storing and
retrieving information
FEEDBACK
(Information, new ideas, expertise, and customer feedback)
Fig. 3.2.1: Functions of Information Systems

♦ Feedback: Apart from these activities, information system also needs
feedback that is returned to appropriate members of the enterprises to help
them to evaluate at the input stage.
These basic activities of an information system that are defined above, helps
enterprise in making decisions, control operations, analyze problems and creates
new products or services as an output.
3.3 COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

With the help of information systems enterprises and individuals can use computers
to collect, store, and process, analyze, and distribute information. There are
different types of information systems, i.e. Manual (paper and pencil) information

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system, Informal (word of mouth) information system, Formal (written procedures)

information system and Computer based information system. This chapter mainly
focuses on Computer Based Information System. A Computer based Information
system is a combination of people, IT and business processes that helps
management in taking important decisions to carry out the business successfully.
Information Systems are networks of hardware and software that people and
organizations use to create, collect, filter, process, transform and distribute data.
Information Systems are interrelated components working together to collect,
process, and store and disseminate information to support decision-making,
coordination, control, analysis and visualization in an organization. An Information
System comprises of People, Hardware, Software, Data and Network for
communication support shown in Fig. 3.3.1.
Here, people mean all those who operate, manage, maintain and use the system
i.e. system administrator, IS personnel, programmers and end users i.e. the persons,
who can use hardware and software for retrieving the desired information. The
hardware means the physical components of the computers i.e. server or smart
terminals with different configurations like corei3/corei5/corei7/corei9 processors
etc. and software means the system software (operating systems), application
software (different type of computer programs designed to perform specific task)
and utility software (e.g. tools). The data is the raw fact which is input to the system.
It may be alphanumeric, text, image, video, audio, and other forms. The network
means communication media (Internet, Intranet, Extranet etc.).
Fig. 3.3.1: Components of Information Systems

3.3.1 People Resources
While thinking about Information Systems, it is easy to get too focused on the
technological components and forget that we must look beyond these tools at the

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whole picture and try to understand how technology integrates into an

organization. A focus on people involved in Information Systems is the next step.
From the helpdesk to the system programmers all the way up to the Chief Executive
Officer (CEO), all of them are essential elements of the information systems. People
are the most important element in most Computer-based Information Systems. The
people involved include users of the system and information systems personnel,
also all the people who manage, run, program, and maintain the system.
In the ever-changing world, innovation is the only key, which can sustain long-run
growth. More and more firms are realizing the importance of innovation to gain
competitive advantage. Accordingly, they are engaging themselves in various
innovative activities. Understanding these layers of information system helps any
enterprise grapple with the problems it is facing and innovate to perhaps reduce total
cost of production, increase income avenues and increase efficiency of systems.
3.3.2 Computer System – Hardware and Software
Computer System is considered as a combination of Hardware and Software well
depicted in Fig. 3.3.2.
Fig. 3.3.2: Components of Computer System

We shall now discuss these components and their sub-parts in detail.
I. Hardware
Hardware is the tangible portion of our computer systems; something we can
touch and see i.e. the physical components of technology. It basically consists of
devices that perform the functions of input, processing, data storage and output
activities of the computer. Computers, keyboards, hard drives, iPads and flash
drives are all examples of Information Systems’ hardware.
(i) Input Devices are devices through which we interact with the systems and
include devices like Keyboard for text-based input; Mouse, Joysticks, Light pens

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and other pointing devices for position-based input; Scanners and Bar Code, MICR
readers, Webcams Stylus/ touch screen for image-based input and Microphone for
audio-based input.
(ii) Processing devices are used to process data using program instructions,
manipulate functions, perform calculations, and control other hardware devices.
Examples include Central Processing Unit (CPU), Mother board, Network Card,
Sound Card etc.
The most common device is CPU which is the actual hardware that interprets and
executes the program (software) instructions and coordinates how all the other
hardware devices work together. It is like the brain of the computer which is built
on a small flake of silicon containing the equivalent of several million transistors.
We can think of transistors as switches which could be “ON” or “OFF” i.e. taking a
value of 1 or 0. It consists of following three functional units:
• Control Unit (CU): CU controls the flow of data and instruction to and from
memory, interprets the instruction and controls which tasks to execute and when.
• Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU): It performs arithmetic operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and logical comparison of numbers:
Equal to, Greater than, Less than, etc.
• Processor Registers: Registers are part of the computer processor which is
used to hold a computer instruction, perform mathematical operation as
storage address, or any kind of data. These are high speed, very small memory
units within CPU for storing small amount of data (mostly 32 or 64 bits).
Registers could be accumulators (for keeping running totals of arithmetic
values), address registers (for storing memory addresses of instructions),
storage registers (for storing the data temporarily) and miscellaneous (used
for several functions for general purpose).
(iii) Data Storage Devices refers to the memory where data and programs are
stored. Various types of memory are depicted in Fig. 3.3.3.
Fig. 3.3.3: Types of Memory

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(a) Primary/Main Memory: Also known as Main Memory or Internal Memory, it

is directly accessed by the processor using data bus. It is volatile or non-
volatile in nature and being small in storage capacity, hence cannot be used
to store data on a permanent basis. Primary memory is mainly of two types –
Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM), the
difference of which is provided below in the Table 3.3.1.
Table 3.3.1: RAM vs ROM
Aspect Random Access Read Only Memory (ROM)

Memory (RAM)
Data Retention Volatile in nature means Non-volatile in nature
Information is lost as (contents remain intact even
soon as power is turned in absence of power).
off.
Persistence The purpose is to hold These are used to store small
program and data while amount of information that is
they are in use. rarely changed during the life
of the system for quick
reference by CPU. For
example – Basic Input/Output
System (BIOS).
Information Information can be read Information can be read only
Access as well as modified. and not modified.
Storage These are responsible for These are generally used by
storing the instructions manufacturers to store data
and data that the and programs like translators
computer is using at that that is used repeatedly, that is
present moment, that is why it is a Permanent
why it is a Temporary memory.
memory.
Impact Volatile memory such as Non-volatile memory has no
RAM has high impact on impact on system's
system's performance. performance.
Cost Volatile memory is Non-volatile memory is
costly per unit size. cheap per unit size.
Speed RAM speed is quite high. ROM speed is slower than
RAM.

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Capacity RAM memory is large ROM is generally small and

and high capacity. of low capacity.
To bridge the huge differences of speed between the Registers and Primary
memory, the Cache Memory is introduced.
Cache memory is a smaller, extremely fast memory type built into a
computer’s Central Processing Unit (CPU) and that acts as a buffer
between RAM and the CPU. Cache Memory stores copies of the data from the
most frequently used main memory locations so that CPU can access it more
rapidly than main memory.
The differences between Processor Registers and Cache Memory are provided
below in the Table 3.3.2.
Table 3.3.2: Processor Registers vs Cache Memory
Processor Registers Cache Memory
These are high speed It is fast memory built into a computer’s CPU
memory units within CPU and is used to reduce the average time to
for storing small amount access data from the main memory. The data
of data (mostly 32 or 64 that is stored within a cache might be values
bits). that have been computed earlier or duplicates
of original values that are stored elsewhere.
The registers are the only Cache memory is an interface between CPU
Memory Units most and Main storage. It is not directly accessible
processors can operate for operations.
on directly.
(b) Secondary Memory: Secondary memory devices are non-volatile, have
greater capacity (they are available in large size), greater economy (the cost
of these is lesser compared to register and RAM) and slow speed (slower in
speed compared to registers or primary storage). Examples include Hard disk,
Pen drive, Memory card etc. Table 3.3.3 provides the key differences between
Primary Memory and Secondary Memory.
Table 3.3.3: Primary Memory vs Secondary Memory
Aspect Primary/Main Memory Secondary Memory
Basic Primary memory is directly Secondary memory is not
accessible by directly accessible by CPU.
Processor/CPU.

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Data Instructions or data to be Data to be permanently stored is

currently executed are kept in secondary memory.
copied to main memory.
Volatility Primary memory is usually Secondary memory is non-
volatile. volatile.
Formation Primary memories are made Secondary memories are made
of semiconductors. of magnetic and optical material.
Access Accessing data from Accessing data from secondary
Speed primary memory is faster. memory is slower.
Access Primary memory is accessed Secondary memory is accessed
by the data bus. by input-output channels.
Size The computer has a small The computer has a larger
primary memory. secondary memory.
Expense Primary memory is costlier Secondary memory is cheaper
than secondary memory. than primary memory.
Memory Primary memory is an Secondary memory is an external
internal memory. memory.
With respect to CPU, the memory is organized as follows (as shown in the Fig.
3.3.4):
• Registers that have small capacity, high cost, very high speed are placed
inside the CPU.
• Cache memory is placed next in the hierarchy followed by Primary
memory.
• Secondary memory is the farthest from CPU (large capacity, low cost,
low speed).
Processor Cache Primary Secondary

Registers Memory Memory Memory
Fig. 3.3.4: Computer Memory hierarchy
(iv) Output Devices: Computer systems provide output to decision makers at all
levels in an enterprise to solve business problems, the desired output may be in

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visual, audio or digital forms. Output devices are devices through which system
responds. Visual output devices like - a display device visually conveys text,
graphics, and video information. Information shown on a display device is called
soft copy because the information exists electronically and is displayed for a
temporary period. Display devices include CRT monitors, LCD monitors and
displays, gas plasma monitors, and televisions. Some types of output are textual,
graphical, tactile, audio, and video.
• Textual output comprises of characters that are used to create words,
sentences, and paragraphs.
• Graphical outputs are digital representations of non-text information such as
drawings, charts, photographs, and animation.
• Tactile output such as raised line drawings may be useful for some individuals
who are blind.
• Audio output is any music, speech, or any other sound.
• Video output consists of images played back at speeds to provide the
appearance of full motion.
Most common examples of output devices are Speakers, Headphones, Screen
(Monitor), Printer, Voice output communication aid, Automotive navigation system,
Video, Plotter, Wireless etc.
II. Software
Software is defined as a set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do.
Software is not tangible; it cannot be touched. Software is created through the
process of programming. When programmers create software, what they are really
doing is simply typing out lists of instructions that tell the hardware what to
execute. Without software, the hardware would not be functional. Software can be
broadly divided into two categories: Operating System Software and Application
Software as shown in the Fig. 3.3.2.
(a) Operating System Software
An Operating System (OS) is a set of computer programs that manages computer
hardware resources and acts as an interface with computer applications programs.
The operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer
system. Operating systems make the hardware usable and manage them by
creating an interface between the hardware and the user. Application programs
usually require an operating system to function that provides a convenient
environment to users for executing their programs. Computer hardware with

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operating system can thus be viewed as an extended machine, which is more

powerful and easy to use. Some prominent Operating systems used nowadays are
Windows 7, Windows 8, Mac OS, Linux, UNIX, etc.
All computing devices run on an operating system. For personal computers, the
most popular operating systems are Microsoft’s Windows, Apple’s OS X, and
different versions of Linux. Smart phones and tablets run on operating systems as
well, such as Apple’s iOS, Google Android, Microsoft’s Windows Phone OS, and
Research in Motion’s Blackberry OS.
A variety of activities are executed by Operating systems which include:
♦ Performing hardware functions: Operating System acts as an intermediary
between the application program and the hardware by obtaining input from
keyboard, retrieve data from disk and display output on monitors.
♦ User Interfaces: Nowadays, Operating Systems are Graphic User Interface
(GUI) based which uses icons and menus like in the case of Windows. GUI
objects include icons, cursors, and buttons that change color, size, or visibility
when the user interacts with them. A GUI displays objects that convey
information and represent actions that can be taken by the user.
♦ Hardware Independence: Every computer could have different
specifications and configurations of hardware. Operating System provides
Application Program Interfaces (API), which can be used by application
developers to create application software independent of the hardware
configuration of their system, thus obviating the need to understand the inner
workings of OS and hardware. Thus, OS provides hardware independence.
♦ Memory Management: Operating System allows controlling how memory is
accessed and maximizes available memory and storage. Operating System
also provides Virtual Memory by carving an area of hard disk to supplement
the functional memory capacity of RAM. Virtual Memory is an imaginary
memory area supported by some operating systems (for example, Windows)
that combines computer’s RAM with temporary space on the hard disk. If a
computer lacks in required size of RAM needed to run a program or
operation, Windows uses virtual memory to move data from RAM to a space
called a paging file. Moving data to and from the paging file frees up RAM to
complete its work. Thus, Virtual memory is an allocation of hard disk space to
help RAM.

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♦ Task Management: This facilitates users to do Multitasking i.e. to work with

more than one application at a time and Time sharing i.e. allowing more
than one user to use the system. For example - playing MP4 music, surfing
internet through Google Chrome and working in MS Word Document
simultaneously is a perfect example of Multitasking. Time-sharing is a
technique which enables many users through various terminals to use
particular computer system at the same time. In this, the processor’s time is
shared among multiple users simultaneously.
♦ Networking Capability: Operating systems can provide systems with
features and capabilities to help connect different computer networks. Like
Linux and Windows 10 give user an excellent capability to connect to internet.
♦ Logical Access Security: Operating systems provide logical security by
establishing a procedure for identification and authentication using a User ID
and Password. It can log the user access thereby providing security control.
♦ File management: The operating system keeps a track of where each file is
stored and who can access it, based on which it provides the file retrieval.
(b) Application Software
Example 3.1: Consider the following examples:
• As the personal computer proliferated inside organizations, control over the
information generated by the organization began splintering. Say the
customer service department creates a customer database to keep track of
calls and problem reports, and the sales department also creates a database
to keep track of customer information. Which one should be used as the
master list of customers?
• As another example, someone in sales might create a spreadsheet to calculate
sales revenue, while someone in finance creates a different one that meets
the needs of their department. However, it is likely that the two spreadsheets
will come up with different totals for revenue. Which one is correct? And who
is managing all this information?
To resolve these issues, various specific purpose applications were created.
Application Software is the category of programs that do some useful processing

or task for the user. This includes all the computer software that causes a computer
to perform useful tasks beyond the running of the computer itself. It is a collection
of programs which address a real-life problem of its end users which may be

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business or scientific or any other problem. Application Suite like MS Office 2010
which has MS Word, MS Excel, MS Access, etc.; Enterprise Software like SAP;
Content Access Software like Media Players, Adobe Digital etc. are some examples
of Application Software.
3.3.3 Data Resources

You can think of data as a collection of facts. For example, your street addresses,
the city you live in, a new phone number are all pieces of data. Like software, data
is also intangible. By themselves, pieces of data are not very useful. But aggregated,
indexed and organized together into a database; data can become a powerful tool
for businesses. For years, business houses have been gathering information with
regards to customers, suppliers, business partners, markets, cost, and price
movement and so on. After collection of information for years’ companies have
now started analyzing this information and creating important insights out of data.
Data is now helping companies to create strategy for future. This is precisely the
reason why we have started hearing a lot about data analytics in past few years.
♦ Data: Data, plural of Datum, are the raw bits and pieces of information with no
context that can either be quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data is
numeric, the result of a measurement, count, or some other mathematical
calculation. Qualitative data is descriptive. “Ruby Red,” the color of a 2013 Ford
Focus, is an example of qualitative data. By itself, data is not that useful. For it to
be useful, it needs to be given context. For example - “15, 23, 14, and 85″ are the
numbers of students that had registered for upcoming classes that would-be
information. Once we have put our data into context and have aggregated and
analyzed it, we can use it to make decisions for our organization.
♦ Database: A set of logically inter-related organized collection of data is
referred as Database. They store both operational data (produced by an
organization's day to day operations) and non-operational data (used for
education, research etc.). The goal of many Information Systems is to
transform data into information to generate knowledge that can be used for
decision making. To do this, the system must be able to take data, put the
data into context and provide tools for aggregation and analysis.
♦ Database Management Systems (DBMS): DBMS may be defined as a

software that aid in organizing, controlling, and using the data needed by the
application program. They provide the facility to create and maintain a well-
organized database. These systems are primarily used to develop and analyze
single-user databases and are not meant to be shared across a network or

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Internet but are instead installed on a device and work with a single user at a
time. Various operations that can be performed on these files include adding
new files to database, deleting existing files from database, inserting data in
existing files, modifying data in existing files, deleting data in existing files,
and retrieving or querying data from existing files. DBMS packages generally
provide an interface to view and change the design of the database, create
queries, and develop reports. Commercially available DataBase Management
Systems are Oracle, MySQL, SQL Servers and DB2 etc. whereas Microsoft
Access and Open Office Base are examples of personal DBMS.
Advantages of DBMS
♦ Permitting Data Sharing: One of the major advantages of a DBMS is that the
same information can be made available to different users.
♦ Minimizing Data Redundancy: In a DBMS, duplication of information or
redundancy is, if not eliminated, carefully controlled or reduced i.e. there is no
need to repeat the same data repeatedly. Minimizing redundancy significantly
reduce the cost of storing information on storage devices.
♦ Integrity can be maintained: Data integrity is maintained by having accurate,
consistent, and up-to-date data. Updates and changes to the data only must be
made in one place in DBMS ensuring Integrity.
♦ Program and File consistency: Using a DBMS, file formats and programs are
standardized. The level of consistency across files and programs makes it easier
to manage data when multiple programmers are involved as the same rules and
guidelines apply across all types of data.
♦ User-friendly: DBMS makes the data access and manipulation easier for the
user. DBMS also reduces the reliance of users on computer experts to meet
their data needs.
♦ Improved security: DBMS allows multiple users to access the same data
resources in a controlled manner by defining the security constraints. Some
sources of information should be protected or secured and only viewed by
select individuals. Using passwords, DBMS can be used to restrict data access
to only those who should see it. Security will only be improved in a database
when appropriate access privileges are allotted to prohibit unauthorized
modification of data.
♦ Achieving program/data independence: In a DBMS, data does not reside in
applications, but database program and data are independent of each other.

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♦ Faster Application Development: In the case of deployment of DBMS,

application development becomes fast. The data is already therein databases,
application developer must think of only the logic required to retrieve the
data in the way a user needs.
Disadvantages of DBMS
♦ Cost: Implementing a DBMS in terms of both system and user-training can
be expensive and time-consuming, especially in large enterprises. Training
requirements alone can be quite costly.
♦ Security: Even with safeguards in place, it may be possible for some
unauthorized users to access the database. If one gets access to database,
then it could be an all or nothing proposition.
3.3.4 Networking and Communication Systems
In today’s high-speed world, we cannot imagine an information system without an
effective and efficient communication system, which is a valuable resource which
helps in good management. Telecommunication networks give an organization the
capability to move information rapidly between distant locations and to provide
the ability for the employees, customers, and suppliers to collaborate from
anywhere, combined with the capability to bring processing power to the point of the
application. All of this offers firm important opportunities to restructure its business
processes and to capture highly competitive ground in the marketplace. Through
telecommunications, this value may be:
(i) an increase in the efficiency of operations;
(ii) improvements in the effectiveness of management; and
(iii) innovations in the marketplace.
A network is a group of devices connected to each other and a Computer Network
is a collection of computers and other hardware interconnected by communication
channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where atleast one
process in one device can send/receive data to/from at least one process residing
in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network.
Network and Communication System: These consist of both physical devices and
software that links the various pieces of hardware and transfers the data from one
physical location to another. Computers and communications equipment can be
connected in networks for sharing voice, data, images, sound and video. A network
links two or more computers to share data or resources such as a printer.

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Every enterprise needs to manage its information in an appropriate and desired

manner. For this, an enterprise must know its information needs; acquire that
information and organize it in a meaningful way, assure information quality and
provide software tools so that users in the enterprise can access the information
that they require.
Each component, namely the computer in a computer network is called a ‘Node’.
Computer networks are used for exchange of data among different computers and
to share the resources like CPU, I/O devices, storages, etc. without much of an
impact on individual systems. In real world, we see numerous networks like
Telephone/ mobile network, postal networks etc. If we look at these systems, we
can analyze that network could be of two types:
♦ Connection Oriented networks: Wherein a connection is first established
between the sender and the receiver and then data is exchanged like it
happens in case of telephone networks.
♦ Connectionless Networks: Where no prior connection is made before data
exchanges. Data which is being exchanged in fact has a complete contact
information of recipient; and at each intermediate destination, it is decided
how to proceed further like it happens in case of postal networks.
These real-world networks have helped model computer networks. Each of these
networks is modeled to address the following basic issues:
♦ Routing: It refers to the process of deciding on how to communicate the data
from source to destination in a network. In this, data is transferred in the form
of data packets using an Internet Protocol or IP address.
♦ Bandwidth: It refers to the amount of data which can be sent across a
network in given time. The lesser the bandwidth, lesser is the data transferred
and slower the website loads.
♦ Contention: It refers to the situation that arises when there is a conflict for
some common resource in a network. For example, network contention could
arise when two or more computer systems try to communicate at the same
time.
♦ Resilience: It refers to the ability of a network to recover from any kind of
error like connection failure, loss of data etc.
The following are the important benefits of a computer network:
♦ Distributed nature of information: There would be many situations where
information must be distributed geographically. For example- In the case of

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Banking Company, accounting information of various customers could be

distributed across various branches but to make Consolidated Balance Sheet
at the year-end, it would need networking to access information from all its
branches.
♦ Resource Sharing: Data could be stored at a central location and can be
shared across different systems. Even resource sharing could be in terms of
sharing peripherals like printers, which are normally shared by many systems.
For example- In the case of a Core Banking System, Bank data is stored at a
Central Data Centre and could be accessed by all branches as well as ATMs.
♦ Computational Power: The computational power of most of the applications
would increase drastically through load balancing when the processing is
distributed amongst computer systems. For example: processing in an ATM
machine in a bank is distributed between ATM machine and the central
Computer System in a Bank, thus reducing load on both.
♦ Reliability: Many critical applications should be available 24x7, if such
applications are run across different systems which are distributed across
network, then the reliability of the applications would be high. For example-
In a city, there could be multiple ATM machines so that if one ATM fails, one
could withdraw money from another ATM.
♦ User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail,
newsgroups, video conferencing, etc.
Telecommunications may provide these values through the following impacts:
(a) Time compression: Telecommunications enable a firm to transmit raw data
and information quickly and accurately between remote sites.
(b) Overcoming geographical dispersion: Telecommunications enable an
organization with geographically remote sites to function, to a degree, as
though these sites were a single unit. The firm can then reap benefits of scale
and scope which would otherwise be unobtainable.
(c) Restructuring business relationships: Telecommunications make it possible
to create systems which restructure the interactions of people within a firm
as well as a firm’s relationships with its customers. Operational efficiency may
be raised by eliminating intermediaries from various business processes.

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3.4 INFORMATION SYSTEMS’ CONTROLS

The increasing use of Information Technology in organizations has made it
imperative that appropriate information systems are implemented in an
organization. IT should cover all key aspects of business processes of an enterprise
and should have an impact on its strategic and competitive advantage for its
success. The enterprise strategy outlines the approach, it wishes to formulate with
relevant policies and procedures to achieve business objectives. The basic purpose
of information system controls in an organization is to ensure that the business
objectives are achieved; and undesired risk events are prevented, detected and
corrected. This is achieved by designing and effective information control
framework which comprise policies, procedures, practices, and organization
structure that gives reasonable assurances that the business objectives will be
achieved.
Whenever a threat exploits a vulnerability, it gives rise to a risk. However, risk can
never be completely eliminated, but only mitigated as there is always a component
of inherent risk. Some of the critical controls that may lack in a computerized
environment are as follows:
♦ Lack of management understanding of IS risks and related controls;
♦ Absence or inadequate IS control framework;
♦ Absence of weak general controls and IS controls;
♦ Lack of awareness and knowledge of IS risks and controls amongst the
business users and even IT staff;
♦ Complexity of implementation of controls in distributed computing
environments and extended enterprises;
♦ Lack of control features or their implementation in highly technology driven
environments; and
♦ Inappropriate technology implementations or inadequate security
functionality in technologies implemented.
Internal controls can be classified into various categories to illustrate the interaction
of various groups in the enterprise and their effect on information systems on
different basis. Refer Fig. 3.4.1:

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Preventive Control
Detective Control
Corrective Control
Environmental Control
Physical Access Control
Logical Access Control
Management Control Framework

Application Control Framework
Fig. 3.4.1: Classification of IS Controls

3.4.1 Classification based on “Objective of Controls”
The controls as per the time that they act, relative to a security incident can be
classified as under:
(A) Preventive Controls: These controls prevent errors, omissions, or security
and malicious incidents from occurring. They are basically proactive in nature.
Examples include simple data-entry edits that block alphabetic characters
from being entered in numeric fields, access controls that protect sensitive
data/ system resources from unauthorized people, and complex and dynamic
technical controls such as anti-virus software, firewalls, and intrusion
prevention systems. Preventive controls can be implemented in both manual
and computerized environment for the same purpose. Only, the
implementation methodology may differ from one environment to the other.
Example 3.2: Some examples of preventive controls are as follows:
Employing qualified personnel; Segregation of duties; Access control;
Vaccination against diseases; Documentation; Prescribing appropriate books
for a course; Training and retraining of staff; Authorization of transaction;
Validation, edit checks in the application; Firewalls; Anti-virus software
(sometimes this act like a corrective control also) etc. and Passwords. The
above list contains both of manual and computerized preventive controls.

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The main characteristics of Preventive controls are given as follows:

• A clear-cut understanding about the vulnerabilities of the asset;
• Understanding probable threats;
• Provision of necessary controls for probable threats from materializing.
Example 3.3: The following Table 3.4.1 shows how the purpose of preventive
controls is achieved by using manual and computerized controls.
Table 3.4.1: Preventive Controls
Purpose Manual Control Computerized Control

Restrict unauthorized Build a gate and post a Use access control
entry into the security guard. software, smart card,
premises. biometrics, etc.
Restrict Keep the computer in a Use access control, viz.
unauthorized entry secured location and allow User ID, password,
into the software only authorized person to smart card, etc.
applications. use the applications.
(B) Detective Controls: These controls are designed to detect errors, omissions
or malicious acts that occur and report the occurrence. In other words,
Detective Controls detect errors or incidents that elude preventive controls.
They are basically investigative in nature. For example, a detective control
may identify account numbers of inactive accounts or accounts that have
been flagged for monitoring of suspicious activities. Detective controls can
also include monitoring and analysis to uncover activities or events that
exceed authorized limits or violate known patterns in data that may indicate
improper manipulation. For sensitive electronic communications, detective
controls indicate that a message has been corrupted or the sender’s secure
identification cannot be authenticated.
The main characteristics of Detective controls are given as follows:
• Clear understanding of lawful activities so that anything which deviates
from these is reported as unlawful, malicious, etc.;
• An established mechanism to refer the reported unlawful activities to
the appropriate person or group, whistle blower mechanism;
• Interaction with the preventive control to prevent such acts from
occurring; and
• Surprise checks by supervisor.

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Example 3.4: Some examples of Detective Controls are as follows:

Review of payroll reports; Compare transactions on reports to source
documents; Monitor actual expenditures against budget; Use of automatic
expenditure profiling where management gets regular reports of spend to
date against profiled spend; Hash totals; Check points in production jobs;
Echo control in telecommunications; Duplicate checking of calculations; Past-
due accounts report, the Internal Audit functions; Intrusion Detection System;
Cash counts and Bank reconciliation and Monitoring expenditures against
budgeted amount.
(C) Corrective Controls: It is desirable to correct errors, omissions, or incidents
once they have been detected. These controls are reactive in nature. These
vary from simple correction of data-entry errors, to identifying and removing
unauthorized users or software from systems or networks to recovery from
incidents, disruptions, or disasters. Generally, it is most efficient to prevent
errors or detect them as close as possible to their source to simplify
correction. These corrective processes also should be subject to preventive
and detective controls because they represent another opportunity for errors,
omissions, or falsification. Corrective controls are designed to reduce the
impact or correct an error once it has been detected.
The main characteristics of the corrective controls are as follows:
• Minimizing the impact of the threat;
• Identifying the cause of the problem;
• Providing Remedy to the problems discovered by detective controls;
• Getting feedback from preventive and detective controls;
• Correcting error arising from a problem; and
• Modifying the processing systems to minimize future occurrences of
the incidents.
Example 3.5: Corrective controls may include the use of default dates on
invoices where an operator has tried to enter the incorrect date. For example-
“Complete changes to IT access lists if individual’s role changes” is an example
of corrective control. If an accounts clerk is transferred to the sales
department as a salesman, his/her access rights to the general ledger and
other finance functions should be removed and he/she should be given
access only to functions required to perform his sales job.

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Some other examples of Corrective Controls are submitting corrective journal

entries after discovering an error; a Business Continuity Plan (BCP);
Contingency planning; Backup procedure; Rerun procedures; System reboot;
Change input value to an application system; and Investigate budget variance
and report violations.
3.4.2 Classification based on “Nature of Information System
Resources”
These are as follows:
(A) Environmental Controls: These are the controls relating to IT environment
such as power air-conditioner, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS), smoke
detector, fire-extinguishers, dehumidifiers etc. Tables 3.4.2 (A,B,C,D) enlist all
the controls against the environmental exposures like Fire, Electrical
Exposures, Water Damage, and Pollution damage and others with their
corresponding controls respectively.
I. Fire: It is a major threat to the physical security of a computer installation.
Table 3.4.2(A): Controls for Fire Exposure
♦ Smoke Detectors: Smoke detectors should be positioned at places

above and below the ceiling tiles. Upon activation, these detectors
should produce an audible alarm and must be linked to a monitored
station (for example, a fire station).
♦ Norms to reduce Electric Firing: To reduce the risk of electric firing, the
location of the computer room should be strategically planned and
should not be in the basement or ground floor of a multi-storey
building. Less wood and plastic material should be used in computer
rooms. To reduce the risk of electric fire occurring and spreading,
wiring should be placed in the fire-resistant panels and conduit. This
conduit generally lies under the fire-resistant raised floor in the
computer room. Fireproof Walls, Floors and Ceilings surrounding the
Computer Room and Fire-resistant office materials such as waste
baskets, curtains, desks, and cabinets should be used.
♦ Fire Extinguishers: Manual fire extinguishers can be placed at strategic
locations. Fire Alarms, Extinguishers, Sprinklers, Instructions / Fire
Brigade Nos., Smoke detectors, and Carbon-dioxide based fire
extinguishers should be well placed and maintained.
♦ Fire Alarms: Both automatic and manual fire alarms may be placed at
strategic locations and a control panel may be installed to clearly

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indicate this. Besides the control panel, master switches may be

installed for power and automatic fire suppression system. A gas-
based fire suppression system is preferable, however, depending upon
the situation, different fire suppression techniques like Dry-pipe
sprinkling systems, water-based systems, halon etc., may be used.
When a fire alarm is activated, a signal may be sent automatically to
permanently manned station.
♦ Regular Inspection and Raising awareness: Regular inspection by Fire
Department Officials should be conducted. The procedures to be
followed during an emergency should be properly documented. Fire
Exits should be clearly marked, and all the staff members should know
how to use the system in case of emergency.
♦ Documented and Tested Emergency Evacuation Plans: Relocation plans

should emphasize human safety but should not leave information
processing facilities physically unsecured. Procedures should exist for a
controlled shutdown of the computer in an emergency. In all
circumstances, saving human life should be given paramount importance.
II. Electrical Exposures: These include risk of damages that may be caused
due electrical faults which may occur due to very short pulse of energy in a
power line. These include non-availability of electricity, spikes (temporary
very high voltages), fluctuations of voltage and other such risk.
Table 3.4.2(B): Controls for Electrical Exposure
♦ Electrical Surge Protectors: The risk of damage due to power spikes can
be reduced using Electrical Surge Protectors that are typically built into
the Uninterrupted Power System (UPS).
♦ Un-interruptible Power System/Generator: In case of a power failure,
the UPS provides the backup by providing electrical power from the
battery to the computer for a certain span of time. Depending on the
sophistication of the UPS, electrical power supply could continue to flow
for days or for just a few minutes to permit an orderly computer
shutdown.
♦ Voltage regulators and circuit breakers: These protect the hardware
from temporary increase or decrease of power.
♦ Emergency Power-Off Switch: When the need arises for an immediate
power shut down during situations like a computer room fire or an
emergency evacuation, an emergency power-off switch at the strategic

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locations would serve the purpose. They should be easily accessible and
yet secured from unauthorized people.
III. Water Damage: Water damage to a computer installation can be the

outcome of water pipes burst. Water damage may also result from other
resources such as cyclones, tornadoes, floods etc.
Table 3.4.2(C): Controls for Water Exposure
♦ Water Detectors: These should be placed under the raised floor, near
drain holes and near any unattended equipment storage facilities.
♦ Strategically locating the computer room: To reduce the risk of
flooding, the computer room should not be located in the basement
of ground floor of a multi-storey building.
♦ Some of the major ways of protecting the installation against water
damage are as follows:
• Wherever possible have waterproof ceilings, walls and floors;
• Ensure an adequate positive drainage system exists;
• Install alarms at strategic points within the installation;
• In flood-prone areas, have the installation above the upper floors
but not at the top floor;
• Water proofing; and
• Water leakage Alarms.
IV. Pollution Damage and others: The major pollutant in a computer

installation is dust. Dust caught between the surfaces of magnetic tape / disk
and the reading and writing heads may cause either permanent damage to
data or read / write errors.
Table 3.4.2(D): Controls for Pollution Damage Exposure
♦ Power Leads from Two Substations: Electrical power lines are
exposed to many environmental dangers such as water, fire, lightning,
cutting due to careless digging etc. To avoid these types of events,
redundant power links should feed into the facility so that
interruption of one power supply does not adversely affect electrical
supply.

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♦ Prohibitions against Eating, Drinking and Smoking within the

Information Processing Facility: These activities should be
prohibited from the information processing facility especially food
and beverages to protect the systems from rodents which could
damage the electrical wirings and cables and also to prevent fire
caused due to smoking. This prohibition should be clear, e.g. a sign
on the entry door.
(B) Physical Access Controls: The Physical Access Controls are the controls
relating to physical security of the tangible resources and intangible
resources stored on tangible media etc. Such controls include Access control
doors, Security guards, door alarms, restricted entry to secure areas, visitor
logged access, CCTV monitoring etc. Refer the Table 3.4.3.
Table 3.4.3: Controls for Physical Exposures
I. Locks on Doors
• Cipher locks (Combination Door Locks): Cipher locks are used in low
security situations or when many entrances and exits must be usable all
the time. To enter into a secured room, a person presses a four-digit
number and the door will unlock for a predetermined period, usually 10
to 30 seconds.
• Bolting Door Locks: In this, a special metal key is used to gain entry
and to avoid illegal entry, the keys should not be duplicated.
• Electronic Door Locks: A magnetic or embedded chip-based plastics
card key or token may be entered into a reader to gain access in these
systems.
II. Physical Identification Medium: These are discussed below:
• Personal Identification Numbers (PIN): A secret number assigned to
an individual, in conjunction with some means of identifying the
individual, serves to verify the authenticity of the individual. The visitor
will be asked to log on by inserting a card in some device and then enter
their PIN via a PIN keypad for authentication. His/her entry will be
matched with the PIN number available in the security database.
• Plastic Cards: These cards are used for identification purposes.
Customers should safeguard their card so that it does not fall into
unauthorized hands.

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• Identification Badges: Special identification badges can be issued to

personnel as well as visitors. For easy identification purposes, their color
of the badge can be changed. Sophisticated photo IDs can also be
utilized as electronic card keys.
III. Logging on Facilities: These are given as under:
• Manual Logging: All visitors should be prompted to sign a visitor’s log
indicating their name, date and time of visit, company represented, their
purpose of visit, and person to see. Logging may happen at both fronts
- reception and entrance to the computer room. A valid and acceptable
identification such as a driver’s license, business card or vendor
identification tag may also be asked for before allowing entry inside the
company.
• Electronic Logging: This feature is a combination of electronic and
biometric security systems. The users logging can be monitored, and
the unsuccessful attempts being highlighted.
IV. Other means of Controlling Physical Access: Other important means
of controlling physical access are as follows:
• Video Cameras: Cameras should be placed at specific locations and
monitored by security guards. Refined video cameras can be activated
by motion. The video supervision recording must be retained for
possible future play back.
• Security Guards: Extra security can be provided by appointing guards
aided with CCTV feeds. Guards supplied by an external agency should
be made to sign a bond to protect the organization from loss.
• Controlled Visitor Access: A responsible employee should escort all
visitors who may be friends, maintenance personnel, computer vendors,
consultants, and external auditors.
• Bonded Personnel: All service contract personnel, such as cleaning
people and off-site storage services, should be asked to sign a bond.
This may not be a measure to improve physical security but to a certain
extent can limit the financial exposure of the organization.
• Dead Man Doors/Man trap: These systems encompass a pair of doors
that are typically found in entries to facilities such as computer rooms
and document stations. The first entry door must close and lock for the
second door to operate with the only one person permitted in the

39
holding area. It helps to manage traffic and prohibits the intruder from
escaping the facility quickly.
• Non–exposure of Sensitive Facilities: There should be no explicit
indication such as presence of windows of directional signs hinting the
presence of facilities such as computer rooms. Only the general location
of the information processing facility should be identifiable.
• Computer Terminal Locks: These locks ensure that the device to the
desk is not turned on or disengaged by unauthorized persons.
• Controlled Single Entry Point: All incoming personnel can use
controlled Single-Entry Point. A controlled entry point is monitored by
a receptionist. Multiple entry points increase the chances of
unauthorized entry. Unnecessary or unused entry points should be
eliminated or deadlocked.
• Alarm System: Illegal entry can be avoided by linking alarm system to
inactive entry point and the reverse flows of enter or exit only doors, to
avoid illegal entry. Security personnel should be able to hear the alarm
when activated.
• Perimeter Fencing: Fencing at boundary of the facility may also
enhance the security mechanism.
• Control of out of hours of employee-employees: Employees who are
out of office for a longer duration during the office hours should be
monitored carefully. Their movements must be noted and reported to
the concerned officials frequently.
• Secured Report/Document Distribution Cart: Secured carts, such as
mail carts must be covered and locked and should always be attended.
(C) Logical Access Controls: These are the controls relating to logical access to
information resources such as operating systems controls, application software
boundary controls, networking controls, access to database objects, encryption
controls etc. Logical access controls are implemented to ensure that access to
systems, data and programs is restricted to authorized users to safeguard
information against unauthorized use, disclosure or modification, damage, or
loss. The key factors considered in designing logical access controls include
confidentiality and privacy requirements, authorization, authentication, and
incident handling, reporting and follow-up, virus prevention and detection,
firewalls, centralized security administration, user training and tools for
monitoring compliance, intrusion testing and reporting. Logical access controls

40
are the system-based mechanisms used to designate who or what is to have

access to a specific system resource and the type of transactions and functions
that are permitted. Table 3.4.4 provides the controls for Technical Exposures.
Table 3.4.4: Controls for Technical Exposures
I. User Access Management: This involves the administration within a
system for giving individual users the access to the tools they require at
the right time. This is an important factor that involves following:
• User Registration: Information about every user is documented.
Some questions like why and who is the user granted the access; has
the data owner approved the access, and has the user accepted the
responsibility? etc. are answered. The de-registration process is also
equally important.
• Privilege management: Access privileges are to be aligned with job
requirements and responsibilities are to be minimal w.r.t. their job
functions. For example, an operator at the order counter shall have
direct access to order processing activity of the application system.
Similarly, a business analyst could be granted the access to view the
report but not modify which would be done by the developer.
• User password management: Passwords are usually the default
screening point for access to systems. Allocations, storage,
revocation, and reissue of password are password management
functions. Educating users is a critical component about passwords
and making them responsible for their password.
• Review of user access rights: A user’s need for accessing
information changes with time and requires a periodic review of
access rights to check anomalies in the user’s current job profile, and
the privileges granted earlier.
II. User Responsibilities: User awareness and responsibility are also
important factors discussed below:
• Password use: This includes mandatory use of strong passwords to
maintain confidentiality.
• Unattended user equipment: Users should ensure that none of the
equipment under their responsibility is ever left unprotected. They
should also secure their PCs with a password and should not leave it

41
accessible to others. While leaving the premises from work, care

should be taken to always lock the system.
III. Network Access Control: Network Access controls refers to the
process of managing access for use of network based services like
shared resources, access to cloud based services, remote login,
network and internet access. The protection can be achieved through
the following means:
• Policy on use of network services: An enterprise-wide policy
applicable to internet service requirements aligned with the business
need for using the Internet services is the first step. Selection of
appropriate services and approval to access them should be part of
this policy.
• Enforced path: Based on risk assessment, it is necessary to specify
the exact path or route connecting the networks e.g. internet access
by employees will be routed through a firewall and proxy.
• Segregation of networks: Based on the sensitive information
handling function; say a VPN connection between a branch office
and the head-office, this network is to be isolated from the internet
usage service thereby providing a secure remote connection.
• Network connection and routing control: The traffic between
networks should be restricted, based on identification of source and
authentication access policies implemented across the enterprise
network facility.
• Security of network services: The techniques of authentication and
authorization policy should be implemented across the
organization’s network.
• Firewall: A Firewall is a system that enforces access control between
two networks. To accomplish this, all traffic between the external
network and the organization’s Intranet must pass through the
firewall that will allow only authorized traffic between the
organization and the outside to pass through it. The firewall must be
immune to penetrate from both outside and inside the organization.
In addition to insulating the organization’s network from external
networks, firewalls can be used to insulate portions of the
organization’s Intranet from internal access also as per the
organizations network usage policy.

42
• Network Encryption: Network encryption is defined as the process

of encrypting data and messages transmitted or communicated over a
computer network. Encrypting date means the conversion of data into
a secret code for storage in databases and transmission over networks.
Two general approaches - Private key and Public key encryption are
used for encryption.
• Call Back Devices: It is based on the principle that the key to
network security is to keep the intruder off the Intranet rather than
imposing security measure after the criminal has connected to the
intranet. The call back device requires the user to enter a password
and then the system breaks the connection. If the caller is authorized,
the call back device dials the caller’s number to establish a new
connection. This limits the access only from authorized terminals or
telephone numbers and prevents an intruder masquerading as a
legitimate user. This also helps to avoid the call forwarding and man-
in-the middle attack.
IV. Operating System Access Control: Operating System (O/S) is the
computer control program that allows users and their applications
to share and access common computer resources, such as processor,
main memory, database, and printers. Major tasks of O/S are Job
Scheduling; Managing Hardware and Software Resources;
Maintaining System Security; Enabling Multiple User Resource
Sharing; Handling Interrupts and Maintaining Usage Records.
Operating system security involves policy, procedure and controls
that determine, ‘who can access the operating system,’ ‘which
resources they can access’, and ‘what action they can take’. Hence,
protecting operating system access is extremely crucial and can be
achieved using following steps.
• Automated terminal identification: This will help to ensure that a
specified session could only be initiated from a certain location or
computer terminal.
• Terminal log-in procedures: A log-in procedure is the first line of
defense against unauthorized access as it does not provide
unnecessary help or information, which could be misused by an
intruder. When the user initiates the log-on process by entering
user-id and password, the system compares the ID and password to
a database of valid users and accordingly authorizes the log-in.

43
• Access Token: If the log on attempt is successful, the operating

system creates an access token that contains key information about
the user including user-id, password, user group and privileges
granted to the user. The information in the access token is used to
approve all actions attempted by user during the session.
• Access Control List: This list contains information that defines the
access privileges for all valid users of the resource. When a user
attempts to access a resource, the system compasses his or her user-
id and privileges contained in the access token with those privileges
granted to the user as mentioned in the access control list. If there
is a match, the user is granted access.
• Discretionary Access Control: The system administrator usually
determines who is granted access to specific resources and
maintains the access control list. However, in distributed systems,
resources may be controlled by the end-user. Resource owners in
this setting may be granted discretionary access control, which
allows them to grant access privileges to other users. For example,
the controller who is owner of the general ledger grants read only
privilege to the budgeting department while accounts payable
manager is granted both read and write permission to the ledger.
• User identification and authentication: The users must be
identified and authenticated in a foolproof manner. Depending on
risk assessment, more stringent methods like Biometric
Authentication or Cryptographic means like Digital Certificates
should be employed.
• Password management system: An operating system could
enforce selection of good passwords. Internal storage of password
should use one-way hashing algorithms and the password file
should not be accessible to users.
• Use of system utilities: System utilities are the programs that help
to manage critical functions of the operating system e.g. addition or
deletion of users. Obviously, this utility should not be accessible to
a general user. Use and access to these utilities should be strictly
controlled and logged.
• Duress alarm to safeguard users: If users are forced to execute
some instruction under threat, the system should provide a means

44
to alert the authorities. The design of the duress alarm should be

simple enough to be operated under stressful situations.
• Terminal time out: Log out the user if the terminal is inactive for a
defined period. This will prevent misuse in absence of legitimate user.
• Limitation of connection time: Define the available time slot. Do
not allow any transaction beyond this time. For example, no
computer access after 8.00 p.m. and before 8.00 a.m. or on a
Saturday or Sunday.
V. Application and Monitoring System Access Control: Applications are
most common assets that access information. Users invoke the
programmes or modules of application to access, process and
communicate information. Hence, it is necessary to control the accesses
to application. Some of the controls are as follows:
• Information Access restriction: The access to information is
prevented by application specific menu interfaces, which limit access
to system function. A user can access only to those items, s/he is
authorized to access. Controls are implemented on access rights like
read, write, delete, and execute to users, and further to ensure that
sensitive output is sent only to authorized terminals and locations.
• Sensitive System isolation: Based on the critical constitution of a
system in an enterprise, it may even be necessary to run the system
in an isolated environment. Monitoring system access is a detective
control, to check if preventive controls discussed so far are working.
If not, this control will detect/report any unauthorized activities.
• Event logging: In Computer systems, it is easy and viable to
maintain extensive logs for all types of events. It is necessary to
review if logging is enabled and the logs are archived properly. An
intruder may penetrate the system by trying different passwords and
user ID combinations. All incoming and outgoing requests along
with attempted access should be recorded in a transaction log. The
log should record the user ID, the time of the access and the terminal
location from where the request has been originated.
• Monitor System use: Based on the risk assessment, a constant
monitoring of some critical systems is essential. Define the details of
types of accesses, operations, events, and alerts that will be
monitored. The extent of detail and the frequency of the review

45
would be based on criticality of operation and risk factors. The log

files are to be reviewed periodically and attention should be given
to any gaps in these logs.
• Clock Synchronization: Event logs maintained across an enterprise
network plays a significant role in correlating an event and
generating report on it. Hence, the need for synchronizing clock time
across the network as per a standard time is mandatory.
VI. Controls when mobile: In today’s organizations, computing facility
is not restricted to a certain data center alone. Ease of access on the
move provides efficiency and results in additional responsibility on
the management to maintain information security. Theft of data
carried on the disk drives of portable computers is a high-risk factor.
Both physical and logical access to these systems is critical.
Information is to be encrypted and access identifications like
fingerprint, eye-iris, and smart cards are necessary security features.
3.4.3 Classification based on “Information Systems Functions”

Auditors might choose to factor systems in several different ways. Auditors have
found two ways to be especially useful when conducting information systems
audits, as discussed below. Fig. 3.4.2 and Fig. 3.4.3 provide overview of The
Management Control Framework and Application Control Framework respectively.
A. The Management Control Framework
Managerial functions must be performed to ensure the development,
implementation, operation, and maintenance of information systems in a planned
and controlled manner in an organization. These functions provide a stable
infrastructure in which information systems can be built, operated, and maintained
on a day-to-day basis.
I. Top Management Controls
The controls adapted by the management of an enterprise are to ensure that the
information systems function correctly, and they meet the strategic business
objectives. The management has the responsibility to determine whether the
controls that their enterprise system has put in place are sufficient so that the IT
activities are adequately controlled. The scope of control here includes framing
high-level IT policies, procedures, and standards on a holistic view and in
establishing a sound internal controls framework within the organization. The high-
level policies establish a framework on which the controls for lower hierarchy of the

46
enterprise. The controls flow from the top of an organization to down; the
responsibility still lies with the senior management. Top management is responsible
for preparing a master plan for the information systems function. The senior
managers who take responsibility for IS function in an organization face many
challenges. The major functions that a senior management must perform are
Planning, Organizing, Leading and Controlling.
(a) Planning – This includes determining the goals of the information systems
function and the means of achieving these goals which could either be a short
term or long term one. The steering committee shall comprise of
representatives from all areas of the business, and IT personnel that would be
responsible for the overall direction of IT. The steering committee should
assume overall responsibility for activities of information systems function.
(b) Organizing – There should be a prescribed IT organizational structure with
documented roles and responsibilities and agreed job descriptions. This
includes gathering, allocating, and coordinating the resources needed to
accomplish the goals that are established during planning function. Unless
Top management performs the organizing function properly, the Information
systems function is unlikely to be effective and efficient.
(c) Leading – This includes the activities like motivating, guiding, and
communicating with personnel. The purpose of leading is to achieve the
harmony of objectives, i.e. a person’s or group’s objectives must not conflict
with the organization’s objectives. The process of leading requires managers
to motivate subordinates, direct them and communicate with them.
(d) Controlling – This includes comparing actual performance of the information
systems functions with their planned performance as a basis for taking any
corrective actions that are needed. This involves determining when the actual
activities of the information system’s functions deviate from the planned
activities.
II. Systems Development Management Controls
Systems Development Management has responsibility for the functions
concerned with analyzing, designing, building, implementing, and
maintaining information systems. System development controls are targeted
to ensure that proper documentations and authorizations are available for
each phase of the system development process. It includes controls at
controlling new system development activities. The activities discussed below
deal with system development controls in an IT setup.

47
(a) Problem definition and Feasibility assessment: Information Systems can

be developed to help resolve problems or to take advantage of
opportunities. All the stakeholders must reach to agreement on the
problem and should understand the possible threats associated with
possible solutions/systems related to asset safeguarding, data integrity,
system effectiveness, and system efficiency. The feasibility assessment is
done to obtain a commitment to change and to evaluate whether cost-
effective solutions are available to address the problem or opportunity
that has been identified. All solutions must be properly and formally
authorized to ensure their economic justification and feasibility. This
requires that each new solution request to be submitted in written form
by stakeholders to systems professionals who have both the expertise and
authority to evaluate and approve (or reject) the request.
(b) Analysis of existing system: Designers need to analyze the existing
system that involves two major tasks:
• Studying the existing organizational history, structure, and culture
to gain an understanding of the social and task systems in place,
the ways these systems are coupled, and the willingness if
stakeholders to change.
• Studying the existing product and information flows as the
proposed system will be based primarily on current product and
information flows. The designers need to understand the strengths
and weaknesses of existing product to determine the new system
requirements and the extent of change required.
(c) Information Processing System design: This phase involves following
activities:
• Elicitation of detailed requirements: Either ask the stakeholders for
their requirement in case they are aware about it or discover the
requirement through analysis and experimentation in case
stakeholders are uncertain about their need.
• Design of data/information flow: The designers shall determine the
flow of data/information and transformation points, the frequency
and timing of the data and information flows and the extent to
which data and information flows will be formalized. Tools such as
DFD can be used for this purpose.

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• Design of Database and user interface: Design of database involves

determining its scope and structure, whereas the design of user
interface determines the ways in which users interact with a system.
• Physical design: This involves breaking up the logical design into
units which in turn can be decomposed further into implementation
units such as programs and modules.
• Design of the hardware/software platform: In case the hardware
and software platforms are not available in the organization, the
new platforms are required to be designed to support the proposed
system.
(d) Hardware/Software acquisition and procedures development: To
purchase the new application system or hardware, a request for a
proposal must be prepared, vendor proposals are sought, and final
decisions is made based on evaluation. During procedures development,
designers specify the activities that users must undertake to support the
ongoing operation of the system and to obtain useful output.
(e) Acceptance Testing and Conversion: Acceptance Testing is carried out to
identify errors or deficiencies in the system prior to its final release into
production use. The conversion phase comprises the activities undertaken
to place the new system in operation.
(f) Operation and Maintenance: In this phase, the new system is run as a
production system and periodically modified to better meet its objectives.
A formal process is required to identify and record the need for changes
to a system and to authorize and control the implementation of needed
changes. The maintenance activities associated with these systems need
to be approved and monitored carefully.
III. Programming Management Controls
Program development and implementation is a major phase within the systems
development life cycle. The primary objectives of this phase are to produce or
acquire and to implement high-quality programs. Refer Table 3.4.5.
Table 3.4.5: Program Development Life Cycle
Phase Controls
Planning This phase estimates the resources required for software
development, acquisition, and implementation. The importance
and complexity of planning decision can vary based on factors

49
such as size of software to be developed and uncertainty relating

to user requirement or support technology.
Design In this, programmers seek to specify the structure and operation
of programs that will meet the requirements articulated. Any
systematic approach to program design like structured design
approach or object-oriented design is adopted. The design of
program depends on the type of programming language that has
been or will be used to implement the program.
Coding Programmers must choose a module implementation and
integration strategy (like Top-down and Bottom-up approach), a
coding strategy (that follows percepts of structured
programming) and a documentation strategy to ensure program
code is easily readable and understandable.
Testing Three types of testing can be undertaken in this phase:
♦ Unit Testing which focuses on individual program modules;
♦ Integration Testing which focuses on groups of program
modules; and
♦ Whole-of-Program Testing which focuses on whole
program to determine whether it meets the requirement.
These tests are to ensure that a developed or acquired program
achieves its specified requirements.
Operation Management establishes formal mechanisms to monitor the
and status of operational programs so that maintenance needs can be
Maintenance identified on a timely basis. Below are three types of maintenance:
♦ Repair Maintenance – in which logic errors detected in the
system are corrected;
♦ Adaptive Maintenance – in which the program is modified
to meet changing user requirements; and
♦ Perfective Maintenance - in which the program is tuned to
decrease the resource consumption and improve processing
efficiency.
The Control phase that runs in parallel to all other phases during software
development or acquisition is to monitor progress against plan and to ensure that
software released for production use is authentic, accurate, and complete.
Techniques like Work Breakdown Structures (WBS), Gantt Charts and PERT

50
(Program Evaluation and Review Technique) Charts can be used to monitor

progress against plan. The Control phase has two major purposes:
• Task progress in various software life-cycle phases should be monitored
against plan and corrective action should be taken in case of any deviations.
• Control over software development, acquisition, and implementation tasks
should be exercised to ensure software released for production use is
authentic, accurate, and complete.
IV. Data Resource Management Controls
In organizations, the data is a critical resource that must be managed properly and
therefore, accordingly, centralized planning and control are implemented. For data
to be managed better; users must be able to share data; data must be available to
users when it is needed, in the location where it is needed, and in the form in which
it is needed. Further, it must be possible to modify data easily if the change is
required and the integrity of the data must be preserved.
If data repository system is used properly, it can enhance data and application
system reliability. It must be controlled carefully, however, because the
consequences are serious if the data definition is compromised or destroyed.
Careful control should be exercised over the roles by appointing senior,
trustworthy persons, separating duties to the extent possible and maintaining
and monitoring logs of the data administrator’s and database administrator’s
activities. Data integrity is defined as maintenance, assurance, accuracy,
consistency of data and the control activities that are involved in maintaining
it are as under:
(a) Definition Controls: These controls are placed to ensure that the
database always corresponds and comply with its definition standards.
(b) Existence/Backup Controls: These controls ensure the existence of the
database by establishing backup and recovery procedures. Backup refers
to making copies of the data so that these additional copies may be used
to restore the original data after a data loss. Backup controls ensure the
availability of system in the event of data loss due to unauthorized
access, equipment failure or physical disaster; the organization can
retrieve its files and databases. Various backup strategies like dual
recording of data; periodic dumping of data; logging input transactions
and changes to the data may be used.
(c) Access Controls: These controls are designed to prevent unauthorized
individual from viewing, retrieving, computing, or destroying the entity's

51
data. User Access Controls are established through passwords, tokens

and biometric controls; and Data Encryption controls are established by
keeping the data in database in encrypted form.
(d) Update Controls: These controls restrict update of the database to
authorized users in two ways either by permitting only addition of data
to the database or allowing users to change or delete existing data.
(e) Concurrency Controls: These controls provide solutions, agreed-upon
schedules, and strategies to overcome the data integrity problems that
may arise when two update processes access the same data item at the
same time.
(f) Quality Controls: These controls ensure the accuracy, completeness, and
consistency of data maintained in the database. This may include
traditional measures such as program validation of input data and batch
controls over data in transit through the organization.
V. Security Management Controls
Information security administrators are responsible for ensuring that information
systems assets categorized under Personnel, Hardware, Facilities, Documentation,
Supplies Data, Application Software and System Software are secure. Assets are
secure when the expected losses that will occur over some time, are at an
acceptable level. The Environmental Controls, Physical Controls and Logical Access
Controls are all security measures against the possible threats. However, despite the
controls on place, there could be a possibility that a control might fail. Disasters
are events/incidents that are so critical that has capability to hit business continuity
of an entity in an irreversible manner.
When disaster strikes, it still must be possible to recover operations and mitigate
losses using the controls of last resort - A Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP) and
Insurance.
• DRP deals with how an organization recovers from a disaster and comes back
to its normalcy. The plan lays down the policies, guidelines, and procedures
for all Information System personnel. A comprehensive DRP comprise four
parts – an Emergency Plan (actions to be undertaken immediately when a
disaster occurs), a Backup Plan (specifies the type of backup to be kept,
frequency of taking backup, the procedures for making backup etc.), a
Recovery Plan (to restore full IS capabilities) and a Test Plan (to identify
deficiencies in the test plan). Business Continuity Plan (BCP) as compared

52
to a DRP mainly deals with carrying on the critical business operations in the
event of a disaster so as to ensure minimum impact on the business.
• Insurance is a contract, represented by a policy, in which an individual or
entity receives financial protection or reimbursement against losses from an
insurance company. Adequate insurance must be able to replace Information
Systems assets and to cover the extra costs associated with restoring normal
operations.
VI. Operations Management Controls
Operations management is responsible for the daily running of hardware and
software facilities so that production application systems can accomplish their work
and development staff can design, implement and maintain application systems.
Operations management typically perform controls over the functions as discussed
below:
(a) Computer Operations: The controls over computer operations govern the
activities that directly support the day-to-day execution of either test or
production systems on the hardware/software platform available.
(b) Network Operations: Data may be lost or corrupted through component
failure. To avoid such situation, the proper functioning of network operations,
monitoring the performance of network communication channels, network
devices, and network programs and files are required.
(c) Data Preparation and Entry: Irrespective of whether the data is obtained
indirectly from source documents or directly from say customers, keyboard
environments and facilities should be designed to promote speed and
accuracy and to maintain the wellbeing of keyboard operators.
(d) Production Control: This includes the major functions like receipt and
dispatch of input and output; job scheduling; management of service-level
agreements with users; transfer pricing/charge-out control; and acquisition
of computer consumables.
(e) File Library: This includes the management of not only machine-readable
storage media like magnetic tapes, cartridges, and optical disks of an
organization but also its fixed storage media.
(f) Documentation and Program Library: This involves that documentation
librarians ensure that documentation is stored securely; that only authorized
personnel gain access to documentation; that documentation is kept up-to-
date and that adequate backup exists for documentation. There should also

53
be adequate versioning of documents depending on the updates. The

documentation may include reporting of responsibility and authority of each
function; definition of responsibilities and objectives of each function;
reporting responsibility and authority of each function; policies and
procedures; job descriptions and Segregation of Duties.
(g) Help Desk/Technical support: This assists end-users to employ end-user
hardware and software such as micro-computers, spreadsheet packages,
database management packages etc. and provided the technical support for
production systems by assisting with problem resolution.
(h) Capacity Planning and Performance Monitoring: Regular performance
monitoring facilitates the capacity planning wherein the resource deficiencies
must be identified well in time so that they can be made available when they
are needed.
(i) Management of Outsourced Operations: This has the responsibility for
carrying out day-to-day monitoring of the outsourcing contract.
VII. Quality Assurance Management Controls
Quality Assurance management is concerned with ensuring that the –
♦ Information systems produced by the information systems function achieve
certain quality goals; and
♦ Development, implementation, operation and maintenance of Information
systems comply with a set of quality standards.
Quality Assurance (QA) personnels should work to improve the quality of
information systems produced, implemented, operated, and maintained in an
organization. They perform a monitoring role for management to ensure that –
♦ Quality goals are established and understood clearly by all stakeholders;
♦ Compliance occurs with the standards that are in place to attain quality
information systems, and
♦ Best practices in the industry are also incorporated during the production of
information systems including detailed knowledge transfer sessions, quality
matrix etc.

54
THE MANAGEMENT CONTROL FRAMEWORK
Top Mgt. Systems Development Mgt. Programming Data Resource Mgt. Controls: Data Security Mgt. Quality
Controls: Controls: Responsible for Mgt. Controls: To must be available to users at a Functions Assurance
Functions functions like analyzing, acquire & location and form in which it is Controls: Ensure Mgt.
performed designing, building, implement high- needed, data is modifiable & data that IS assets are Controls:
by Senior implementing, maintaining IS. quality programs. integrity is preserved etc. Includes secure, To
Management This includes Problem Includes phases controls like Definition Controls to recoverable achieve
that includes definition and Feasibility Planning that comply with database definition, after disaster quality
Planning to Assessment to find possible estimates the Existence Controls ensure existence occurs. Includes goals & IS
determine solutions and their economic required of database after data loss, Access DRP (how to comply
goals of justification to resolve resources for s/w Controls prevent unauthorized recover from with set of
information problems, Analysis of existing development, access, Update Controls to restrict disaster & quality
systems system to study the existing Design involves update of database to authorized returns to standards.
function and structure, culture of the systematic users only, Concurrency controls normalcy) &
means of system, existing product & approach to overcome data integrity problems & Insurance
achieving information flows, program design, Quality Controls ensure accuracy, (protection
goals; Information processing Coding use Top- completeness, & data consistency. against losses).
Organizing to system design involving down, Bottom-up
Gather, elicitation of detailed approach, Testing
allocate, requirements, design of data to ensure Operations Mgt. Controls: Responsible for daily running of h/w and
coordinate flow, database, user interface, developed software computer, n/w operations, file library etc. Includes Computer
resources to physical design, h/w and s/w program achieves Operations to directly support daily execution of test or production
accomplish platform etc., H/w & S/w its goals, systems on h/w or s/w platform, Network Operations involve
goals, acquisition & procedures Operation & functioning of n/w operations, monitoring communication channels,
Leading to development wherein Maintenance that devices etc., Data Preparation & Entry include keyboard environments
Motivate, vendors are selected based on could be Repair, designed to promote speed/accuracy to maintain wellbeing of
communicate evaluation criterion, Adaptive, & operators, Production Controls include functions like receipt/dispatch
with Acceptance testing/ Perfective of I/O; job scheduling; mgt. of SLAs etc., File Library includes mgt. of
personnel; conversion to identify Maintenance & storage media, Documentation and Program Library ensures
and deficiencies in the system Control phase documentation stored securely; up-to-date & adequate backup exists,
Controlling before its release, Operation that monitor Technical support assist end-users to employ h/w & s/w, Capacity
to compare and Maintenance in which progress against Planning & Performance Monitoring to identify resource deficiencies,
actual with new system run as production all phases using and Mgt. of Outsourced Operations involve monitoring contracts.
planned system & maintenance WBS, Gantt
performance. activities monitored carefully. Charts, PERT. Fig. 3.4.2: The Management Control Framework

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THE APPLICATION CONTROL FRAMEWORK
Boundary Controls: Involves Input Controls: Ensure Processing Controls: To Database Controls: To protect integrity
access control mechanism. accuracy of data to be compute classify, sort and of database when app. s/w act as
This involves Cryptographic inputted into application summarize data. This includes interface b/w user & database. This
Controls to transform data system. This includes Processor Controls to reduce includes Access Controls to prevent
into codes that are Data Code Control to expected losses from errors & unauthorized access & use of data,
meaningless for a non- reduce user error during irregularities associated with Integrity Controls to ensure accuracy,
authenticated person, Access data feeding, Batch processors, Real Memory completeness, and uniqueness of
Controls that involves 3 steps: Controls to prevent/ Controls to detect/correct instances, Application S/w Controls
Identification, Authentication, detect errors in batch, errors that occur in memory cells that involve Update and Report
Authorization; PIN is a Validation of Data input and to protect areas of memory Controls, Concurrency Controls that
random number stored in Controls detect errors in assigned to a program from handles cases of concurrency and
database, Digital Signatures transaction data before illegal access, VM Controls that deadlock, Cryptographic Controls used
to establish authenticity of e- data are processed & maps VM addresses into real to maintain data integrity, File Handling
documents, Plastic Cards to Audit Trail Controls to memory addresses, App. S/w Controls to prevent accidental data
store information required in log events from time Control to validate checks to destruction on storage medium and
an identification process and data are captured and identify errors during data Audit Trail Controls to log events in
Audit Trail Controls to log of passed to other processing & Audit Trail Ctrls database definition or database itself.
user gaining system access. subsystem. that log events b/w data I/O.
Communication Controls: Discuss exposures in communication Output Controls: Ensure data delivered to users is presented, formatted,
subsystem, controls over physical components, & channel access delivered consistently. It includes Inference Controls to prevent compromise
controls. Physical Component Ctrsl to mitigate effects of exposures, of statistical database, Batch output production and distribution controls
Line Error Ctrl to detect/correct error of attenuation/distortion, Flow include controls over file spooling, printing controls, report distribution
Controls to control rate at which data flows b/w users, Link Controls controls, storage controls etc., Batch Report Design controls to ensure
to manage link b/w 2 nodes in a network, Topological Controls to compliance with control procedures laid during the output, Online output
specify location & way nodes are linked, Channel Access Controls to production and Distribution Controls deal with establishing the output at
handle contention in channel, Control over Subversive threat require source, distributing, communicating, receiving, viewing, retaining and
data to be rendered useless in case of intrusion, Internetworking destructing output and Audit Trail Controls to maintain log of events that
Controls to control n/w connecting devices and Audit Trail Controls occur b/w the time content of output is determined to disposal of output.
to log events from dispatch time of a message to its receival.
Fig. 3.4.3: The Application Control Framework

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B. The Application Control Framework

The objective of application controls is to ensure that data remains complete,
accurate and valid during its input, update and storage. The specific controls could
include form design, source document controls, input, processing and output
controls, media identification, movement and library management, data back-up
and recovery, authentication and integrity, legal and regulatory requirements. Any
function or activity that works to ensure the processing accuracy of an application
can be considered as application control. For example, a counter clerk at a bank is
required to perform various business activities as part of his/her job description
and assigned responsibilities. S/he can relate to the advantages of technology
when he is able to interact with the computer system from the perspective of
meeting his job objectives. Application System Controls involve ensuring that
individual application systems safeguard assets (reducing expected losses),
maintain data integrity (ensuring complete, accurate and authorized data)
and achieve objectives effectively and efficiently from the perspective of users
of the system from within and outside the organization.
An Audit Trail should record all the material events that occur within the boundary
subsystem to analyze and search for error or irregularities. Audit Trail Controls
attempt to ensure that a chronological record of all events that have occurred in a
system is maintained. This record is needed to answer queries, fulfill statutory
requirements, detect the consequences of error, and allow system monitoring and
tuning. Two types of audit trails that should exist in each subsystem are as follows:
♦ An Accounting Audit Trail to maintain a record of events within the
subsystem.
♦ An Operations Audit Trail to maintain a record of attempted or actual
resource consumption associated with each event in the subsystem.
I. Boundary Controls
The major controls of the boundary system are the access control mechanisms that
links the authentic users to the authorized resources, they are permitted to access.
The boundary subsystem establishes the interface between the would-be user of a
computer system and the computer itself. Major Controls at the Boundary
subsystem are as follows:
(a) Cryptographic Controls: These are designed to protect the privacy of data
and prevent unauthorized modification of data by scrambling data. These
deal with programs for transforming data into cipher text that are
meaningless to anyone, who does not possess the authentication to access

57
the respective system resource or file. A cryptographic technique transforms

(encrypts) data (known as cleartext) into cryptograms (known as ciphertext)
and its strength depends on the time and cost to decipher the ciphertext by
a cryptanalyst. Three techniques of cryptography that are used are
Transposition (permute the order of characters within a set of data),
Substitution (replace text with a key-text) and Product Ciphers
(combination of transposition and substitution).
(b) Access Controls: These controls restrict the use of computer system
resources to authorized users, limit the actions authorized users can take
with these resources and ensure that users obtain only authentic
computer system resources. The access control mechanism involves three
steps: Identification, Authentication and Authorization.
o User’s identification is done by user itself by providing his/her
unique user id allotted to him/her or account number.
o Authentication mechanism is used for proving the identity with the
help of a password which may involve personal characteristics like
name, birth date, employee code, designation or a combination of
two or more of these. Biometric identification including thumb or
finger impression, eye retina etc. and information stored in
identification cards can also be used in an authentication process.
o Authorization refers to the set of actions allowed to a user once
authentication is done successfully. For example – Read, Write,
Print, etc. permissions allowed to an individual user.
An access control mechanism is used to enforce an access control policy
which are mainly of two types - Discretionary Access Control and
Mandatory Access Control policies (already discussed in Chapter 2).
(c) Personal Identification Numbers (PIN): As already discussed before, we
may recall that it is a form of remembered information used to
authenticate users like verification of customers in electronic fund
transfer systems. PIN is like a password assigned to a user by an
institution, a random number stored in its database independent to a
user identification details. Several phases of the life cycle of PINs include
the steps that are (a) Generation of the PIN; (b) Issuance and delivery of
PIN to users; (c) Validation of the PIN upon entry at the terminal device;
(d) Transmission of the PIN across communication lines; (e) Processing

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of the PIN; (f) Storage of the PIN; (g) Change of the PIN; (h) Replacement
of the PIN; and (i) Termination of the PIN.
A PIN may be exposed to vulnerabilities at any stage of the life cycle of
PIN and therefore, controls need to be put in place and working to reduce
exposures to an acceptable level.
(d) Digital Signatures: Establishing the authenticity of persons and
preventing the denial of message or contracts are critical requirements
when data is exchanged in electronic form. A counterpart known as
Digital Signature (a string of 0’s and 1’s) is used as an analog signature
for such e-documents. Digital Signatures are not constant like analog
signatures – they vary across messages and cannot be forged.
(e) Plastic Cards: We may recall that while PIN and Digital Signatures are
used for authentication purposes, plastic cards are used primarily for
identification purpose. This includes the phases namely - application for
a card, preparation of the card, issue of the card, use of the card and card
return or card termination.
(f) Audit Trail Controls: This maintains the chronology of events that occur
when a user attempts to gain access to and employ systems resources. The
events associated with both types of audit trail control are given below in
Table 3.4.6:
Table 3.4.6: Audit Trail Controls - Boundary Control
Accounting Audit Trail Operations Audit Trail
All material application-oriented events occurring This includes the details
within the boundary subsystem should be recorded like resource usage
that may include the data related to identity of the from log-on to log-out
would-be user of system; authentication information time and log of
supplied; resources requested/provided or denied; resource consumption.
terminal Identifier and Start/Finish Time; number of
Sign-on attempts; & Action privileges allowed/denied.
II. Input Controls

Data that is presented to an application as input data must be validated for
authorization, reasonableness, completeness, accuracy, and integrity. These
controls are responsible for ensuring the accuracy and completeness of data and
instruction input into an application system. Input controls are important and
critical since substantial time is spent on input of data, involve human intervention

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and are, therefore error and fraud prone. These are of following types as shown in
the Fig. 3.4.4:
D. Audit Trail Controls
Fig. 3.4.4: Classification of Input Controls

In systems that use physical source documents to initiate transactions, careful
control must be exercised over these instruments. Source document fraud can be
used to remove assets from the organization. For example- an individual with
access to purchase orders and receiving reports could fabricate a purchase
transaction to a non-existent supplier. In the absence of other compensating
controls to detect this type of fraud, the system would create an account payable
and subsequently write a cheque for payment. To control against this type of
exposure, an organization must implement control procedures over source
documents to account for each document.
(a) Data Code Controls: These controls are aimed at reducing the user error
during data feeding. Two types of errors - Transcription and Transposition
errors can corrupt a data code and cause processing errors. Any of these
errors can cause serious problems in data processing if they go undetected.
These simple errors can severely disrupt operations.
• Transcription Errors: It is a special type of data entry error that is
commonly made by human operators or by Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) programs. These can be Addition errors (when an
extra digit is added to the code); Truncation Errors (when a digit is
removed from the code) and Substitution Errors (replacement of a
digit in a code with another).
• Transposition Errors: It is a simple error of data entry that occurs when
two digits that are either individual or part of larger sequence of
numbers are reversed (Transpose) when posting a transaction. For
example, a sales order for customer 987654 that is transposed into
897654 will be posted to the wrong customer’s account. A similar error
in an inventory item code on a purchase order could result in ordering
unneeded inventory and failing to order inventory that is needed.

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(b) Batch Controls: Batching is the process of grouping together transactions

that bear some type of relationship to each other. Various controls can be
exercises over the batch to prevent or detect errors or irregularities. To
identify errors or irregularities in either a physical or logical batch, three types
of control totals are as follows:
• Financial Totals: Grand totals calculated for each field containing
monetary amounts. For example - the total salary paid to employees of
an organization can be totaled using DA, TA, house allowance, medical
and PF etc.
• Hash Totals: Grand totals calculated for any code on a document in the
batch, e.g., the source document serial numbers can be totaled.
• Document/Record Counts: Grand totals for number of documents /
record in batch.
(c) Validation of Data Input Control: Input validation controls are intended to
detect errors in the transaction data before the data are processed. These
errors need to be corrected and if not corrected, the same should be written
immediately to an error file. Some of these controls include the following:
• Field check: It involves programmed procedures that examine the
characters of the data in the field. This includes the checks like Limit
Check (against predefined limits), Picture Checks (against entry into
processing of incorrect/invalid characters), Valid check codes (against
predetermined transactions codes, tables) etc.
• Record Check: This includes the reasonableness check of whether the
value specified in a field is reasonable for that particular field; Valid
sign to determine which sign is valid for a numeric field and Sequence
Check to follow a required order matching with logical records etc.
• Batch Check: This includes the checks like the transaction type if all
input records in a batch are of particular type; sequence check if input
records are in a particular order or not etc.
• File Check: This includes file’s version usage; internal and external
labeling; data file security; file updating and maintenance authorization
etc.
(d) Audit Trail Controls: This maintains the chronology of events from the time
data and instructions are captured and entered into an application system

61
until the time they are deemed valid and passed onto other subsystems within
the application system (Refer Table 3.4.7).
Table 3.4.7: Audit Trail Controls - Input Controls
This must record the origin, contents, and Some of the data that might
timing of transaction entered into be collected include time to
application system, thus involving the key in a source document or
details regarding the identity of the an instrument at a terminal;
person (organization) who was the source number of read errors made
of the data and who entered the data into by an optical scanning device;
the system; the time and date when the number of keying errors
data was captured; the identifier of the identified during verification;
physical device used to enter the data into frequency with which an
the system; the account or record to be instruction in a command
updated by the transaction; the standing language is used; and time
data to be updated by the transaction; the taken to invoke an instruction
details of the transaction; and the number using different input devices
of the physical or logical batch to which like light pen or mouse.
the transaction belongs.
III. Communication Controls
These discuss exposures in the communication subsystem, controls over physical
components, communication line errors, flows and links, topological controls,
channel access controls, controls over subversive attacks, internetworking controls,
communication architecture controls, and audit trail controls. Some communication
controls are as follows:
(a) Physical Component Controls: In the communications subsystem, the
physical components shall have characteristics that make them reliable
and incorporate features and controls that mitigate the possible effects
of exposures. Major physical components that affect the reliability of
communication subsystem are Transmission media, Communication
lines, Modem, Port protection devices, Multiplexers, and Concentrators
etc.
(b) Line Error Controls: Whenever data is transmitted over a communication
line, it can be received in error because of attenuation, distortion, or noise
that occurs on the line. These errors must be detected and corrected.

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(c) Flow Controls: Flow controls are needed because two nodes in a network
can differ in terms of the rate at which they can be sent, receive, and process
data. For example- data transmission between mainframe and
microcomputers may become erroneous because of difference in their speed
and storage capacity. Flow controls will be used therefore to prevent the
mainframe flooding the microcomputer and as a result, data being lost.
(d) Link Controls: In Wide Area Network (WAN), line error control and flow
control are important functions in the component that manages the link
between two nodes in a network. The way these link-management
components operate is specified via a protocol.
(e) Topological Controls: A communication network topology specifies the
location of nodes within a network, the ways in which these nodes will
be linked, and the data transmission capabilities of the links between the
nodes. The network must be available for use at any one time by a given
number of users that may require alternative hardware, software, or
routing of messages.
(f) Channel Access Controls: Two different nodes in a network can compete to
use a communication channel simultaneously, leading to the possibility of
contention for the channel existing. Therefore, some type of channel access
control techniques like polling method (defining an order in which a node
can gain access to a channel capacity) or contention method (nodes in
network must compete with each other to gain access to a channel) must be
used.
(g) Controls over Subversive threats: Firstly, the physical barriers are needed
to be established to the data traversing into the subsystem. Secondly, in
case the intruder has somehow gained access to the data, the data needs
to be rendered useless when access occurs.
(h) Internetworking Controls: Different internetworking devices like bridge,
router, gateways are used to establish connectivity between
homogeneous or heterogeneous networks. Therefore, several control
functions in terms of access control mechanisms, security and reliability
of the networks are required to be established.
(i) Audit Trail Controls: This maintains a chronology of the events from the time
a sender dispatches a message to the time a receiver obtains the message.
Few examples of data item that might be kept in both types of audit trail is
shown in Table 3.4.8.

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Table 3.4.8: Audit Trail Controls - Communication Controls

This includes collection of the data like This includes the details like
unique identifier of the source, number of messages that have
destination and each node that traverses traversed each link and each node;
the message; unique identifier of the queue lengths at each node;
person or process authorizing dispatch of number of errors occurring on
the message; time and date at which the each link or at each node; number
message was dispatched and received by of retransmissions that have
the sink node; time and date at which occurred across each link; log of
node in the network was traversed by the errors to identify locations and
message; message sequence number; and patterns of errors; log of system
the image of the message received at restarts; and message transit times
each node traversed in the network. between nodes and at nodes.
IV. Processing Controls

The processing subsystem is responsible for computing, sorting, classifying, and
summarizing data. Its major components are the Central Processor in which
programs are executed, the real or virtual memory in which program instructions
and data are stored, the operating system that manages system resources, and the
application programs that execute instructions to achieve specific user
requirements. Some of these controls are as follows:
(a) Processor Controls: Table 3.4.9 enlists the Controls to reduce expected
losses from errors and irregularities associated with Central processors.
Table 3.4.9: Processor Controls
Control Explanation
Error Occasionally, processors might malfunction because of

Detection design errors, manufacturing defects, damage, fatigue,
and electromagnetic interference, and ionizing radiation. The
Correction failure might be transient (that disappears after a short
period), intermittent (that reoccurs periodically), or
permanent (that does not correct with time). For the transient
and intermittent errors, re-tries and re-execution might be
successful, whereas for permanent errors, the processor must
halt and report error.

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Multiple It is important to determine the number of and nature of the

Execution execution states enforced by the processor. This helps
States auditors to determine which user processes will be able to
carry out unauthorized activities, such as gaining access to
sensitive data maintained in memory regions assigned to the
operating system or other user processes.
Timing An operating system might get stuck in an infinite loop. In
Controls the absence of any control, the program will retain use of
processor and prevent other programs from undertaking
their work.
Component In some cases, processor failure can result in significant
Replication losses. Redundant processors allow errors to be detected and
corrected. If processor failure is permanent in multicomputer
or multiprocessor architectures, the system might
reconfigure itself to isolate the failed processor.
(b) Real Memory Controls: This comprises the fixed amount of primary storage
in which programs or data must reside for them to be executed or referenced
by the central processor. Real memory controls seek to detect and correct
errors that occur in memory cells and to protect areas of memory assigned to a
program from illegal access by another program.
(c) Virtual Memory Controls: Virtual Memory exists when the addressable
storage space is larger than the available real memory space. To achieve this
outcome, a control mechanism must be in place that maps virtual memory
addresses into real memory addresses. When an executing program
references virtual memory addresses, the mechanism then translates these
addresses into real memory addresses.
(d) Application Software Controls: These perform validation checks to identify
errors during processing of data. These are required to ensure both the
completeness and the accuracy of data being processed. Normally, the
processing controls are enforced through database management system that
stores the data. However, adequate controls should be enforced through the
front-end application system also to have consistency in the control process.
(e) Audit Trail Controls: This maintains the chronology of events from the time
data is received from the input or communication subsystem to the time data

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is dispatched to the database, communication, or output subsystems. Table

3.4.10 shows the Audit Trail Controls of Processing Controls.
Table 3.4.10: Audit Trail Controls - Processing Controls
This includes the data items like- to trace This includes a
and replicate the processing performed on a comprehensive log on
data item that enters into the processing hardware consumption –
subsystem, to follow triggered transactions CPU time used,
from end to end by monitoring input data secondary storage space
entry, intermediate results and output data used, and communication
values, to check for existence of any data facilities used and
flow diagrams or flowcharts that describe comprehensive log on
data flow in the transaction, and whether software consumption –
such diagrams or flowcharts correctly compilers, subroutine
identify the flow of data and to check libraries, file
whether audit log entries recorded the management facilities
changes made in the data items at any time and communication
including who made them. software used.
V. Database Controls
These controls are used within an application software to maintain the integrity of
data, to prevent integrity violations when multiple programs have concurrent
access to data, and the ways in which data privacy can be preserved within the
database subsystem.
(a) Access Controls: These controls in database subsystem seek to prevent
unauthorized access to and use of the data. A security policy has to be
specified followed by choosing an access control mechanism that will
enforce the policy chosen. If database is replicated, the same access
control rules must be enforced by access control mechanism at each site.
(b) Integrity Controls: These are required to ensure that the accuracy,
completeness, and uniqueness of instances used within the data or
conceptual modeling are maintained. Integrity Constraints are
established to specify the type of relationship and consistency among
rows (tuple) in relationship.
(c) Application Software Controls: When application software acts as an
interface to interact between the user and the database, the DBMS

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depends on application software to pass across a correct sequence of

commands and update parameters so that appropriate actions can be
taken when certain types of exception condition arise. This is achieved
through Update Controls that ensure that changes to the database reflect
changes to the real-world entities and associations between entities that
data in the database is supposed to represent and Report Controls that
identify errors or irregularities that may have occurred when the
database has been updated.
(d) Concurrency Controls: These are required to address the situation that
arises either due to simultaneous access to the same database or due to
deadlock.
(e) Cryptographic Controls: (Already discussed under Boundary Controls)
These controls can be well used for protecting the integrity of data stored
in the database using block encryption.
(f) File Handling Controls: These controls are used to prevent accidental
destruction of data contained on a storage medium. These are exercised
by hardware, software, and the operators or users who load/unload
storage media.
(g) Audit Trail Controls: The audit trail maintains the chronology of events that
occur either to the database definition or the database itself as shown in
Table 3.4.11.
Table 3.4.11: Audit Trail Controls - Database Controls
This includes the data items to confirm whether This maintains a
an application properly accepts, processes, and chronology of resource
stores information, to attach a unique time stamp consumption events
to all transactions, to attach before-images and that affects the
after-images of the data item on which a database definition or
transaction is applied to the audit trail, any the database.
modifications or corrections to audit trail
transactions accommodating the changes that
occur within an application system, and to not
only test the stated input, calculation, and output
rules for data integrity; but also should assess the
efficacy of the rules themselves.

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VI. Output Controls

These controls ensure that the data delivered to users will be presented, formatted,
and delivered in a consistent and secured manner. Output can be in any form, it
can either be a printed data report or a database file in a removable media. Various
Output Controls are as follows:
(a) Inference Controls: These are used to prevent compromise of statistical
databases from which users can obtain only aggregate statistics rather
than the values of individual data items. These are restriction controls
which limit the set of responses provided to users to try to protect the
confidentiality of data about persons in the database.
(b) Batch Output Production and Distribution Controls: Batch output in the
form of tables, graphs or images etc. is produced at some operations
facility and distributed to users of the output. This includes several
controls like Report program execution Controls to ensure that only
authorized users are permitted to execute batch report programs and
these events are logged and monitored; Spooling file Controls so that the
user(s) can continue working while a queue of documents waiting to be
printed on a particular printer to ensure that the waiting files to get printed
shall not be subject to unauthorized modifications; Printing Controls to
ensure that output is made on the correct printer, and unauthorized
disclosure of printed information does not take place; Report collection
Controls to ensure that report is collected immediately and secured to avoid
unauthorized disclosure and data leakage; User/Client service Review
Controls to ensure user should obtain higher quality output and detection of
errors or irregularities in output; Report distribution Controls ensuring that
the time gap between generation and distribution of reports is reduced, and
a log is maintained for reports that were generated and to whom these were
distributed; User output Controls to be in place to ensure that users review
output on a timely basis; Storage Controls to ensure proper perseverance of
output in an ideal environment, secured storage of output and appropriate
inventory controls over the stored output and Retention and Destruction
Controls in terms of deciding the time duration for which the output shall be
retained and then destroyed when not required.
(c) Batch Report Design Controls: Batch report design features should
comply with the control procedures laid down for them during the output
process. The information incorporated in a well-designed batch report

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shall facilitate its flow though the output process and execution of
controls.
(d) Online output production and Distribution Controls: It deals with the
controls to be considered at various phases like establishing the output
at the source, distributing, communicating, receiving, viewing, retaining
and destructing the output. Source controls ensure that output which can
be generated or accessed online is authorized, complete and timely;
Distribution Controls to prevent unauthorized copying of online output
when it was distributed to a terminal; Communication Controls to reduce
exposures from attacks during transmission; Receipt Controls to evaluate
whether the output should be accepted or rejected; Review Controls to
ensure timely action of intended recipients on the output; Disposition
Controls to educate employees the actions that can be taken on the online
output they receive; and Retention Controls to evaluate for how long the
output is to be retained and Deletion Controls to delete the output once
expired.
(e) Audit Trail Controls: The audit trail maintains the chronology of events that
occur from the time the content of the output is determined until the time
users complete their disposal of output because it no longer should be
retained. The data items that need to be considered are provided in Table
3.4.12.
Table 3.4.12: Audit Trail Controls - Output Controls
This includes what output This maintains the record of resources consumed
was assimilated for by components in the output subsystem to
presentation to the users; assimilate, produce, distribute, use, store and
what output was then dispose of various types of output like graphs,
presented to the users; who images etc., to record data that enables print times,
received the output; when response times and display rates for output to be
the output was received; determined and to manage the information that
and what actions were enables the organization to improve the timelines
subsequently taken with of output production and reduce the number of
the output. resources consumed in producing output.

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3.5 INFORMATION SYSTEMS’ AUDITING

Computers are used extensively to process data and to provide information for
decision-making. However, uncontrolled use of computers can have a widespread
impact on a society. Because computers play a large part in assisting us to process
data and to make decisions, it is significant that their use is in controlled manner.
3.5.1 Need for Control and Audit of Information Systems
Factors influencing an organization toward controls and audit of computers and
the impact of the information systems audit function on organizations are depicted
in the Fig. 3.5.1.
Fig. 3.5.1: Factors influencing an organization toward control and Audit of

computer-based Information Systems
Let us now discuss these reasons in detail (Refer Fig. 3.5.1):
1. Organizational Costs of Data Loss: Data is a critical resource of an
organization for its present and future processes. If the data is accurate, its
ability to adapt and survive in a changing environment increases significantly.
If such data is lost, an organization can incur substantial losses.
2. Cost of Incorrect Decision Making: Making high-quality decisions are
dependent on both – the quality of the data and quality of the decision rules
that exist within computer-based information systems. While making
strategic decisions, some errors may be allowed by management considering
the long-run nature of strategic planning decisions whereas highly accurate
data would be required while making operational control decisions by the
managers. These operational controls taken by managers involve detection,
investigations and correction of the processes. Incorrect data can also have

70
adverse impact on the other stakeholders having an interest in the

organization.
3. Costs of Computer Abuse: Computer abuse is defined as any incident
associated with computer technology in which the user suffered or could have
suffered loss and a perpetrator by intention made or could have made gain.
Unauthorized access to computer systems, malwares, unauthorized physical
access to computer facilities, unauthorized copies of sensitive data, viruses,
and hacking can lead to destruction of assets (hardware, software, data,
information etc.).
4. Value of Computer Hardware, Software and Personnel: These are critical
resources of an organization, which has a credible impact on its infrastructure
and business competitiveness. The intentional or unintentional loss of
hardware, the destructions or corruption of software, and non-availability of
skilled computer professionals in some countries; an organization might be
unable to continue their operations seamlessly.
5. High Costs of Computer Error: In a computerized enterprise environment
where many critical business processes are performed, a data error during
entry or process would cause great damage. For example - small data error
during an operational flight can lead to loss of human lives; an error in any
financial system can make an organization liable for penalty etc.
6. Maintenance of Privacy: Today, data collected in a business process
contains private information about an individual too. These data were also
collected before computers but now, there are many instances in which
privacy of individuals has been eroded beyond acceptable levels.
7. Controlled evolution of computers’ Use: Use of Technology and reliability
of complex computer systems cannot be guaranteed and the consequences
of using unreliable systems can be destructive. Governments, professional
bodies, pressure groups, organizations and individual persons all must be
concerned with evaluating and monitoring how we deploy computer
technology.
Information Systems Auditing is defined as the process of attesting objectives
(those of an external auditor) that focus on asset safeguarding, data integrity and
management objectives (those of an internal auditor) that include effectiveness and
efficiency both. This enables organizations to better achieve some major objectives
that are depicted in the Fig. 3.5.2.

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Fig. 3.5.2: Information Systems Auditing Objectives

Let us now discuss these objectives in detail.
a. Asset Safeguarding Objectives: The information system assets like
hardware, software, facilities, people, data files, system documentation,
information etc. must be protected by a system of internal controls from
unauthorized access. These assets are often concentrated in one or small
number of locations such as single disk. Therefore, asset safeguarding is an
important objective for many organizations to achieve.
b. Data Integrity Objectives: It is a fundamental attribute of IS Auditing. Data
has certain attributes – completeness, reliability, transparency, and accuracy.
The importance to maintain integrity of data of an organization is required
all the time, else an organization may suffer loss of competitive advantage. It
is also important from the business perspective of the decision maker,
competitive and the market environment.
c. System Effectiveness Objectives: Evaluating effectiveness implies
knowledge of user needs. Effectiveness of a system is done to evaluate
whether a system reports information in a way that facilitates its users in
decision- making or not. Auditors must be aware of the characteristics of
users and decision-making environment so that objectives of the system to
meet business and user requirements are met.
d. System Efficiency Objectives: An efficient information system uses
minimum resources to achieve its required objectives, therefore the use of
various information system resources like machine time, peripherals, system
software and labor must be optimally utilized along with the impact on its
computing environment. Before upgradation of the systems are done,

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Auditor assist management in knowing whether available capacity of the

resources is exhausted or not.
3.5.2 Tools for IS Audit
Today, organizations produce information on a real-time, online basis. Real-time
recordings need real-time continuous auditing to provide continuous assurance
about the quality of the data. Continuous auditing enables auditors to significantly
reduce and perhaps to eliminate the time between occurrence of the client’s events
and the auditor’s assurance services thereon. Errors in a computerized system are
generated at high speeds and the cost to correct and rerun programs are high. If
these errors can be detected and corrected at the point or closest to the point of
their occurrence, the impact thereof would be the least. Continuous auditing
techniques use two bases for collecting audit evidence. One is the use of embedded
modules in the system to collect, process, and print audit evidence and the other
is special audit records used to store the audit evidence collected.
Types of Audit Tools: Different types of continuous audit techniques may be used.
Some modules for obtaining data, audit trails and evidence may be built into the
programs. Audit software is available which could be used for selecting and testing
data. Many audit tools are also available; some of them are described below:
(i) Snapshots: Tracing a transaction in a computerized system can be performed
with the help of snapshots or extended records. The snapshot software is built
into the system at those points where material processing occurs which takes
images of the flow of any transaction as it moves through the application.
These images can be utilized to assess the authenticity, accuracy, and
completeness of the processing carried out on the transaction. The main
areas to dwell upon while involving such a system are to locate the snapshot
points based on materiality of transactions when the snapshot will be
captured and the reporting system design and implementation to present
data in a meaningful way.
(ii) Integrated Test Facility (ITF): The ITF technique involves the creation of a
dummy entity in the application system files and the processing of audit test
data against the entity as a means of verifying processing authenticity,
accuracy, and completeness. This test data would be included with the normal
production data used as input to the application system. In such cases, the
auditor must decide what would be the method to be used to enter test data
and the methodology for removal of the effects of the ITF transactions.

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(iii) System Control Audit Review File (SCARF): The SCARF technique involves
embedding audit software modules within a host application system to
provide continuous monitoring of the system’s transactions. The information
collected is written onto a special audit file- the SCARF master files. Auditors
then examine the information contained on this file to see if some aspect of
the application system needs follow-up. In many ways, the SCARF technique
is like the snapshot technique along with other data collection capabilities.
(iv) Continuous and Intermittent Simulation (CIS): This is a variation of the
SCARF continuous audit technique. This technique can be used to trap
exceptions whenever the application system uses a database management
system. During application system processing, CIS executes in the following
way:
• The DBMS reads an application system transaction. It is passed to CIS.
CIS then determines whether it wants to examine the transaction
further. If yes, the next steps are performed or otherwise it waits to
receive further data from the database management system.
• CIS replicates or simulates the application system processing.
• Every update to the database that arises from processing the selected
transaction will be checked by CIS to determine whether discrepancies
exist between the results it produces and those the application system
produces.
• Exceptions identified by CIS are written to an exception log file.
The advantage of CIS is that it does not require modifications to the
application system and yet provides an online auditing capability.
(v) Audit Hooks: There are audit routines that flag suspicious transactions. For
example, internal auditors at Insurance Company determined that their
policyholder system was vulnerable to fraud every time a policyholder
changed his or her name or address and then subsequently withdrew funds
from the policy. They devised a system of audit hooks to tag records with a
name or address change. The internal audit department will investigate these
tagged records for detecting fraud. When audit hooks are employed, auditors
can be informed of questionable transactions as soon as they occur. This
approach of real-time notification displays a message on the auditor’s
terminal.

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3.5.3 Audit Trail

We may recall that Audit Trails are logs that can be designed to record activity at
the system, application, and user level. When properly implemented, audit trails
provide an important detective control to help accomplish security policy
objectives. Many operating systems allow management to select the level of
auditing to be provided by the system. This determines ‘which events will be
recorded in the log’. An effective audit policy will capture all significant events
without cluttering the log with trivial activity.
(i) Audit Trail Objectives: Audit trails can be used to support security objectives
in three ways:
• Detecting Unauthorized Access: Detecting unauthorized access can
occur in real time or after the fact. The primary objective of real-time
detection is to protect the system from outsiders who are attempting
to breach system controls. A real-time audit trail can also be used to
report on changes in system performance that may indicate infestation
by a virus or worm. Depending upon how much activity is being logged
and reviewed; real-time detection can impose a significant overhead on
the operating system, which can degrade operational performance.
After-the-fact, detection logs can be stored electronically and reviewed
periodically or as needed. When properly designed, they can be used
to determine if unauthorized access was accomplished or attempted
and failed.
• Reconstructing Events: Audit analysis can be used to reconstruct the
steps that led to events such as system failures, security violations by
individuals, or application processing errors. Knowledge of the
conditions that existed at the time of a system failure can be used to
assign responsibility and to avoid similar situations in the future. Audit
trail analysis also plays an important role in accounting control. For
example, by maintaining a record of all changes to account balances,
the audit trail can be used to reconstruct accounting data files that were
corrupted by a system failure.
• Personal Accountability: Audit trails can be used to monitor user
activity at the lowest level of detail. This capability is a preventive
control that can be used to influence behavior. Individuals are likely to
violate an organization’s security policy if they know that their actions
are not recorded in an audit log.

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(ii) Implementing an Audit Trail: The information contained in audit logs is

useful to accountants in measuring the potential damage and financial loss
associated with application errors, abuse of authority, or unauthorized access
by outside intruders. Logs provide a valuable evidences to auditors in
assessing both the adequacies of controls in place and the need for additional
controls. Audit logs, however, can generate data in overwhelming detail, and
therefore, at times, important information can easily get lost among the
superfluous detail of daily operations. Thus, poorly designed logs can be
dysfunctional.
3.6 AUDITING OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

CONTROLS
3.6.1 Auditing Environmental Controls
Related aspects are given as follows:
(a) Role of IS Auditor in auditing Environmental Controls: The attack on the
World Trade Centre in 2001 has created a worldwide alert bringing focus on
business continuity planning and environmental controls. Audit of
environmental controls should form a critical part of every IS audit plan. The
IS auditor should satisfy not only the effectiveness of various technical
controls but also the overall controls safeguarding the business against
environmental risks.
(b) Audit of Environmental Controls: Audit of environmental controls requires
the IS auditor to conduct physical inspections and observe practices. Auditing
environmental controls requires knowledge of building mechanical and
electrical systems as well as fire codes. The IS auditor needs to be able to
determine if such controls are effective and if they are cost-effective. Auditing
environmental controls requires attention to these and other factors and
activities, including:
• Power conditioning: The IS auditor should determine how frequently
power conditioning equipment, such as UPS, line conditioners, surge
protectors, or motor generators, are used, inspected and maintained
and if this is performed by qualified personnel.
• Backup power: The IS auditor should determine if backup power is
available via electric generators or UPS and how frequently they are
tested. S/he should examine maintenance records to see how frequently

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these components are maintained and if this is done by qualified

personnel.
• Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC): The IS auditor
should determine, if HVAC systems are providing adequate temperature
and humidity levels, and if they are monitored. Also, the auditor should
determine if HVAC systems are properly maintained and if qualified
persons do this.
• Water detection: The IS auditor should determine if any water
detectors are used in rooms where computers are used. S/he should
determine how frequently these are tested and if these are monitored.
• Fire detection and suppression: The IS auditor should determine if fire
detection equipment is adequate, if staff members understand their
function, and if these are tested. S/he should determine how frequently
fire suppression systems are inspected and tested, and if the
organization has emergency evacuation plans and conducts fire drills.
• Cleanliness: The IS auditor should examine data centers to see how
clean they are. IT equipment air filters and the inside of some IT
components should be examined to see if there is an accumulation of
dust and dirt.
3.6.2 Auditing Physical Security Controls
(a) Role of IS Auditor in auditing Physical Access Controls: Auditing physical
access requires the auditor to review the physical access risk and controls to
form an opinion on the effectiveness of the physical access controls. This
involves the following activities:
• Risk Assessment: The auditor must satisfy him/herself that the risk
assessment procedure adequately covers periodic and timely assessment
of all assets, physical access threats, vulnerabilities of safeguards and
exposures there from.
• Controls Assessment: The auditor based on the risk profile evaluates
whether the physical access controls are in place and adequate to protect
the IS assets against the risks.
• Review of Documents: It requires examination of relevant documentation
such as the security policy and procedures, premises plans, building plans,
inventory list and cabling diagrams.

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(b) Audit of Physical Access Controls: Auditing physical security controls

requires knowledge of natural and man-made hazards, physical security
controls, and access control systems.
(i) Sitting and Marking: Auditing building sitting and marking requires
attention to several key factors and features, including:
o Proximity to hazards: The IS auditor should estimate the
building’s distance to natural and manmade hazards, such as
Dams; Rivers, Lakes, and Canals; Natural gas and petroleum
pipelines; Water mains and pipelines; Earthquake faults; Areas
prone to landslides; Volcanoes; severe weather such as hurricanes,
cyclones, and tornadoes; Flood zones; Military bases; Airports;
Railroads and Freeways. The IS auditor should determine if any
risk assessment regarding hazards has been performed and if any
compensating controls that were recommended have been
carried out.
o Marking: The IS auditor should inspect the building and
surrounding area to see if building(s) containing information
processing equipment identify the organization. Marking may be
visible on the building itself, but also on signs or parking stickers
on vehicles.
(ii) Physical barriers: This includes fencing, walls, barbed/razor wire,
bollards, and crash gates. The IS auditor needs to understand how these
are used to control access to the facility and determine their
effectiveness.
(iii) Surveillance: The IS auditor needs to understand how video and human
surveillance are used to control and monitor access. He or she needs to
understand how (and if) video is recorded and reviewed, and if it is
effective in preventing or detecting incidents.
(iv) Guards and dogs: The IS auditor needs to understand the use and
effectiveness of security guards and guard dogs. Processes, policies,
procedures, and records should be examined to understand required
activities and how they are carried out.
(v) Key-Card systems: The IS auditor needs to understand how key-card
systems are used to control access to the facility. Some points to
consider include work zones: whether the facility is divided into security
zones and which persons are permitted to access which zones whether

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key-card systems record personnel movement; what processes and

procedures are used to issue keycards to employees? etc.
3.6.3 Auditing Logical Access Controls
(a) Role of IS Auditor in Auditing Logical Access Controls: Auditing Logical
Access Controls requires attention of IS Auditors to several key areas that include
the following:
(I) Network Access Paths: The IS auditor should conduct an independent
review of the IT infrastructure to map out organization’s logical access paths.
This will require considerable effort and may require use of investigative and
technical tools, as well as specialized experts on IT network architecture.
(II) Documentation: The IS auditor should request network architecture and
access documentation to compare what was discovered independently
against existing documentation. The auditor will need to determine why any
discrepancies exist. Similar investigations should take place for each
application to determine all the documented and undocumented access
paths to functions and data.
(b) Audit of Logical Access Controls
(I) User Access Controls: User access controls are often the only barrier
between unauthorized parties and sensitive or valuable information. This
makes the audit of user access controls particularly significant. Auditing user
access controls requires keen attention to several key factors and activities in
four areas:
(i) Auditing User Access Controls: These are to determine if the controls
themselves work as designed. Auditing user access controls requires
attention to several factors, including:
♦ Authentication: The auditor should examine network and system
resources to determine if they require authentication, or whether
any resources can be accessed without first authenticating.
♦ Access violations: The auditor should determine if systems,
networks, and authentication mechanisms can log access
violations. These usually exist in the form of system logs showing
invalid login attempts, which may indicate intruders who are
trying to log in to employee user accounts.
♦ User account lockout: The auditor should determine if systems
and networks can automatically lock user accounts that are the

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target of attacks. A typical system configuration is one that will

lock a user account after five unsuccessful logins attempts within
a short period.
♦ Intrusion detection and prevention: The auditor should
determine if there are any IDSs or IPSs that would detect
authentication-bypass attempts. The auditor should examine
these systems to see whether they have up-to-date configurations
and signatures, whether they generate alerts, and whether the
recipients of alerts act upon them.
♦ Dormant accounts: The IS auditor should determine if any
automated or manual process exists to identify and close dormant
accounts. Dormant accounts are user (or system) accounts that
exist but are unused. These accounts represent a risk to the
environment, as they represent an additional path between
intruders and valuable or sensitive data.
♦ Shared accounts: The IS auditor should determine if there are any
shared user accounts; these are user accounts that are routinely (or
even infrequently) used by more than one person. The principal risk
with shared accounts is the inability to determine accountability for
actions performed with the account.
♦ System accounts: The IS auditor should identify all system-level
accounts on networks, systems, and applications. The purpose of
each system account should be identified, and it should be
determined if each system account is still required (some may be
artifacts of the initial implementation or of an upgrade or
migration). The IS auditor should determine who has the
password for each system account, whether accesses by system
accounts are logged, and who monitors those logs.
(ii) Auditing Password Management: The IS auditor needs to examine
password configuration settings on information systems to determine
how passwords are controlled. Some of the areas requiring examination
are- how many characters must a password have and whether there is
a maximum length; how frequently must passwords be changed;
whether former passwords may be used again; whether the password is
displayed when logging in or when creating a new password etc.

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(iii) Auditing User Access Provisioning: Auditing the user access

provisioning process requires attention to several key activities,
including:
♦ Access request processes: The IS auditor should identify all user
access request processes and determine if these processes are
used consistently throughout the organization.
♦ Access approvals: The IS auditor needs to determine how
requests are approved and by what authority they are approved.
The auditor should determine if system or data owners approve
access requests, or if any accesses are ever denied.
♦ New employee provisioning: The IS auditor should examine the
new employee provisioning process to see how a new employee’s
user accounts are initially set up. The auditor should determine if
new employees’ managers are aware of the access requests that
their employees are given and if they are excessive.
♦ Segregation of Duties (SOD): The IS auditor should determine if
an organization makes any effort to identify segregation of duties.
This may include whether there are any SOD matrices in existence
and if they are actively used to make user access request
decisions.
♦ Access reviews: The IS auditor should determine if there are any
periodic access reviews and what aspects of user accounts are
reviewed; this may include termination reviews, internal transfer
reviews, SOD reviews, and dormant account reviews.
(iv) Auditing Employee Terminations: Auditing employee terminations
requires attention to several key factors, including:
♦ Termination process: The IS auditor should examine the
employee termination process and determine its effectiveness.
This examination should include understanding on how
terminations are performed and how user account management
personnel are notified of terminations.
♦ Access reviews: The IS auditor should determine if any internal
reviews of terminated accounts are performed, which would
indicate a pattern of concern for effectiveness in this important
activity. If such reviews are performed, the auditor should

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determine if any missed terminations are identified and if any

process improvements are undertaken.
♦ Contractor access and terminations: The IS auditor needs to
determine how contractor access and termination is managed and
if such management is effective.
(II) User Access Logs: The IS auditor needs to determine what events are
recorded in access logs. The IS auditor needs to understand the capabilities
of the system being audited and determine if the right events are being
logged, or if logging is suppressed on events that should be logged.
♦ Centralized access logs: The IS auditor should determine if the
organization’s access logs are aggregated or if they are stored on
individual systems.
♦ Access log protection: The auditor needs to determine if access logs can
be altered, destroyed, or attacked to cause the system to stop logging
events. Especially for high-value and high-sensitivity environments, the IS
auditor needs to determine if logs should be written to digital media that
is unalterable, such as optical WORM (Write Once Read Many) media.
♦ Access log review: The IS auditor needs to determine if there are
policies, processes, or procedures regarding access log review. The
auditor should determine if access log reviews take place, who performs
them, how issues requiring attention are identified, and what actions
are taken when necessary.
♦ Access log retention: The IS auditor should determine how long access
logs are retained by the organization and if they are back up.
(III) Investigative Procedures: Auditing investigative procedures requires
attention to several key activities, including:
♦ Investigation policies and procedures: The IS auditor should
determine if there are any policies or procedures regarding security
investigations. This would include who is responsible for performing
investigations, where information about investigations is stored, and to
whom the results of investigations are reported.
♦ Computer crime investigations: The IS auditor should determine if
there are policies, processes, procedures, and records regarding
computer crime investigations. The IS auditor should understand how
internal investigations are transitioned to law enforcement.

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♦ Computer forensics: The IS auditor should determine if there are

procedures for conducting computer forensics. The auditor should also
identify tools and techniques that are available to the organization for
the acquisition and custody of forensic data. The auditor should identify
whether any employees in the organization have received computer
forensics training and are qualified to perform forensic investigations.
(IV) Internet Points of Presence: The IS auditor who is performing a
comprehensive audit of an organization’s system and network system needs
to perform a “points of presence” audit to discover what technical information
is available about the organization’s Internet presence. Some of the aspects
of this intelligence gathering include:
♦ Search engines: Google, Yahoo!, and other search engines should be
consulted to see what information about the organization is available.
Searches should include the names of company officers and
management, key technologists, and any internal-only nomenclature
such as the names of projects.
♦ Social networking sites: Social networking sites such as Facebook,
LinkedIn, Myspace, and Twitter should be searched to see what
employees, former employees, and others are saying about the
organization. Any authorized or unauthorized “fan pages” should be
searched as well.
♦ Online sales sites: Sites such as Craigslist and eBay should be searched
to see if anything related to the organization is sold online.
♦ Domain names: The IS auditor should verify contact information for
known domain names, as well as related domain names. For instance,
for the organization mycompany.com; organizations should search for
domain names such as mycompany.net, mycompany.info, and
mycompany.biz to see if they are registered and what contents are
available.
♦ Justification of Online Presence: The IS auditor should examine
business records to determine on what basis the organization
established online capabilities such as e-mail, Internet-facing web sites,
Internet e-commerce, Internet access for employees, and so on. These
services add risk to the business and consume resources. The auditor
should determine if a viable business case exists to support these
services or if they exist as a “benefit” for employees.

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3.6.4 Auditing The Management Control Framework

The auditor’s primary objective in examining the management control framework
for the information system function is to evaluate whether management manages
well. If high-quality management controls are not in place and working reliably;
Application Controls are unlikely to be effective.
Though there are many concerns, however, some key areas that auditors should
pay attention to while evaluating management controls at each level in an
organization are provided below:
I. Auditing Top Management Controls
The major activities that senior management must perform are – Planning,
Organizing, Leading and Controlling. The role of auditor at each activity is
discussed below:
♦ Planning: Auditors need to evaluate whether top management has
formulated a high-quality information system’s plan that is appropriate to the
needs of an organization or not. A poor-quality information system is
ineffective and inefficient leading to losing of its competitive position within
the marketplace.
♦ Organizing: Auditors should be concerned about how well top management
acquires and manages staff resources.
♦ Leading: Generally, the auditors examine variables that often indicate when
motivation problems exist or suggest poor leadership – for example, staff
turnover statistics, frequent failure of projects to meet their budget and
absenteeism level to evaluate the leading function. Auditors may use both
formal and informal sources of evidence to evaluate how well top managers
communicate with their staff.
♦ Controlling: Auditors should focus on subset of the control activities that
should be performed by top management – namely, those aimed at ensuring
that the information systems function accomplishes its objectives at a global
level. Auditors must evaluate whether top management’s choice to the means
of control over the users of IS services is likely to be effective or not.
II. Auditing Systems Development Management Controls
♦ Auditors can conduct following three types of reviews/audits of the systems
development process as discussed in the Table 3.6.1:

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Table 3.6.1: Types of Audit during System Development Process
Concurrent As a member of the system development team, the auditors

Audit need to assist the team in improving the quality of systems
development for the specific system they are building and
implementing. They shall ensure that needed controls are built
into the system to produce high-quality systems.
Post - Auditors seek to help an organization learn from its
implement experiences in the development of a specific application
ation Audit system. In addition, they might be evaluating the current status
of the system in terms of attaining asset safeguarding, data
integrity, system effectiveness and system efficiency objectives
so that the decision on whether the system needs to be
scrapped, continued, or modified in some way can be taken.
General Auditors evaluate the quality of overall systems development
Audit process. This review allows them to make judgments on the
likely quality of individual application systems developed by
the system development management subsystem, the control
risk associated with this subsystem, and to determine whether
the extent of substantive testing needed to form an audit
opinion about management’s assertions relating to the systems
effectiveness and efficiency, can be reduced or not. An external
auditor is more likely to undertake general audits rather than
concurrent or post-implementation audits of the systems
development process. Internal auditors generally participate in
the development of material application systems or undertake
post-implementation review of the system.
III. Auditing Programming Management Controls

Some of the major concerns that an Auditor should address under different activities
involved in Programming Management Control Phase are provided in Table 3.6.2.
Table 3.6.2: Auditing Programming Management Controls
Phase Key Areas

Planning ♦ They should evaluate whether nature of and extent of
planning are appropriate to different types of software that
are developed or acquired.

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♦ They must evaluate how well the planning work is being

undertaken.
Control ♦ They must evaluate whether the nature of an extent of control
activities undertaken are appropriate for the different types
of software that are developed or acquired.
♦ They must gather evidence on whether the control
procedures are operating reliably. For example - they might
first choose a sample if past and current software
development and acquisition projects carried out at different
locations in the organization, they are auditing.
Design ♦ Auditors should find out whether programmers use some
type of systematic approach to design.
♦ Auditors can obtain evidence of the design practices used by
undertaking interviews, observations, and reviews of
documentation.
Coding ♦ Auditors should seek evidence –
• On the level of care exercised by programming
management in choosing a module implementation and
integration strategy.
• To determine whether programming management
ensures that programmers follow structured
programming conventions.
• To check whether programmers employ automated
facilities to assist them with their coding work.
Testing ♦ Auditors can use interviews, observations, and examination of
documentation to evaluate how well unit testing is
conducted.
♦ Auditors are primarily concerned with the quality of
integration testing work carried out by information systems
professionals rather than end users.
♦ Auditors primary concern is to see that whole-of-program
tests have been undertaken for all material programs and that
these tests have been well-designed and executed.

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Operation ♦ Auditors need to ensure effective and timely reporting of

and maintenance needs that occur so that maintenance is carried
Maintenance out in a well-controlled manner.
♦ Auditors should ensure that management has implemented a
review system and assigned responsibility for monitoring the
status of operational programs.
IV. Auditing Data Resource Management Controls

♦ Auditors should determine what controls are exercised to maintain data
integrity. They might also interview database users to determine their level of
awareness of these controls.
♦ Auditors might employ test data to evaluate whether access controls and
update controls are working.
♦ Auditors might interview the Data Administrator (DA) and Database
Administrator (DBA) to determine the procedures used by them to
monitor the database environment.
♦ Auditors need to assess how well the DA and DBA carry out the functions
of database definition, creation, redefinition, and retirement.
V. Auditing Security Management Controls
♦ Auditors must evaluate whether security administrators are conducting
ongoing, high-quality security reviews or not;
♦ Auditors need to evaluate the performance of BCP controls. The BCP
controls are related to having an operational and tested IT continuity
plan, which is in line with the overall business continuity plan and its
related business requirements to make sure IT services are available as
required and to ensure a minimum impact on business in the event of a
major disruption.
♦ Auditors check whether the organizations audited have appropriate, high-
quality disaster recovery plan in place or not; and
♦ Auditors check whether the organizations have opted for an appropriate
insurance plan or not.
VI. Auditing Operations Management Controls
♦ Auditors should pay concern to see whether the documentation is maintained
securely and that it is issued only to authorized personnel.

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♦ Auditors can use interviews, observations, and review of documentation to

evaluate -
• the activities of documentation librarians;
• how well operations management undertakes the capacity planning ad
performance monitoring function;
• the reliability of outsourcing vendor controls;
• whether operations management is monitoring compliance with the
outsourcing contract; and
• Whether operations management regularly assesses the financial
viability of any outsourcing vendors that an organization uses.
VII. Auditing Quality Assurance Management Controls
♦ Auditors might use interviews, observations, and reviews of documentation
to evaluate how well Quality Assurance (QA) personnel perform their
monitoring role.
♦ Auditors might evaluate how well QA personnel make recommendations for
improved standards or processes through interviews, observations, and
reviews of documentation.
♦ Auditors can evaluate how well QA personnel undertake the reporting
function and training through interviews, observations, and reviews of
documentation.
3.6.5 Auditing The Application Control Framework
Based on the evaluation of management controls over the IS functions in an
organization, auditors might decide to evaluate application system further. In case
the external auditors have evaluated the reliability of management controls, the
next step is to determine the adequacy of application controls. From various
concerns that an auditor might have while auditing the application controls over
the IS functions, some key areas that they should pay attention to while evaluating
application controls at each level in an organization are provided below:
I. Auditing Boundary Controls
♦ Auditors need to determine how well the safeguard assets are used and
preserve data integrity.

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♦ For any application system in particular, auditors need to determine

whether the access control mechanism implemented in that system is
sufficient or not.
♦ Auditors need to ensure that careful control must be exercised over
maintenance activities, in case of hardware failure.
♦ Auditors need to address three aspects to assess cryptographic key
management -
• How keys will be generated?
• How they will be distributed to users?
• How they will be installed in cryptographic facilities?
♦ Auditors need to understand which approach has been used to implement
access control so that they can predict the likely problems they will
encounter in the application systems they are evaluating.
II. Auditing Input Controls
♦ Auditors must understand the fundamentals of good source document
design so as to analyze what and how the data will be captured and by
whom, how the data will be prepared and entered into the computer
systems and how the document will be handled, stored and filed.
♦ Auditors must be able to examine the data-entry screens used in an
application system and to come to judgement on the frequency with
which input errors are likely to be made and the extent to which the
screen design enhances or undermines effectiveness and efficiency.
♦ Auditors must evaluate the quality of the coding systems used in
application system to determine their likely impact in the data integrity,
effectiveness, and efficiency objectives.
♦ Auditors need to comprehend various approaches used to enter data into
an application system and their relative strengths and weaknesses.
♦ Auditors need to check whether input files are stored securely and backup
copies of it are maintained at an offsite location so that recovery remains
unaffected in case system’s master files are destroyed or corrupted.
III. Auditing Communication Controls
♦ Auditors shall adopt a structured approach to examine and evaluate
various controls in the communication subsystem.

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♦ Auditors need to collect enough evidence to establish a level of assurance

that data transmission between two nodes in a wide area network is
being accurate and complete.
♦ Auditors need to look whether adequate network backup and recovery
controls are practiced regularly or not. These controls may include
automatic line speed adjustments by modems based on different noise-
levels, choice of network topology, alternative routes between sender and
receiver etc., to strengthen network reliability.
♦ Auditors must assess the implementation of encryption controls to
ensure the protection of privacy of sensitive data.
♦ Auditors must assess the topological controls to review the logical
arrangement of various nodes and their connectivity using various
internetworking devices in a network.
IV. Auditing Processing Controls
♦ Auditors should determine whether user processes are able to control
unauthorized activities like gaining access to sensitive data.
♦ Auditors should evaluate whether the common programming errors that
can result in incomplete or inaccurate processing of data has been taken
care or not.
♦ Auditors should assess the performance of validation controls to check
for any data processing errors.
♦ Auditors need to check for the checkpoint and restart controls that enable
the system to recover itself from the point of failure. The restart facilities
need to be implemented well so that restart of the program is from the
point the processing has been accurate and complete rather than from
the scratch.
V. Auditing Database Controls
♦ Auditors should check for the mechanism if a damaged or destroyed
database can be restored in an authentic, accurate, complete, and timely
way.
♦ Auditors should comprehend backup and recovery strategies for
restoration of damaged or destroyed database in the event of failure that
could be because of application program error, system software error,
hardware failure, procedural error, and environmental failure.

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♦ Auditors shall evaluate whether the privacy of data is protected during

all backup and recovery activities.
♦ Auditors should check for proper documentation and implementation of
the decisions made on the maintenance of the private and public keys
used under cryptographic controls.
♦ Auditors should address their concerns regarding the maintenance of
data integrity and the ways in which files must be processed to prevent
integrity violations.
VI. Auditing Output Controls
♦ Auditors should determine what report programs are sensitive, who all
are authorized to access them and that only the authorized persons are
able to execute them.
♦ Auditors should review that the action privileges that are assigned to
authorized users are appropriate to their job requirement or not.
♦ Auditors must evaluate how well the client organizations are provided
controls in terms of alteration of the content of printer file, number of
printed copies etc.
♦ Auditors should determine whether the report collection, distribution
and printing controls are well executed in an organization or not.
3.7 DATA RELATED CONCEPTS

3.7.1 Database Models
Databases can be organized in many ways, and thus take many forms. A Database
Model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database
and fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored, organized and
manipulated. Let’s now look at the database model hierarchy given as under:
• Database: This is a collection of Files/Tables.
• File or Table: This is a collection of Records, also referred as Entity.
• Record: This is a collection of Fields.
• Field: This is a collection of Characters, defining a relevant attribute of Table
instance.
• Characters: These are a collection of Bits.

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This hierarchy is shown in the Fig. 3.7.1:
Fig. 3.7.1: Hierarchy of Data

Some prominent database models are provided in the Table 3.7.1 below.
Table 3.7.1: Database Models
Hierarchical Network Relational Database Object Oriented
Database Model Database Model Data Base
Model Model(OODBM)
Records/Nodes This structure This allows collection of It is based on the
are logically views all records in a tabular concept that the
organized into a records in structure where each world can be
hierarchy of sets; wherein record contains some modeled in terms
relationships in each set is fields defining the of objects and
an inverted tree composed of nature of the data their interactions.
pattern. an owner stored in that table. A This provides a
record and record is one instance of mechanism to
one or more a set of fields in a table. store complex
Main terms used in this data such as
member
model are Relation images, audio and
records.
defined as a table with video, etc.
columns and rows;
Named columns of the
table as Attributes

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(fields) and Domains as

set of values the
attributes can take.
The top parent The network All relations adhere to In this, the data is
record that “own” model some basic rules - First, modeled and
other records is implements the ordering of columns created as
called Parent one-to-one, is immaterial in a table. objects. It
Record/ Root one-to-many, Second, there cannot be combines
Record which many-to-one identical record in a different aspects
may have one or and the table. And third, each of object-oriented
more child many-to- record will contain a programming
records, but no many single value for each of language into a
child record may relationship its attributes. DBMS like
have more than types. complex data
one parent types, multi
record. valued attributes
(e.g. address field
can have many
values like house
number, location,
zip code etc.).
Each node is The network A relational database OODBMS helps

related to the model can contains multiple programmers
others in a represent tables, with all the make objects
parent-child redundancy in tables connected by which are an
relationship. data more one or more common independently
Thus, the efficiently fields. For each table, functioning
hierarchical data than in the one of the fields is application or
structure hierarchical identified as a Primary program,
implements one- model. Refer Key, which is the unique assigned with a
to-one and one- Example 3.7. identifier for each specific task or
to-many record in the table. If role to perform.
relationships. the primary key of one Refer Example 3.9.
Refer Example table is used in another
3.6. table to access the
former, it is called
Foreign Key. Popular
examples of relational

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databases are Microsoft

Access, MySQL, and
Oracle. Refer Example
3.8.
Example 3.6: Consider an equipment database shown in Fig. 3.7.2 that has building
records, room records, equipment records, and repair records. The database
Fig. 3.7.2: Hierarchical Database Model

structure reflects the fact that repairs are made to equipment located in rooms that
are part of buildings. Entrance to this hierarchy by the DBMS is made through the
root record i.e., Building. The building records are the root to any sequence of
room, equipment, and repair records. Room records are the parents of equipment
records and at the same time, Room records are also children of the parent record,
Building. There can be many levels of node records in a database.
Example 3.7: Suppose that in our database, it is decided to have these records -
Repair Vendor (RV) records for the companies that repair the equipment,
Equipment Records (ER) for the various machines we have, and Repair Invoice (RI)
records for the repair bills for the equipment. Suppose four Repair Vendors have
completed repairs on equipment items 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 8. These records might be
logically organized into the sets shown in Fig. 3.7.3. Notice these relationships:
• One-to-One relationship: RV-1 record is the owner of the RI-1 record.
• One-to-Many relationship: RV-2 record is owner of the RI-2 and RI-3 records.
• Many-to-Many relationship: Many ER can be owned by many RI records. RV-
3 record is the owner of RI-4 and RI-5 records, and the ER-7 is owned by both
the RI-5 and RI-6 records because it was fixed twice by different vendors.
• Many-to-One relationship: Equipments 7 and 8 are owned by RI-6 because
the repair to both machines were listed on the same invoice by RV-4.

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Repair Repair Repair Repair

Vendor 1 Vendor 2 Vendor 3 Vendor 4
Repair
Repair Repair Repair Repair Repair
Invoice 6
Invoice 1 Invoice 2 Invoice 3 Invoice 4 Invoice 5
Equip 1 Equip 2 Equip 3 Equip 4 Equip 5 Equip 6 Equip 7 Equip 8
Fig. 3.7.3: Example of Network Database Model
• Equipment 6 record does not own any record now because it is not required
to be fixed yet.
Example 3.8: A company manufactures black and blue ball pens and stores its data
using relational database wherein the data is stored in table structures defined below
in table 3.7.2.
Table 3.7.2: Description of Example 3.8
Table 1: Product_table that Table 2: Invoice_table has the description
contains the detail of all products. of invoices. Invoice table has Invoice_code,
Each product is assigned a unique Quantity(Qty) and total amount
code represented as Prd_code in (Total_Amt) with respect to products sold.
the table. Each invoice has unique number as
Invoice_code.
Prd_code Description Price Prd_code Invoice_code Qty Total_Amt
P001 Black pen ` 50 P001 2304 10 ` 500
P002 Blue pen ` 70 P002 2306 20 ` 1400
Both tables Product_table and Invoice_table have a relationship through the

common attribute - Prd_code. Prd_code is the Primary (unique) key in
Product_table and it acts as key of relationship (foreign key) with Invoice_table. For
a specific Invoice_code, the description of product and price can be retrieved from
Product_table.

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Example 3.9: Refer the Fig. 3.7.4. The light rectangle indicates that ‘Engineer’ is an
object possessing attributes like ‘date of birth’, ‘address’, etc. which is interacting
with another object known as ‘civil jobs’. When a civil job is executed commenced,
it updates the ‘current job’ attribute of the ‘Engineer’ object, because ‘civil job’
sends a message to the latter object.
Objects can be organized by first identifying them as a member of a class/subclass.
Different objects of a particular class should possess at least one common attribute.
The dark rectangles indicate ‘Engineer’ as a class and ‘Civil Engineer’ and ‘Architect’ as
both subclasses of ‘Engineer’. These subclasses possess all the attributes of ‘Engineer’
over and above each possessing at least one attribute not possessed by ‘Engineer’. The
line intersecting particular object classes represents the class of structure.
Secondly, objects can be identified as a component of some other object. ‘Engineer’
is components of a ‘Civil Job Team’ which may have one to more than one number
of member(s). An ‘Engineer’ may not be a member of the ‘Civil Job Team’ and may
not be a member of more than one team. The dotted line intersecting particular
object classes represents the part of structure. Apart from possessing attributes,
objects as well as possess methods or services that are responsible for changing
their states. Like the service ‘Experience’ as a Civil Engineer or Architect for the
object ‘Engineer’ calculates how much experience the engineers of these particular
two subclasses have as professionals.
Civil Job Team
Part of Structure
Engineer
Engineer ID No.
Date of Birth
Address Civil Jobs
Employment Date
Current Job
Experience
Civil Engineer Architect
Class of Structure
Fig. 3.7.4: An object-oriented database design

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3.7.2 Big Data

A new buzzword that has been capturing the attention of businesses lately is Big
Data. The term refers to such massively large data sets that conventional database
tools do not have the processing power to analyze them. For example, Flipkart must
process over millions of customer transactions every hour during the Billion Day
Sale. Storing and analyzing that much data is beyond the power of traditional
database-management tools. Understanding the best tools and techniques to
manage and analyze these large data sets is a problem that governments and
businesses alike are trying to solve. This is an interesting space to explore from a
career perspective since everything is nothing more than data. In fact, we are
nothing more than data points in databases on various companies.
Some examples of industries that use big data analytics include the hospitality
industry, healthcare companies, public service agencies, and retail businesses.
Benefits of Big Data Processing are as follows:
(a) Ability to process Big Data brings in multiple benefits, such as-
• Businesses can utilize outside intelligence while taking decisions.
• Access to social data from search engines and sites like Facebook,
Twitter is enabling organizations to fine tune their business strategies.
• Early identification of risk to the products/services, if any.
(b) Improved customer service
• Traditional customer feedback systems are getting replaced by new
systems designed with Big Data technologies. In these new systems, Big
Data and natural language processing technologies are being used to
read and evaluate consumer responses.
(c) Better operational efficiency
• Integration of Big Data technologies and data warehouse helps an
organization to offload infrequently accessed data, this leading to
better operational efficiency.
3.7.3 Data Warehouse
As organizations have begun to utilize databases as the centre piece of their
operations, the need to fully understand and leverage the data they are collecting
has become more and more apparent. However, directly analyzing the data that is
needed for day-to-day operations is not a good idea; we do not want to tax the

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operations of the company more than we need to. Further, organizations also want
to analyze data in a historical sense: How does the data we have today compare
with the same set of data of last month, or last year? From these needs arose the
concept of the data warehouse. The process of extracting data from source systems
and bringing it into the data warehouse is commonly called ETL, which stands for
Extraction, Transformation, and Loading. The process is described below and
shown in the Fig. 3.7.5:
♦ In the first stage, the data is Extracted from one or more of the organization’s
databases. This stage involves extracting the data from various sources such
as ERP systems used, databases, flat files including plain text files, Excel
spreadsheet etc.
♦ In the second stage, the data so extracted is placed in a temporary area called
Staging Area where it is Transformed like cleansing, sorting, filtering etc. of
the data as per the information requirements.
♦ The final stage involves the Loading of the transformed data into a data
warehouse which itself is another database for storage and analysis.
♦ The information loaded on to the data warehouse could further be used by
different data marts which are nothing but databases pertaining to specific
departmental functions like Sales, Finance, Marketing etc. from where the
information is used for further reporting and analyzes to take informed
decision by the management.
However, the execution of this concept is not that simple. A data warehouse should
be designed so that it meets the following criteria:
 It uses non-operational data. This means that the data warehouse is using a
copy of data from the active databases that the company uses in its day-to-
day operations, so the data warehouse must pull data from the existing
databases on a regular scheduled basis. Relevance and nature of the data in
the data warehouse depend on the time the jobs are scheduled to pull data
from the active databases.
 The data is time-variant. This means that whenever data is loaded into the
data warehouse, it receives a time stamp which allows for comparisons
between different time periods.
 The data is standardized. Because the data in a data warehouse usually
comes from several different sources, it is possible that the data does not use
the same definitions or units. For example- Events table in a our Student Clubs
database lists the event dates using the mm/dd/yyyy format (e.g.,

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01/10/2013). A table in another database might use the format yy/mm/dd

(e.g.13/01/10) for dates. For the data warehouse to match up dates, a
standard date format would have to be agreed upon and all data loaded into
the data warehouse would have to be converted to use this standard format.
 There are two primary schools of thought when designing a data warehouse:
Bottom-Up and Top- Down.
• The Bottom-Up Approach starts by creating small data warehouses,
called Data Marts to solve specific business problems. As these data
marts are created, they can be combined into a larger data warehouse.
• The Top-Down Approach suggests that we should start by creating an
enterprise-wide data warehouse and then, as specific business needs
are identified, create smaller data marts from the data warehouse.
Fig. 3.7.5: Centralized view of Data Warehouse

 Benefits of Data Warehouse
Organizations find data warehouses quite beneficial for several reasons
• The process of developing a data warehouse forces an organization to
better understand the data that it is currently collecting and, equally
important, what data is not being collected.
• A data warehouse provides a centralized view of all data being collected
across the enterprise and provides a means for determining data that is
inconsistent.
• Once all data is identified as consistent, an organization can generate
one version of the truth. This is important when the company wants to

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report consistent statistics about itself, such as revenue or number of

employees.
• By having a data warehouse, snapshots of data can be taken over time.
This creates a historical record of data, which allows for an analysis of
trends.
• A data warehouse provides tools to combine data, which can provide
new information and analysis.
3.7.4 Data Mining
Data Mining is the process of analysing data to find previously unknown trends,
patterns, and associations to make decisions. It involves extracting useful data as
per the requirement from a collection of raw facts. To start with, one can use the
simplest yet powerful tool, Microsoft Excel for data mining. Other examples of data
mining tools include Oracle Data mining, R-language etc. Generally, data mining is
accomplished through automated means against extremely large data sets, such as
a data warehouse. The examples of data mining are- an analysis of sales from a
large grocery chain that might determine that milk is purchased more frequently
the day after it rains in cities with a population of less than 50,000; The analysis of
the popularity of a particular recharge scheme introduced by the
telecommunication provider among people of a specific age group, gender and the
peak call hours’ location wise; A bank may find that loan applicants whose bank
accounts show particular deposit and withdrawal patterns are not good credit risks;
A baseball team may find that collegiate baseball players with specific statistics in
hitting, pitching, and fielding make for more successful major league players.
Fig. 3.7.6: Steps involved in Data Mining

The steps involved in the Data Mining process are as follows (Refer Fig. 3.7.6):
a. Data Integration: Firstly, the data are collected and integrated from all the
different sources which could be flat files, relational database, data warehouse
or web etc.

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b. Data Selection: It may be possible that all the data collected may not be
required in the first step. So, in this step we select only those data which we think
is useful for data mining.
c. Data Cleaning: The data that is collected are not clean and may contain errors,
missing values, noisy or inconsistent data. Thus, we need to apply different
techniques to get rid of such anomalies.
d. Data Transformation: The data even after cleaning are not ready for mining as
it needs to be transformed into an appropriate form for mining using different
techniques like - smoothing, aggregation, normalization etc.
e. Data Mining: In this, various data mining techniques are applied on the data to
discover the interesting patterns. Techniques like clustering and association
analysis are among the many different techniques used for data mining.
f. Pattern Evaluation and Knowledge Presentation: This step involves
visualization, transformation, removing redundant patterns etc. from the
patterns we generated.
g. Decisions / Use of Discovered Knowledge: This step helps user to make use of
the knowledge acquired to take better informed decisions.
In some cases, a data-mining project is begun with a hypothetical result in mind. For
example, a grocery chain may already have some idea that buying patterns change
after it rains and want to get a deeper understanding of exactly what is happening. In
other cases, there are no pre-suppositions and a data-mining program is run against
large data sets to find patterns and associations. Table 3.7.3 provides the basic
differences between Database, Data Warehouse and Data Mining.
Table 3.7.3: Differences between Database, Data Warehouse & Data Mining
DATABASE DATA WAREHOUSE DATA MINING

This stores real time This store both the This analyses data to find
information. For historic and transactional previously unknown trends.
example-In a data. For example- In the For example- In the same
telecommunication same telecommunication telecommunication sector,
sector, the database sector, information in a information will be analysed
stores information data warehouse will be by data mining techniques to
related to monthly used for product find out call duration with
billing details, call promotions, decisions respect a particular age group
records, minimum relating to sales, cash from the entire data available.
balance etc. back offers etc.

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It’s function is to It’s function is to report It’s function is to extract useful

record. and analyse. data.
Examples include Examples include Examples include R-Language,
MySQL, MS Access. Teradata, Informatica. Oracle data mining.
3.8 ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE AND

RESPONSIBILITIES
Organizations require structure to distribute responsibility to groups of people with
specific skills and knowledge. The structure of an organization is called an
Organization Chart. Organizing and maintaining an organization structure
requires that many factors be considered. In most organizations, the organization
chart is a living structure that changes frequently, based upon several conditions.
Short and long-term objectives: Organizations sometimes move departments
from one executive to another so that departments that were once far from each
other (in terms of the organizational chart structure) will be near each other. This
provides new opportunities for developing synergies and partnerships that did not
exist before the reorganization (reorg). These organizational changes are usually
performed to help an organization meet new objectives that require new
partnerships and teamwork that were less important before.
♦ Market conditions: Changes in market positions can cause an organization
to realign its internal structure to strengthen itself. For example, if a
competitor lowers its prices based on a new sourcing strategy, an
organization may need to respond by changing its organizational structure
to put experienced executives in-charge of specific activities.
♦ Regulation: New regulations may induce an organization to change its
organizational structure. For instance, an organization that becomes highly
regulated may elect to move its security and compliance group away from IT
and place it under the legal department, since compliance has much more to
do with legal compliance than industry standards.
♦ Available talent: When someone leaves an organization (or moves to
another position within the organization), particularly in positions of
leadership, a space opens in the organization chart that often cannot be filled
right away. Instead, senior management will temporarily change the structure
of the organization by moving the leaderless department under the control
of someone else. Often, the decisions of how to change the organization will

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depend upon the talent and experience of existing leaders, in addition to each
leader’s workload and other factors. For example, if the director of IT program
management leaves the organization, the existing department could
temporarily be placed under the IT operations department, in this case
because the director of IT operations used to run IT program management.
Senior management can see how that arrangement works out and later
decide whether to replace the director of IT program management position
or to do something else.
3.8.1 Roles and Responsibilities
The topic of roles and responsibilities is multidimensional; it encompasses positions
and relationships on the organization chart, it defines specific job titles and duties,
and it denotes generic expectations and responsibilities regarding the use and
protection of assets. Several roles and responsibilities fall upon all individuals
throughout the organization. Some of them are discussed below:
♦ Owner: An owner is an individual (usually but not necessarily a manager) who
is the designated owner-steward of an asset. Depending upon the
organization’s security policy, an owner may be responsible for the
maintenance and integrity of the asset, as well as for deciding who is
permitted to access the asset. If the asset is information, the owner may be
responsible for determining who may access and make changes to the
information.
♦ Manager: A manager, in the general sense, is responsible for obtaining

policies and procedures and making them available to their staff members.
They should also to some extent responsible for their staff members’
behavior.
♦ User: User is an individual (at any level of the organization) who uses assets
in the performance of their job duties. Each user is responsible for how s/he
uses the asset and does not permit others to access the asset in his/her name.
Users are responsible for performing their duties lawfully and for conforming
to organization policies.
These generic roles and responsibilities should apply across the organization chart
to include every person in the organization.

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3.8.2 Job Titles based on Responsibilities

A Job Title is a label that is assigned to a job description. It denotes a position in
the organization that has a given set of responsibilities and which requires a certain
level and focus of education and prior experience.
In an organization, Executive Management includes executive managers, the
senior managers and executives who are responsible for developing the
organization’s mission, objectives, and goals, as well as policy. Executive managers
are responsible for enacting security policy, which defines (among other things) the
protection of assets. Executive managers set objectives and work directly with the
organization’s most senior management to help make decisions affecting the
future strategy of an organization. Table 3.8.1 describes in detail the functioning of
Executive Management in organization.
Table 3.8.1: Executive Management in an organization
CIO (Chief This is the most senior executive in an organization who

Information works with IT and computer system to support
Officer) orgnizations’ goals.
CTO (Chief The CTO is usually responsible for an organization’s overall

Technology technology strategy. Depending upon the purpose of the
Officer) organization, this position may be separate from IT.
CSO (Chief A CSO is responsible for all aspects of security, including

Security Officer) information security, physical security, and possibly
executive protection (protecting the safety of senior
executives).
CISO (Chief This position is responsible for all aspects of data-related

Information security that includes incident management, disaster
Security Officer) recovery, vulnerability management, and compliance.
CPO (Chief This position is found in organizations that collect, store

Privacy Officer) and protect sensitive information for large numbers of
persons.

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Fig. 3.8.1 provides an illustrative overview of positions that report to CIO in general.
CHIEF INFORMATION OFFICER (CIO)
SOFTWARE NETWORK DATA SECURITY SYSTEMS GENERAL SERVICE

DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS DESK
Network Security Systems Operations Help Desk

Systems Architect Database Analyst
Architect Architect Architect Architect Manager
Systems Analyst Technical
Network Database Security Systems Operations
Engineer Engineer Engineer Analyst Support
Software Developer Administrator Analyst
& Programmer
Network Database Security Storage Controls
Software Tester Administrator Analyst Analyst Engineer Analyst
Telecom User Account Systems Systems

Engineer Manager Administrator Operator
Security Data Entry

Auditor Operator
Media
Librarian
Fig. 3.8.1: Positions under CIO (illustrative)

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(a) Software Development: Positions in software development are involved in

the design, development, and testing of software applications. Based on that,
Table 3.8.2 describes the various positions in software development.
Table 3.8.2: Positions in Software Development
Systems Systems Analyst Software Software
Architect Developer & Tester
Programmer
This position is A systems analyst is This position This position
usually involved with the design develops tests changes
responsible for of applications, including application in programs
the overall changes in an software. In made by
information application’s original organizations that software
systems design, develop technical utilize purchased developers.
architecture in requirements, program application
the organization. design, and software test software,
This may or may plans. In cases where developers often
not include organizations license create custom
overall data applications developed interfaces,
architecture as by other companies, application
well as interfaces systems analysts design customizations,
to external interfaces to other and custom
organizations. applications. reports.
(b) Data Management: Positions in data management as shown in Table 3.8.3

are responsible for developing and implementing database designs and for
maintaining databases.
Table 3.8.3: Positions in Data Management
Database This position develops logical and physical designs of data
Architect models for applications as well as an organization’s overall data
architecture.
Database This position builds and maintains databases designed by the
Administrator database architect. The DBA monitors the databases, tunes
(DBA) them for performance and efficiency and troubleshoots
problems and also ensures that data is protected from
unauthorized access by making it available only to users as per
the job roles.

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Database This position performs tasks that are junior to the database
Analyst administrator, carrying out routine data maintenance and
monitoring tasks.
(c) Network Management: Positions in network management are responsible

for designing, building, monitoring, and maintaining voice and data
communications networks, including connections to outside business
partners and the Internet.
• Network Architect: They are involved in the creation of plans and
overall layout of the communication network focusing on the aspect on
information security as well.
• Network Engineer: This position builds and maintains network devices
such as routers, switches, firewalls, and gateways.
• Network Administrator: This position performs routine tasks in the
network such as making minor configuration changes and monitoring
event logs.
• Telecom Engineer: Positions in this role work with telecommunications
technologies such as data circuits, phone systems, and voice email
systems.
(d) Systems Management: Positions in systems management are responsible
for architecture, design, building, and maintenance of servers and operating
systems. Various positions in system management are shown in Table 3.8.4.
Table 3.8.4: Positions in Systems Management
Systems Architect Systems Storage Systems
Engineer Engineer Administrator
This position is responsible for This position is This position This position is
the overall architecture of responsible is responsible for
systems (usually servers), both for designing, responsible performing
in terms of the internal building, and for maintenance
architecture of a system, as maintaining designing, and
well as the relationship servers and building, and configuration
between systems and design server maintaining operations on
of services such as operating storage systems.
authentication, e-mail, and systems. subsystems.
time synchronization.

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(e) General Operations: Positions in operations are responsible for day-to-day

operational tasks that may include networks, servers, databases, and
applications.
• Operations Manager: This position is responsible for overall
operations that are carried out by others. Their main functions include
planning, operations process, strategy, staffing of resources as per their
skill sets, performance monitoring and improvement along with
establishing operations shift schedules.
• Operations Analyst: This position may be responsible for the
development of operational procedures; examining the health of
networks, systems, and databases; setting and monitoring the
operations schedule; and maintaining operations records.
• Controls Analyst: This position is responsible for monitoring batch
jobs, data entry work, and other tasks to make sure that they are
operating correctly.
• Systems Operator: This position is responsible for monitoring systems
and networks, performing backup tasks, running batch jobs, printing
reports, and other operational tasks.
• Data Entry operator: This position is responsible for keying batches of
data from hard copy sources.
• Media Librarian: This position is responsible for maintaining and
tracking the use and whereabouts of backup tapes and other media.
(f) Security Operations: Positions in security operations are responsible for
designing, building, and monitoring security systems and security controls,
to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information systems.
Refer Table 3.8.5 given below:
Table 3.8.5: Positions in Security Operations
Security S/he is responsible for the design of security controls and systems
Architect such as authentication, audit logging, intrusion detection systems,
intrusion prevention systems, and firewalls.
Security S/he is responsible for designing, building, and maintaining security
Engineer services and systems that are designed by the security architect.

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Security S/he is responsible for examining logs from firewalls, intrusion

Analyst detection systems, and audit logs from systems and applications and
issuing security advisories to others in IT.
User S/he is responsible for accepting approved requests for user access
Account management changes and performing the necessary changes at the
Manager network, system, database, or application level. in larger
organizations, the user account management is performed in security
or even in a separate user access department.
Security S/he is responsible for performing internal audits of IT controls to ensure
Auditor that they are being operated properly.
(g) Service Desk: Positions at the service desk are responsible for providing front
line support services to IT and IT’s customers.
• Help desk Analyst: This position is responsible for providing front line
user support services to personnel in the organization.
• Technical Support Analyst: This position is responsible for providing
technical support services to other IT personnel, and perhaps also to IT
customers.
3.9 SEGREGATION OF DUTIES

Information systems often process large volumes of information that is sometimes
highly valuable or sensitive. Measures need to be taken in IT organizations to
ensure that individuals do not possess sufficient privileges to carry out potentially
harmful actions on their own. Checks and balances are needed, so that high-value
and high-sensitivity activities involve the coordination of two or more authorized
individuals. The concept of Segregation of Duties (SoD), also known as Separation
of Duties, ensures that single individuals do not possess excess privileges that could
result in unauthorized activities such as fraud or the manipulation or exposure of
sensitive data.
The concept of segregation of duties has been long-established in organization
accounting departments where, for instance, separate individuals or groups are
responsible for the creation of vendors, the request for payments, and the printing
of checks. Since accounting personnel frequently handle checks and currency, the
principles, and practices of segregation of duties controls in accounting
departments are the norm. For example-the person approving the purchase orders
should not be allowed to make payment and pass entries in the books at the same
time.

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3.9.1 Segregation of Duties Controls

Preventive and detective controls should be put into place to manage segregation
of duties matters. In most organizations, both the preventive and detective controls
will be manual, particularly when it comes to unwanted combinations of access
between different applications. However, in some transaction-related situations,
controls can be automated although they may still require intervention by others.
3.9.2 Some Examples of Segregation of Duties Controls
♦ Transaction Authorization: Information systems can be programmed or
configured to require two (or more) persons to approve certain transactions.
Many of us see this in retail establishments where a manager is required to
approve a large transaction or a refund. In IT applications, transactions
meeting certain criteria (for example, exceeding normally accepted limits or
conditions) may require a manager’s approval to be able to proceed.
♦ Split custody of high-value assets: Assets of high importance or value can
be protected using various means of split custody. For example, a password
to an encryption key that protects a highly-valued asset or sensitive data can
be split in two halves, one half assigned to two persons, and the other half
assigned to two persons, so that no single individual knows the entire
password. Banks do this for central vaults, where a vault combination is split
into two or more pieces so that two or more are required to open it.
♦ Workflow: Applications that are workflow-enabled can use a second (or
third) level of approval before certain high-value or high-sensitivity activities
can take place. For example, a workflow application that is used to provision
user accounts can include extra management approval steps in requests for
administrative privileges.
♦ Periodic reviews: IT or internal audit personnel can periodically review user
access rights to identify whether any segregation of duties issues exist. Care
should also be taken to ensure that the access privileges are reviewed and
updated with the changing job roles. The access privileges for each worker
can be compared against a segregation of duties control matrix.
When SoD issues are encountered during a segregation of duties review,
management will need to decide how to mitigate the matter. The choices for
mitigating a SoD issue include -
♦ Reduce access privileges: Management can reduce individual user privileges
so that the conflict no longer exists.

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♦ Introduce a new mitigating control: If management has determined that

the person(s) need to retain privileges that are viewed as a conflict, then new
preventive or detective controls need to be introduced that will prevent or
detect unwanted activities. Examples of mitigating controls include increased
logging to record the actions of personnel, improved exception reporting to
identify possible issues, reconciliations of data sets, and external reviews of
high-risk controls.
ILLUSTRATION 3.1
In 2017, XYZ Systems had shifted to the SQL Server Relational Database
Management System from the previously used IBM Information Management
System which used a hierarchical database model to create a well-organized
database to store organizational data.
On acquiring a good number of global clients and keeping in view the increased
number, complexity of the overseas transactions and the management’s need for
periodic performance analysis; XYZ Systems planned to leverage the benefit of data
warehouse whereas the research team suggested the implementation of Big data.
However, XYZ Systems did not implement suitable security controls and hence
recently faced data security breach which led to the unauthorized manipulation of
certain confidential data. This resulted in XYZ Systems paying a substantial amount
as compensation and loss of a major client.
Consequently, XYZ Systems has now implemented varied controls starting from
strict password management to high level access controls and monitoring
mechanism ensuring that there are no further data security issues.
Answer the following Questions:
1 The XYZ Systems initially used IBM Information Management system which
used a hierarchical database model. Which type of relationship is not
supported by such database model?
(i) One-to-One
(ii) Many-to-One
(iii) One-to-Many
(iv) None of the above
2 The XYZ Systems recently shifted to the SQL Server DBMS from the IBM
Information Management system that it previously used. Under which aspect,
the SQL Server differs from IBM Information Management System?
(i) One-to-one relationship

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(ii) One-to-many relationship

(iii) Relational Database structure
3 Which among the following is not an advantage of the SQL Server DBMS?
(i) Data Sharing
(ii) Data Redundancy
(iii) Program and File consistency
4 To ensure that the communication between their private network and public
network is secured, one of the step taken by XYZ Systems are to install
firewall. The installation of firewall is __________type of control.
(i) Preventive
(ii) Corrective
(iii) Detective
5 XYZ Systems made its access privileges more stringent so as to prevent
unauthorized users gaining entry into secured area and also minimum entry
granted to users based on their job requirements. Which of the following
Logical Access control covers this aspect?
(i) Operating System Access Control
(ii) Network Access Controls
(iii) User Access Management
(iv) Application and Monitoring System control
6 Based on the risk assessment by the audit team, the management of XYZ
Systems decided to specify the exact path of the internet access by routing
the internet access by the employees through a firewall and proxy. This is
referred to as_______.
(i) Encryption
(ii) Enforced Path
(iii) Call Back Devices
(iv) None of these

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SOLUTION
Question Answer Question Answer
No. No.
1 (ii) Many-to-One 2 (iii) Relational
Database structure
3 (ii) Data Redundancy 4 (i) Preventive
5 (iii) User Access 6 (ii) Enforced Path
Management
ILLUSTRATION 3.2
Bianc Computing Ltd. has implemented a set of controls including those with
respect to security, quality assurance and boundary controls to ensure that the
development, implementation, operation and maintenance of information systems
takes place in a planned and controlled manner. It has also ensured that logs are
designed to record activity at the system, application, and user level.
Along with the implementation of controls and maintenance of logs, it has
approached a leading firm of IS auditors to conduct a comprehensive audit of its
controls. Within the organization also, it has opened new job roles and has hired
people with the required skill sets for the same.
Answer the following Questions:
1 The team of network engineers of Bianc Computing Ltd. recommended
certain controls to be implemented in the organization to bridge the rate of
data reception and transmission between two nodes. Which types of controls
are being referred to here?
(i) Link Controls
(ii) Flow Controls
(iii) Channel Access Controls
(iv) Line Error Controls
2 Which control is used to ensure that the user can continue working, while
the print operation is getting completed? This is known as ___________.
(i) Printing Controls
(ii) Spooling File Control

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(iii) Spoofing File Control

(iv) Print-Run-to Run Control Totals
3 Bianc Computing Ltd. has also opened up new job roles and has hired persons
with the required skill sets for the same as given below.
Job Role Person Responsible

1. Developing logical and physical (a) Operations Manager
designs of data models
2. Providing front line user support (b) Security Analyst
services
3. Staffing of resources for upcoming (c) Database Architect
projects.
4. Examining logs from firewalls, and (d) Help Desk Analyst
providing security advisories
5. Performing maintenance and (e) Systems Analyst
configuration operations on systems.
6. Build and maintain network devices (f) System Administrator
such as routers, switches etc.
7. Developing technical requirements, (g) Network Engineer
program design, and software test plans
Identify the right match to the job roles assigned and the responsible persons
for the job role.
(i) 1(c), 2(d), 3(a), 4(b), 5(f), 6(g), 7(e)
(ii) 1(d), 2(b), 3(c), 4(g), 5(f), 6(a), 7(e)
(iii) 1(e), 2(b), 3(c), 4(g), 5(a), 6(f), 7(d)
(iv) 1(g), 2(f), 3(e), 4(d), 5(c), 6(b), 7(a)
SOLUTION
Question Answer Question Answer

No. No.
1 (ii) Flow Controls 2 (ii) Spooling File Control
3 (i) 1(c), 2(d), 3(a), 4(b),

5(f), 6(g), 7(e)

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SUMMARY
In the present contemporary world, apart from change the thought-provoking
terminology is business which is a driving force behind change and how to insight
into trade is a dynamic called integration. Organizations of the 1990 were
concentrated on the re-engineering and redesign of their business processes to
endorse their competitive advantage. To endure in the 21st century, organizations
have started paying attention on integrating enterprise-wide technology solutions
to progress their business processes called Business Information Systems (BIS).
Now, every organization integrates part or all of its business functions together to
accomplish higher effectiveness and yield. The thrust of the argument was that
Information Technology (IT), when skillfully employed could in various ways
differentiate an organization from its competition, add value to its services or
products in the eyes of its customers, and secure a competitive advantage in
comparison to its competition.
Although information systems have set high hopes to companies for their growth
as it reduces processing speed and helps in cutting cost but most of the research
studies show that there is a remarkable gap between its capabilities and the
business-related demands that senior management is placing on it. We learnt how
any enterprise to be effective and efficient must use Business Process Automation
(BPA), which is largely aided by Computers or IT. Information systems, which forms
the backbone of any enterprise comprises of various layers such as: Application
software, Database Management Systems (DBMS), System Software, Operating
Systems, Hardware, Network Links and People-Users.
This Chapter has provided an overview on the importance of information systems in an
IT environment and how information is generated. There has been a detailed discussion
on Information System Audit, its need, and the method of performing the same. Chapter
outlines the losses that an organization may face, incase, it does not get it audited.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Theory Questions
1. Information System Model is responsible to convert the data into information
which is useful and meaningful to the user. Explain all steps involved in
Information System Model. (Refer Section 3.2)
2. Briefly discuss the components of Computer based Information Systems.
(Refer Section 3.3)

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3. Discuss the term ’Operating System’ and various operations performed by it.
(Refer Section 3.3.2 [Point II])
4. Database Management Systems (DBMS) is a software that aids in organizing,
controlling and using the data needed by the application program However,
there are many advantages and disadvantages associated with it. Discuss them.
(Refer Section 3.3.3)
5. Discuss Boundary Controls under the Application Control Framework in detail.
(Refer Section 3.4.3B[I])
6. Discuss Corrective Controls with the help of examples. Also, discuss their broad
characteristics in brief. (Refer Section 3.4.1[Point C])
8. Describe the term Preventive Controls and provide suitable examples. Also,
discuss their broad characteristics in brief. (Refer Section 3.4.1[Point A])
9. Discuss in brief the following terms:
(i) Snapshots (Refer Section 3.5.2)
(ii) Audit Hooks (Refer Section 3.5.2)
10. Recognize various factors influencing an organization towards control and audit
of computers. (Refer Section 3.5.1)
11. Data warehouse and Data Mining are terms related to better management of
information to enable quicker and effective decision-making in organizations.
Critically evaluate the statement. (Refer Section 3.7.3 & 3.7.4)
12. Explain the concept of Segregation of Duties (SoD) controls and its examples.
(Refer Section 3.9.1)
13. An internet connection exposes an organization to the harmful elements of
the outside world. As a network administrator, which Network Access controls
will you implement in the organization to protect from such harmful
elements? (Refer Section 3.4.2[C-III])
14. A company XYZ is developing a software using the program development life
cycle methodology and applying control, phases in parallel to the
development phases to monitor the progress against plan. Being an IT
developer, design the various phases and their controls for program
development life cycle. (Refer Table 3.4.5)
15. Discuss the key activities which require special attention for auditing the user
access provisioning. (Refer Section 3.6.3[(b - I)]

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History of nursing informatics
Early name for informatics included medical computing, medical
computer science and computer medicine. Beginning to start in 1950 in
the united states, the earliest use of computer for medicine was for dental
project in this year than in the mid of 1950 were the development of
expert system.
In 1965 the national library of medicine started to use those systems.
The international medical informatics association (IMIA) has been done

in 1970. In 1970 a growing number of commercial began to market
practice management and electronic medical record systems.
In 1976 the first issue of "journal of medical informatics" proposed that

medical informatics was the complex processing of data but computer to
produce new trend of information.
In 1991 redefined medical informatics as "the field that concerns itself

with cognitive, information process and communication task of medical
practice, education and research including information science and
technology to support these tasks.
In 2001 defined as "Scientific field that deals with biomedical

information, data and knowledge – Their storage and optimal use of
problem – solving and decision making.
Finally, Health informatics, health care informatics, medical and nursing

informatics means the same definition because it focus attention on the
recipient of care rather than on the discipline of caregiver.
There are strong relationship between informatics and computer but the
computer alone doesn't define informatics there are many other
dimensions.
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Technology: -
Technology contributes to using accumulated knowledge to process

resources to satisfy human needs and wants. Technologies are invented to
make our lives easier and better.
Informatics:
Informatics generally can be defined as" the art and science of turning
data into information".
Nursing informatics:
Nursing Informatics is a specialty that "integrates nursing science,
computer science, and information science to manage and communicate
date, information, knowledge and wisdom in nursing practice to support
patient, nurses and other health care providers in their decision making in
all roles and setting, to produce effective and efficient client outcomes for
individuals and communities."
Nursing informatics framework
Nursing informatics is the integration of nursing science, computer

science, and information science to communicate data, information,
knowledge and wisdom in practice to support patients, nurses and other
health care providers in their decision making in all roles and setting.
The main concepts in nursing informatics theory:
The main concepts in nursing informatics theory are :
A. Data is a single observation or discrete entities that are described

objectively without interpretation. For example, a systolic blood
pressure is a datum
Data integrity is a key issue in health care informatics. Measures to
ensure data integrity include :
1) Education of personnel who collect and enter data .
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2) Data verification techniques.
3) Measures to minimize the entry of fraudulent information.
B. Information data processed into a structured form. Data that are

interpreted, organized, structured and given meaning are referred to
as information.
Example: When combining 110 with other data, it becomes
information. Systolic blood pressure of 110 mmHg and diastolic
blood pressure of 70 mm Hg. This information can be captured in a
form, on a graph on in a report.
C. Knowledge synthesized information derived from the interpretation

of data. It provides a logical basis for making decisions. Essential to
decision-making and to new discoveries. Example: When the blood
pressure reading is combined with information about anatomy and
physiology, pharmacology, pathophysiology, knowledge is used to
decide about further care and treatment.
D. Wisdom is defined as the appropriate use of knowledge to manage

and solve human problems. It is knowing when and how to apply
knowledge to deal with complex problems or specific human.
Pediatric Informatics:
It has been defined as the systematic application of information and
computer science and technology to pediatric nursing practice,
research, and education. Pediatric Informatics explores how the
management of biomedical data, information, and knowledge can
optimize child health.
F Data must be accurate, have utility and integrity which is a key
issue in health care informatics.
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Information must be:
F Complete, accurate and clear in its descriptions with date and time.
F Measurable, preferably by objective means such as numbers
F Comprehensive, including all necessary information in sequence
F Rapidly and easily available when needed
F Objective, rather than subjective
F Appropriate to each user's needs.
F Easy and convenient form to interpret, classify, store, retrieve and
update.
F Correct spelling.
F Legal prudence.
Importance of nursing informatics
1- Support patients, nurses, and other providers in their decision-making

in all roles and settings.
2- Provides tools to help to process, store, retrieve and analyze data and
information to improve patient care.
3- Provide computerized assessment and documentation
4- Saves time and effort
6- Helps nurses in consultation, clinical, practice, administration,
education and research
7- Improving quality of care .
8-Internet can provide marketing services such as advertisement of health
services.
9- promote and facilitate access to resources and references
10- Support for their mission to deliver high quality, evidence-based
care.
11- Support for better service by facilitating true interdisciplinary care.
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12- Improvement in key relationships with providers & care recipients.
13- Enhance continuity of care.
14- Provides content to standardized nursing language (i.e. Nursing
Intervention Classification (NIC), NANDA -North American Nursing
Diagnosis Association (NANDA), and Nursing Outcome Classification
(NOC).
The Role of pediatric Nurse Informatics

• Nursing process application.
• Administration, leadership, programmer.
• Consultation.
• Coordination, facilitation, and integration.
• Educational and professional development.
• Policy development and advocacy.
• Research and evaluation.
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The Technological Challenges for Nursing Education
• The complexity of the healthcare system.

• Lack of training for both students and educators on technology
supported-teaching and learning.
• Lack of infrastructure that enables technology supported-teaching
and learning.
• Lack of devices that are necessary for technology-supported
teaching and learning.
• Optimal patient outcomes while addressing the diverse
expectations of learners.
• There are still nurse managers and educators who feel that
technology usage in nursing education is disruptive, especially
when used at clinical settings.
• Some nurse educators prefer traditional teaching and learning than
technology usage in teaching and learning
• Hardware and software issues, connectivity, security and safety of
personal information.
• Lack of face-to-face interaction are some other challenges facing
optimum use of technology in teaching and learning.
• Furthermore, non-proficiency regarding the use of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) and PDAs is also a challenge
for technology usage in nursing education and also a factor
contributing to its counter-productivity. This is seen mainly in
students with little or no exposure to the use of computer during
their basic schooling.
Advantages of technology use in nursing education
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• The use of technology in nursing education is one of the facilitators
of self-directed and life-long learning.
• Online discussion forums allowed students to study with their
peers.
• Inclusion of information management and interactive technology
facilitates learner engagement.
• Promoting critical thinking and improving clinical judgment.
• Fundamental to inclusion of technology in nursing education is
information literacy and informatics.
• When using technology for teaching and learning, tasks are usually
completed at their own time and pace and that facilitates learner
independence.
• Its flexibility of the location and time when completing tasks. This
implies that teaching and learning can happen at any time when
either party is at the comfortable location because it is neither time
nor space bound.
• To prepare nurses for the challenge of the complex, dynamic
healthcare environment, the faculty envisioned curricula infused
with technological innovations.
• Multiple interactive technologies such as personal response
systems (PRS), human patient simulation (HPS) personal digital
assistants, and web conferencing, podcasting, and course
management systems were integrated within the curriculum.
• The use of applications, such as virtual reality and virtual patients,
is perceived to be convenient, speed up the skills learning process
and create a stress-free learning environment.
Disadvantages of technology usage in nursing education
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• The shift to virtual approach of teaching and learning from
traditional teaching overnight amidst COVID-19 lockdown
regulations came as a huge challenge for many educational
institutions to adapt to such sudden change.
• Network-related issues which include audio virtual disparities,
interruption of sessions because of unexpected logging out from
network and continuous buffering are amongst the challenges
experienced when using technology for teaching and learning.
• Moreover, poor connectivity and technological illiteracy are also
the challenges related to the use of technology for teaching and
learning in nursing education.
• Participants reported lack of time management between family
responsibilities and online learning amongst married couples,
which was seen as a disadvantage of technology use in classroom
nursing education.
• It seems to be lacking human interaction. This is seen as a
disadvantage when using technology for clinical nursing education,
in a sense that, in the nursing profession, nurse-patient interaction
and relation is vital as it plays a role in facilitating the tridomains
of competence, namely, psychomotor, affect, and cognitive
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Application of nursing informatics
Nursing informatics can be applied in all area of nursing practice, which

includes; clinical practice, administration, education and research.
1. Nursing Practice
2. Nursing Education
3. Nursing Research
1. Nursing Practice
Nursing practice is now an integral component of the electronic health

record system alongside the documentation of other health care
professionals. Systems are used to document assessments and
interventions, and to measure the outcomes of care.
v Computer-generated nursing care plans that are frequently embedded

within inter-professional plans of care
v Electronic monitoring devices that record and trend vital signs, as well as
alert the nurse to patient conditions that fall outside of acceptable
parameters
v Patient-specific discharge instructions to assist the patient to provide self-
care on home.
v Admissions, discharge, transfer system that allows nurses to obtain basic
biographical information on clients before they arrive to the unit.
v Save nurses from many phone calls as when new admission, discharge,
transfer data entered to the computer all appropriate departments (Dietary,
housekeeping, pharmacy) are automatically notified.
v Nursing documentation of patient assessment, client's care plans,
medication administration records, nursing note and discharge plans.
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2. Nursing Education
Computer applications have almost revolutionized the educational

process. A variety of media are used to educate nursing students in
universities or colleges, and staff nurses who require ongoing
professional development to stay current with changes in practices and
processes.
v Online registration, scheduling, attendance tracking, test administration

and grade management of courses through learning management systems
(Distance learning).
v Remote access to libraries or online publications.

v Presentation software.
v Simulation labs with lifelike mannequins that mimic real patient
scenarios and respond to nurses’ interventions and actions.
3. Nursing Research
Nurse researchers are experts at gathering, analyzing and using data to

inform practice and improve patient outcomes.
v Computerized literature searches

v Collaboration with other nurse researchers
v Collect and analyze data, prepare research reports, and disseminate
research findings.
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Consideration to facilitate the application of nursing informatics in
pediatric care nursing:
• Computer software and hardware:

The hospital administrator must develop the awareness of all health
care teams (physicians and nurses) about the hardware and software
before the implementation of information technology as it considered
the corner stone and basic requirement for applying information
technology in the hospital.
Software: - is a generic term for organized collections of computer
data and instructions, often broken into two major categories: system
software that provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the
computer, and application software which is used by users to accomplish
specific tasks.
F System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and

managing the individual hardware components of a computer system so
that other software and the users of the system see it as a functional unit
without having to be concerned with the low-level details such as
transferring data from memory to disk or rendering text onto a display.
Generally, system software consists of an operating system and some
fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file managers, display
managers, text editors, user authentication (login) and management tools,
and networking and device control software.
Hardware: is a comprehensive term for all of the physical parts of a

computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on, and
the software that provides instructions for the hardware to accomplish
tasks.
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A typical computer (Personal Computer, PC) contains in a desktop or
tower case the following parts:
• Motherboard which holds the CPU, main memory and other parts, and
has slots for expansion cards
• Power supply - a case that holds a transformer, voltage control and fan
• Storage as floppy disk, CD-ROM and other drives
• Graphics controller that produces the output for the monitor.
Ethical principles in HIS
Any health care institutions which apply the information system should
follow the ethical principles that govern its conduct to protect from legal
liability.
General principles should be followed in application of

HIS:
1. Non-malfeasance: We have a duty to prevent harm to
others without undue harm to ourselves. All members of
society are expected to value life and protect it, by not
engaging in activities that cause harm.
2. Integrity: We have a duty to fulfill our obligations to the
best of our abilities. Every member of society is expected to
be honest.
3. Equality and justice: We have the right to be treated
equally. Members of society ought to treat their fellow
members equally, without discrimination.
4. Beneficence: We have a duty to advance the good of others.
A member of society does not seek just his or her own good,
but the general good and advancement of the society as a
whole.
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5. Autonomy: We have the right to self-determination.
Members of society ought to be given independence in
making decisions and judgments.
Health informatics is about using computers to enhance the way
health information is processed. There are three aspects of health
informatics that can be identified: healthcare, information,
software
q Informatics Ethics
1. Privacy & confidentiality: the right to privacy of their own

information.
2. Openness: Data collection about any person must be done
transparently.
3. Security: Data collected must be protected. Once data is
collected, it must be safeguarded against unauthorized
access by other parties.
4. Access: Everyone has the right to access and correct their
own data.
5. Legitimate infringement: The individual’s right to privacy
and access may be infringed for the larger good of society.
6. Least intrusive alternatives: Any legitimate infringement
must be done with minimum interference to the rights of the
person affected.
7. Accountability: Any infringement of the privacy rights of
the individual person must be justified to the affected person
in good time and in an appropriate fashion.
q Computer workstation ergonomic:
The environment of HIS should be well organized in order to promote
personal safety and eliminate physical & cognitive health problems
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arising from use of computer for a long period of time such as eye strain,
musculoskeletal disorders, disk amnesia and deficient communication, for
this reason
Ergonomics is a science concerned safe work place area by making

products and tasks comfortable and efficient for the user.
The computer workstation environment should have:
1. Suitable lighting without any bright glare on the computer

screen.
2. Walls painted medium or dark color & not have a reflective
finish.
3. Adequate fresh – air ventilation.
4. Quiet place with low-volume music to mask the hum of sound
sources.
Also The computer work station should be modified to include
§ monitor in the level of the user’ s eyes, away from direct light and
from user’ s face by 18-24 inches with adjustable brightness and
contrast and a protective filter should be used to display of infra-
red and ultra violet radiations.
§ The keyboards should place directly in front of the monitor and

at the same height as mouse. It should allow the user’s forearm
to be parallel to floor without raising elbow and the wrists to be in
line with forearm. It should include enough space to rest.
§ The chair should be in adjustable height, support back, have

removable &adjustable armrests, a contoured seat with
breathable fabric & rounded edges.
§ The table and desks should be in adjustable height.
Wireless technology will have a growing role. Electronic bulletin

boards, calendar filings and email enable rapid communication of
nursing administrators with staff, nursing managers and support
departments.
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v Use proper posture to reduce stress on the muscles, bones and
tendons.
v Use as little force as possible - avoid pounding the keys on the
keyboard or holding the mouse or pens and pencils in a death grip.
v Use a telephone headset or a shoulder rest on the telephone
receiver to avoid bending the neck and raising the shoulder to hold
the phone.
v Keep the shoulders and arms relaxed while typing. Keep your
whole body as relaxed as possible.
v Breathe regularly and deeply. This can help keep you relaxed and
alert.
v Alternate non-computer jobs with computer jobs to keep your work
routine varied and give yourself a break from computer use.
v Try to relax mentally. Stress can make your body tense and your
work less efficient.
v Use your eyes properly: blink, see more than the computer screen,
and look into the distance frequently.
Your Body and Mind:
v Maintaining a healthy physical and mental condition is important in

the prevention of workplace injury.
v Engage in a regular exercise program, with the advice of your
doctor.
v Eat a healthy diet.
v Drink lots of water to keep joints and tendons lubricated.
v Get plenty of rest. . Short 'micro breaks' should be taken frequently,
at least every 15 minutes to 30 minutes
v Explore ways to relieve stress, such as meditation or massage in
addition to exercise.
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132
I. Application of information technology in hospitals
(practice)
Health care setting can develop Hospital information system through

using different strategies as electronic medical record, clinical pathway,
Tele-health, Tele-medicine and Tele-nursing, distance learning, electronic
portfolio, Virtual reality and simulation, and finally rubric.
1- Telehealth
Definition:
Telemedicine (telehealth) is “the use of electronic information and

telecommunication technologies to support long-distance clinical
health care patient and professional health-related education, public
health, and health administration”.
Advantages:
Teaching telehealth techniques in nursing programs has both short-

and long-term benefits:
133
ü Some nursing students have reported using telehealth has
improved their clinical experience and patient care.
ü Students’ using of telehealth enhanced their care performance
Improving the quality and effectiveness of performing tasks.
ü Decreasing errors in communication and information sharing.
ü Once nursing students graduate, they will have telehealth skills
that enhance their job performance because they had theoretical
and clinical fundamental of telehealth technique in nursing
school.
ü This level of familiarity adds to their comfort in using telehealth
ü The use of telehealth can reduce barriers to health care such as
cost, transportation, long wait times at clinics, and disease
transmission.
ü It increases access to care for patients who are unable to leave
their homes if they are immunocompromised and/or immobile.
ü Telehealth usage has increased during the COVID-19 because
of its ability to decrease face-to-face interaction and potentially
limit the spread of infection while providing vital care for
patients.
ü The use of telemonitoring interventions have reduced hospital
admissions and mortality associated with heart failure and
chronic disease among older individuals.
ü People with disabilities and mental health disorders in rural and
urban areas have also reported improved quality of health care
as a result of telehealth services.
ü Telehealth in nursing has contributed to efficient, quality
services and better health outcomes.
Example:
134
Asthma Academy: A student nurse-led telehealth education program for
low-income family caregivers of children with asthma
§ The Asthma Academy involved two parts. First, a nurse educator

provided mothers (N = 18) a one-hour, virtual education session
about asthma. The education session covered the pathophysiology
of asthma, asthma triggers, rescue medication versus controller
medication, communication, and how to navigate the healthcare
system. Then, half of the family caregivers (n = 9) were offered
telehealth visits led by supervised doctoral nursing students. Some
mothers used their computers, and others used their smartphones
for the telehealth visit. The postgraduate students conducted the
telehealth visits via Zoom HIPAA-compliant software (Zoom
Video Communications). One doctoral student led the visit with
the family caregiver, while two doctoral-prepared nurse faculty
members supervised the visit. Students were guided by an
interview script, and the telehealth visits lasted approximately
30 min. In the visits, students would ask family caregivers
questions about their home environment, presence of symptoms,
understanding of medications and ask about the child's asthma
action plan. Family caregivers had opportunity to ask questions
specific to their child. The student answered these questions and
then provided individualized and tailored education as part of the
telehealth visit.
Home Tele-monitoring for Chronic Disease
Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) and the home use of Tele-monitoring

equipment is an area that has recently been explored in an effort collectively
known as vital signs (vs), this information can then be transmitted
automatically to a central reporting station that is attended by clinical personnel
such as a registered nurse
135
Advantages
1- Tele-onitors with home health visits by clinicians reduced the length of

stay (LOS).
2-Reduce rehospitalization and Emergency Room (ER) visits for CHF

exacerbation.
3-The management of patient symptoms on a daily basis in the home

focused on providing quality care and enhancing patient outcomes.
The home health clinician was better able to focus one-on-one care by
actually reducing the daily visit schedule and eliminating unnecessary
visits.
5-The CHF/Telemed committee was meeting monthly to discuss the

ongoing deployment of this device.
6- Internal analysis by clinical staff changes were implemented in the

deployment of telemonitoring and discuss diagnostic parameters for the
use of home monitoring
Disadvantages
1-Depersonalization from the lack of nurse to patient interaction.
2- A patient may loose their sense of security.
2-Hospital information system
hospital information systems (HIS) is a computerized system that is

designed to manage all the hospital’s medical and administrative
information in order to enable health professional perform their jobs
effectively and efficiently.
Benefits of Hospital Information System (HIS):
136
o Comfortable access to patient data: HIS helps keep tracks of
various patients, their records, including classification depending
on demographic, age, gender, previous history and so on.
o It’s cost effective: as its application results in better performances
and improved functions which consequently decrease costs.
o Betters interaction with patients: Through images and graphics,
HIS helps doctors to educate patients about their ailments, their
surgical procedures. These in turn, improves the doctor patient
communication.
o Improves efficiency: HIS upgrades the level of efficiency both on
the cost and the clinical care viewpoint. This is accomplished by
shunning duplications, repetitions, delays, missing records and
confusions. Not only that, it also aids well-organized and precise
administration offinance, diet of various patient according to
specific needs, engineering, and distribution of medical aid.
o Lessens scope for error: With the help of HIS nurses and
caretakers monitor drug usage more effectively. This leads to the
decrease of unfavorable drug deliverable while encouraging more
fitting utilization of medicines.
Components of HIS
Components of a hospital information system consist of two or more of

the following:
Ä Clinical Information System (CIS).

Ä Financial Information System (FIS).
Ä Laboratory Information System (LIS).
Ä Nursing Information Systems (NIS).
Ä Pharmacy Information System (PIS).
137
Ä Picture Archiving Communication System (PACS).
Ä Radiology Information System (RIS).
Nursing information system
Nursing information systems (NIS) are computer systems that

manage clinical data from a variety of healthcare environments, and made
available in a timely and orderly fashion to aid nurses in improving
patient care.
v Some of the features that are provided by Nursing Information Systems

include:
§ Patient Charting: A patient’s vital signs, admission and nursing

assessments, care plan and nursing notes can be entered into the
system either as structured or free text. These are the stored in a
central repository and retrieved when needed.
§ Staff Schedules: Nurses can self-schedule their shifts using

scheduling rules provided in shift modules. The shifts can later be
confirmed or changed by a scheduling coordinator or manager.
Shift modules are designed to handle absences, overtime, staffing
levels and cost-effective staffing.
§ Clinical Data Integration: Here clinical information from all the

disciplines can be retrieved, viewed and analyzed by nursing staff
and then integrated into a patient’s care plan.
§ Decision Support: Decision support module can be added to

Nursing Information Systems, and they provide prompts and
reminders, along with guides to disease linkages between
138
signs/symptoms, etiologies/related factors and patient populations.
Online access to medical resources can also be made available.
v There are benefits to be enjoyed by implementing Nursing Information

Systems and they include:
§ Improved workload functionality: Staffing levels and appropriate

skill mix per shift can be more easily determined by the shift
modules. This leads to less time spent in designing and amending
rosters.
§ Better care planning: Time spent on care planning is reduced, while

the quality of what is recorded is improved. This makes for more
complete care plans and more complete assessments and
evaluations.
§ Better drug administration: Electronically prescribed drugs are

more legible, thus making it less likely that drugs would be
wrongly administered to patients.
3-Electronic medical record

Electronic medical record is the electronic version of the client data
found in traditional paper record
Benefits from electronic medical record
1- Easily access to patient's medical data.
2- Decreased redundancy (repetitions) of data entry.
3- Decrease time spent in documentation
4- Increase time for client care. More time is available for
client care because time required for documentation and
transcription of physicians' order.
5- Facilitate data collection for research.
139
6- Improve communication between the health care teams
7- Enhance and facilitate collaboration among all health care
teams.
8- Help the staff to achieve goals and the standard of care.
Pediatric Electronic medical record
Special form of EMR software designed for the use in pediatric
care (Pediatric EMR is tailored to the pediatrician and pediatric
nurses input ) contains items related to children care such as
Demographics and family structures
§ Medication orders
§ VIS (Vaccine Information Sheet)
§ Pediatric protocols for pediatric triage
§ Behavioral tools
§ Age Specific
§ School & Daycare
§ Sports
§ Demographics and family structures
§ Birth Data
§ Immunization administration and management
§ Growth Charts
§ Reportable Communicable Disease management
§ Child abuse reporting forms
§ Referral entry and tracking
140
Pediatric EMR
Physical examination (Palpation sires)
5-Robots
Definitions:
The robot is a mechanical device that resembles humans, and it can

perform human tasks or can behave in a human manner while
working automatically or by remote control.
In robot patients, human likeness, voice recognition, eye and face

tracking, gesture, and speech processing, as well as movement and
reasoning abilities, are embedded allowing for an accurate
141
reproduction of several human clinical conditions and emotions
when compared to high-fidelity patient simulators.
Types of Educational Robots:
In the last ten years, three type of robotic technologies have been
applied in nursing education: Humanoid Robot Patient (HRP), the
Humanoid Rehabilitation Robot (HRR), and the Remote Presence
Robot (RPR).
1-Both HRP and HRR are humanoid robots with the body shape
built to resemble the human body. They are prototypes utilized for
the acquisition of practical skills, they generally embedded voice
recognition, speech processing, and movement abilities. In one
study, visual abilities, eye and head movements, as well as facial
expressions have been embedded in the robot, in order to reproduce
recognition abilities and emotional states.
2-The RPR is a multicomponent roaming remote-controlled droid

(robot that look like a box) equipped with wheels. It is topped with
a computer screen that allows 2-way video conferencing between
the controller, that control the robot through a joystick, and
students located in a remote location. It is in an advanced stage of
development and are used to gain cognitive learning outcomes. The
controller is generally a teacher while in some cases it could be a
postgraduate student. The RPR is also equipped with lenses
allowing the teacher to zoom in, zoom out, take video, photo, and
use a pointer for give instructions. In addition, through dedicated
jacks is also possible to connect medical devices such as
142
stethoscopes, otoscopes, and other equipment allowing a remote
clinical assessment.
Advantages:
Ø RPR seems to facilitate the collaboration between students,

faculty, and clinical instructors
Ø Improving learning experiences
Ø Allowing students to familiarize with novel evidence-based
educational technologies to be used in clinical settings.
Pediatric Robot for Education of Nursing Students
Ø Gaumard Scientific company designed a robot called Pediatric

HAL, which simulates a 5-year-old boy, is typically deployed in
a six-hour-long class that enables six to eight nursing students
to each interact with the robot. Students observe symptoms, take
vital signs, connect HAL to diagnostic equipment, administer
medications and observe how the patient responds to treatment.
Ø HAL is controlled with a tablet, so the instructor can easily
switch things up, change scenarios or repeat a process with a
mouse click.
Ø HAL is capable of facial expressions and eye movements. He
cries real tears, his pupils can dilate, his eyes track movement,
and he can sweat. The robot can appear lethargic, worried, or in
pain. His airway is capable of being intubated, he simulates
heart, lung and bowel sounds, produces a pulse and nurses can
conduct a variety of activities on HAL, including taking blood
via a finger prick or administering an IV.
143
Ø HAL has a lifelike appearance, but under the skin he’s a mass of
complex circuitry, sensors, pumps, compressors, liquids, and
more.
Informatics Applications in Neonatology

• Physiological monitoring equipment is used extensively along with
web-based information tools and knowledge.
• Follow-up of NICU patients after discharge.
• Enhances parents care skills and self-confidence during a usually
stressful period such as the one of post-discharge from NICU.
• Promotes a higher involvement of parents in their baby's care
• Allow parents to ask periodically about the newborn’s health status
(weight, feeding, sleep, etc.).
• communicate online with parents to advise them about good baby
care
• Special educational training programs for pediatric care
• Neonatal databases assist with collecting, displaying, and analyzing
data from a number of sources.
• Accessing to a personal area on the website,
• Reduce hospitalization and improve parents’ satisfaction.
• Provide support during breastfeeding
• Providing high-quality educational contents about neonatal care to
parents, telenursing offers to nurses a valuable and easy procedure
at home
• Understand the health care needs of children that can be supported
by the telehealth.
• Identify opportunities for collaboration in international outreach to
improve the health of children worldwide
• Encourage the development of a researches agenda related to
pediatric applications of telehealth
144
II. Application of informatics in pediatric nursing education
ü Virtual simulation
ü Distance learning/ E-learning course
ü Electronic portfolio
ü Simulation in pediatric nursing education.
1- Virtual Simulation
Definitions:
As defined as “a dynamic process involving the creation of a

hypothetical opportunity that incorporates an authentic representation of
reality, facilitates active student engagement, and integrates the
complexities of practical and theoretical learning with opportunity for
repetition, feedback, evaluation, and reflection”.
Virtual simulation is defined as “a screen-based simulation where the

graphics, sound, and navigation emphasize the three-dimensional (3D)
nature of the environment”
Uses:
Recently, VS has been widely integrated in many procedures:
Ø Surgical procedural training

Ø Emergency and pediatric emergency medicine training
Ø Teaching of basic medical sciences
Ø Medical radiation and imaging
Ø Puncture or catheterization training
Ø Interprofessional medical education, and other case-based
learning experiences.
145
According to the Healthcare Simulation Dictionary, virtual
simulation is “the recreation of reality depicted on a computer
screen.” When participating in virtual simulations, learners
experience simulated clinical scenarios from a computer screen
while often using a mouse or keyboard to interact with the
environment and maneuver their avatars. Learners often select
actions and communications from a menu as they provide nursing
care to the virtual patient. Upon completion of the simulation, an
automated report provides standardized feedback on whether the
student met the scenario learning objectives.
Example:
Virtual Simulation for Last-Year Nursing Graduate Students in

Times of Covid-19:
§ The intervention group received training through the vSim® for

Nursing platform. The platform was developed through a
collaboration between Wolters Kluwer, Laerdal and the
National League for Nursing (NLN). vSim® has peer-reviewed
clinical cases and the simulations are based on high-fidelity
manikins adapted for use in a virtual environment.
§ This web-based VS measures the students’ actions in terms of
low, moderate and high risk for patient harm. In addition, it
calculates a score based on correctly performed nursing
activities.
§ The intervention process consisted of three phases and five
steps:
Phase 1. Checking and preparatory
1) Pretraining knowledge evaluation: before starting the
146
training with the virtual platform, the intervention group was
given a test on basic concepts of pharmacology,
pathophysiology and nursing interventions.
The intention was to establish the baseline in terms
of knowledge of the topics to be treated in the clinical cases.
2) Familiarization with the platform: since none of the

students had used vSim®, all of them received training on the use
of the platform through video conferencing by a vSim® instructor.
For this purpose, a case was used that was not included in the
training afterwards. All commands of the simulator and the
operation of the system were explained. A document was provided
with all commands adjusted to the native language of the
participants, so as to facilitate navigation through the platform.
Phase 2. Experimental
3) Clinical cases: each student was given individually five clinical
scenarios: two fundamental nursing cases (hip fracture and
pneumonia) and three medical-surgical cases (asthma, diabetes and
intestinal obstruction). Before carrying out each case, the students
had to review the case and study its contents provided by the
platform. These contents are based on various Wolters Kluwers
publications. The platform provides different external links so that
the student can access updated content. They then proceeded to
perform the simulation for a maximum of 30 minutes. Finally, the
program gave feedback on those aspects that were done properly
and on those that could be improved. The targets were: each case
had to be repeated until a score of at least 80% was achieved and
the students were not allowed to have any error classified as high
or moderate risk to the patient. Each case could be carried out for
147
six days.
4) Online debriefing: these were programmed on the seventh day
of each case by the simulation instructor. The debriefing format
proposed by the platform was used: opening questions, scenario
analysis questions and concluding questions. Each session lasted
approximately 90 minutes.
Advantages:
Ø Simulation-based learning (SBL) experiences are helpful in

integrating theoretical knowledge with practice, and gaining
skills necessary for independent practice
Ø It helps in increasing practice skills and higher order thinking.
Ø The use of SBL can expose medical students in ethically safe
environments without risk of jeopardizing real patients
Ø Let them feel safe to make mistakes
Ø Enhance their confidence
Ø Developing professional knowledge, critical thinking skills,
comprehensive decision-making skills, clinical judgment, better
clinical preparation, as well as self-efficacy, satisfaction and
emotions.
Ø Moreover, SBL as a form of education offers repeated practice
opportunities especially for less common conditions, and
reduces the time consuming to reach professional and clinical
competence.
Challenges:
Ø Accessibility of VS instructional resources and the low supply

of simulators,
148
Ø Lack of infrastructure
Ø Decoupling users from reality
Ø Shortages of funding and simulator technologies
Ø The lack of full-time trained staff
Ø The poor motivation and experience limitations of instructors
Ø How to increase students’ motivation and engagement, should
be addressed
Ø The time-intensive characteristic.
2- Distance learning
Distance education, or distance learning, is a field of education that

focuses on the technology, and instructional system designs that aim to
deliver education to students who are not physically "on site" in a
traditional classroom or campus. It has been described as "a process to
create and provide access to learning when the source of information
and the learners are separated by time and distance, or both
These Technologies are divided into:-
-Synchronous technologies. -Asynchronous technologies.
§ Synchronous technologies
• Is a mode of online delivery where all participants are "present"
at the same time. So it requires a timetable to be organized.
• For example:
1. Telephone .
2. Videoconferencing.
3. Web Conferencing.
149
§ Asynchronous technologies.
• Is a mode of online delivery where participants access course
materials on their own schedule. Students are not required to be
together at the same time.
• For example:
1. Audiocassette.
2. E-mail .
3. Message Board Forums
4. Printed Materials.
5. Voice Mail/fax.
6. Videocassette.
Major benefits of use
Distance education provides major benefits to at least six main markets or

categories, such as:
• Expanding access: Distance education can reach underserved

populations of students who cannot attend a school.
• Cost reduction: As most material can be packaged in an easy to
deliver "just-in-time" format.
• Emerging market opportunities: Distance education provide
access to lifelong learning.
• Adapting to new technology and environments: Educational
institutions may adapt to the rapid changes in technology being
used in education today.
• New fund-raising opportunities: Distance education creates new
graduates who might be willing to donate money to the school.
• Flexibility for students: Some distance learning programs allow
students to tailor their curriculum to meet their individual needs.
The importance of distance learning for disabled children.

Students with physical disability usually are unable to attend common
classes due to health problems. A child in a wheelchair may have a
150
great deal of difficulties if try to attend his school with ordinary
classes.
Distance learning classes ; allow disabled children get higher

education. And provide opportunity to study at home. All materials are
available online, the communication with a tutor is also provided through
the Internet.
3-Electronic portfolio
ü Portfolio is a purposeful collection of person’s work that exhibits

the person’s efforts, progress, and achievements.
ü E- Portfolio can also defined as " personalized, web-based
collections of work, and reflections that are used to demonstrate
accomplishments and time period.
ü A professional portfolio is a collection of carefully selected
material that documents the nurse's competencies and expertise. It
provides a way of monitoring professional development.
By periodically reviewing the portfolio, nurses can assess their progress
in meeting personal and professional goals and can better plan their
careers in nursing.
Portfolio Structure (content of Portfolio in pediatric nursing):
• Title Page: personal information, name, age, graduation date,

qualifications, etc.….
• Table of Contents: contain the sections & evidences of personal.
• Department mission & vision
• Course Objectives: contain goal & objectives of e-portfolio.
• Clinical areas: ILOs of each clinical area- plan of work-
minimum requirement
151
• Artifacts or evidences: examples of student work, including
documents, images, video – mother class- case study- child study.
• Observational checklists: which were used in evaluating nursing
procedures.
• Rubric: can be used to assess student work. A rubric is a criterion
–rating scale, which provides the instructor with a tool to track
student performance
• Reflections: self-evaluation.
Benefits of E- portfolio:
1. Provides a mean for documentation and saving information related to

patients, staff, and organization within any HIS.
2. Portfolio as a mirror: the reflective nature of the portfolio allow the

persons to see themselves over time.
3. Portfolio as a map: creating plan and setting goal.
4. Considered an important source for staff promotion and understanding

their strengths and weaknesses for development.
4-Simulation in pediatric nursing
Definition of Simulations:
Simulation are scenarios or environments designed to closely

approximate real-world situations.
Simulation can be defined as a strategy – not a technology –to

mirror, anticipate, or amplify real situations with guided experiences
in a fully interactive way.
Simulator:
Replicates a task environment with sufficient realism to serve a desired
purpose.
152
§ Types of simulation
1. Screen-based/PC-based simulation
2. Virtual patients
3. Partial task trainers
4. Human patient simulator
5. Standardized patients
6. Integrated models
The need of simulation in pediatric nursing education:
Pediatric events are infrequent; child patients can have good

outcomes if successfully managed. Although many practicing health care
providers will at some point be required to manage acutely ill or injured
children, very few opportunities to learn and practice the necessary skills
are encountered during nursing hospital round training. These will affect
on pediatric nurse confidence, adversely affects their performance, and
increases the possibility of nursing errors or an adverse the child health
care outcome.
Until now, opportunities for hands-on practice have either been left to
chance or have been created using static mannequins with indirect patient
feedback from an instructor. Because these experiences lacked the
realism of actually assessing and treating an acutely ill or injured child,
there are significant limitations in terms of the knowledge, clinical skills
and confidence. By comparison, the immersive nature of simulation
training allows participants to practice in an environment that closely
mimics the assessment and treatment of real patients.
Fidelity is the term used in simulation domain to describe degree of

realism.
Simulator fidelity ranges from:
153
a. Low fidelity: Allows user to practice skills in isolation, such as
administration of an intramuscular injection into an orange or injection
pillow.
b. Moderate fidelity: Offers more realism but does not have user
completely immersed in situation, static mannequins and partial task-
trainers (designed to teach one specific skill such as intubations.
c. High fidelity: Provides user with cues necessary to be immersed in
hands-on scenarios. Such as simulators with life-like mannequins
connected to computer systems designed to control the mannequin’s
physical and physiological responses. These high-fidelity simulators
facilitate student interaction by providing direct feedback and response
to provided nursing interventions in the form of physical findings such
as heart sounds, breath sounds, palpable pulses, blinking eyes and
even speech.
Benefits of simulation for pediatric nursing students:
The significant benefits of the simulation experience include :
1. Practice in a risk-free environment

2. Allowing errors to occur and reaching a conclusion
3. Presentation of uncommon disease presentations or atypical
presentations of common diseases
4. Practice of complex clinical situations
5. The ability to evaluate new equipment, interventions, treatment
protocols and procedures.
Purposes of simulation:
For learners (Students)
ü Simulation allows learners to function in an environment that is as

close as possible to an actual clinical situation.
154
ü Simulation incorporates the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
domains of learning in which emphasis is on the development of
student knowledge.
ü Allows for ongoing direction, feedback& collaboration among
students.
ü Simulation Increases student confidence through.
Acquire Skills
After learning a breadth of skills in lab, students apply & practice

these in a simulation experience.
Be Safe and Comfortable
-Students feel comfortable asking questions of faculty or peers
-Students practice hands-on, but on a simulator rather than a real

patient for the first time
-Students can repeat skills to achieve proficiency, make errors, and

self-correct, all without patient harm.
Critical Thinking
- Application of what is learned in class and skills labs to a scenario.
For educators
1. Integrate the use of technology in the learning experience.

2. Improve quality and consistency of the clinical experience
3. Provide each student with the same learning opportunity and give
immediate feedback.
4. Assess the student’s progress or competency with a certain skill or
nursing intervention (use as evaluation tool).
155
The impact of nursing informatics on the health care system
1-Nursing Informatics digitizes paper charting into interoperable electric

charting hence decreasing documentation time which relieves nurses from
writing on and handling of papers thus creating a paperless environment.
2. Nursing informatics eliminates ambiguity, redundancy and the tedious

process of documentation
3. Nursing informatics reduces turnaround time. The turnaround time

starts from the time a request is made to the time it is fully accomplished.
For example laboratory results can be sent directly to the nurses’ station
with the use of an E-mail, so there is more time available for client care.
4. Nursing informatics impacts quality and cost of health care.
5. Optimizes information management and communication among health

care providers.
Impact of nursing informatics on the nursing profession
1. Computer information systems prevent nurses from making medication

errors.
156
2. Computer order entry systems help nurses easily interpret orders from
physician in the management of a patient.
3. There is better collaboration and sharing of patient information with

other health care providers.
4. Nurses perform better assessments and monitoring of patients diseases
5. Helps nurses utilize research to provide evidence based care.
6. Helps nurses work faster, smarter and more competent in whatever

they do.
Obstacles for application of nursing informatics.
• There is a need to further emphasize on the importance of

evidence-based practice.
• There is a need for convenient access to literature resources.
• Education to use technology to access and retrieve information
relevant to clinical practice.
• There is a need to instill an information-seeking modeling
behavior.
157
References :
1. Bell, B, Thornton, K. (2011). From promise to reality achieving

the value of an EHR. Healthcare Financial Management,
65(2),51-56.
2. Brosco, J. P., Sanders, L. M., Guez, G., & Lantos, J. D. (2010).
Historical trends in low birth weight. Archives of Pediatrics &
Adolescent Medicine, 164,99−100.
3. Jeffries PR. Simulation in nursing education: From

conceptualization to evaluation. New York: National League for
Nursing 2007.
4. Leigh, G. High-fidelity patient simulation and nursing students’
self-efficacy: A review of the literature. International Journal of
Nursing Education Scholarship 2008; 5(1):1-17.
5. Ergonomics available at
http://www.eyeprotectorpro.com/rsirepetitive-strain-injury-
explained-eyeprotectorpro/ergonomics/
6. Guidelines for healthy and safer work place available at
http://www.ergonomics-info.com/index.html
7. bursitis in elbow (olecranon bursitis available at
http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/olecranon-bursa
8. Agency for Health Care Research and Quality. (2006). Health
information technology: Computerized physician order entry
prevents drug errors, but can initially result in new errors in
ICUs. Retrieved from: http://
/www.ahrq.gov/research/feb06/0206RA11.htm.
9. American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2008). The

essentials of baccalaureate education for professional nursing
practice. Retrieved
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from:http://www.aacn.nche.edu/education/pdf/BaccEssentials08.
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10. American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. (2009). The

Recovery.gov. Retrieved
from:http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getdoc.cgi?
dbname=111_cong_bills&docid=f:h1enr.pdf.
11. Anderson, C. (2009). How does social networking enhance the

nursing narrative? Nursing Management, 40,16−20,
doi:10.1097/01. NUMA.0000360767.36858.0b.
12. Saba V, McComnick K. Essentials of Nursing Informatics.

4thed.New York, McGraw Hill Company.2006.(350-372).
13. TELENURSING PRACTICE GUIDELINES © 2008, College of
Registered Nurses of Nova Scotia. Available on
http://www.crnns.ca/documents/telenursing.pdf
14. Maheu, Marlene M.; Whitten, Pamela; & Allen, Ace (2001). E-
Health, Telehealth, and Telemedicine: A Guide to Start-up and
Success. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
159

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Example of Input Devices:-

Note: The most common use keyboard is the QWERTY keyboard.

The CPU is comprised of three main parts :

A storage module made of flash memory chips. A Flash disks have no

Example on Output Devices:

A. System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and

• 1 bit - answer to an yes/no question

• 90 bytes: enough to store a typical line of text from a book.

• 120 KB: the text of a typical pocket book.

Speed measurement: The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows,

• Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a

Laptop and Smartphone Computers

Mobile Device: A mobile device is basically any handheld computer. It

Tablet Computers: Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be

Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It

Viruses: A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real

•E-mail viruses: An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-mail

•Trojan horses: A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The

•Worms: A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer

3.2 INFORMATION SYSTEMS

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♦ Processing: A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve desired

Fig. 3.2.1: Functions of Information Systems

3.3 COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

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system, Informal (word of mouth) information system, Formal (written procedures)

Fig. 3.3.1: Components of Information Systems

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whole picture and try to understand how technology integrates into an

Fig. 3.3.2: Components of Computer System

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Fig. 3.3.3: Types of Memory

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(a) Primary/Main Memory: Also known as Main Memory or Internal Memory, it

Aspect Random Access Read Only Memory (ROM)

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Capacity RAM memory is large ROM is generally small and

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Data Instructions or data to be Data to be permanently stored is

Processor Cache Primary Secondary

Fig. 3.3.4: Computer Memory hierarchy

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operating system can thus be viewed as an extended machine, which is more

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♦ Task Management: This facilitates users to do Multitasking i.e. to work with

Application Software is the category of programs that do some useful processing

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3.3.3 Data Resources

♦ Database Management Systems (DBMS): DBMS may be defined as a

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♦ Faster Application Development: In the case of deployment of DBMS,

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Every enterprise needs to manage its information in an appropriate and desired

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Banking Company, accounting information of various customers could be

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