PURCOM REVIEWER

 Language acquisition- is a process

BASICS OF COMMUNICATION where in people acquire language
used by those in community
DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION  Language learning- is a process
 process of using message to where in people learn their second
generate language by studying
message formally in school or informally on the
 communicares Latin word) – to ir own.
share or make ideas common
 process of sending and receiving
messages.
 sometimes spoken or written
words, and sometimes nonverbally  Language contact- is a process where

through facial in people try to understand each

other or to communicates one learns
expressions, gestures and voice
from each other
qualities.
 Language change – is a process
 process of sharing opinions,
information, wherein people are constantly
ideas and feelings. interacting and communicate
 systematic process in which people with each other

interact with and through symbols  Language- is indeed a human

to complex and it is important to be
create and interpret meaning. aware of its features and behavior.

What is language:
FOUR KEY TERMS TO DEFINE
According to linguists, language will be
COMMUNICATION
called a language if there is a:
1. Process - constantly moving and
-System of rules continuously changing.

-Sound system (phonology) - an activity itself in which you

participate.
-Vocabulary (lexicon) 2. System - interrelated parts that affect
on another.
- to effectively communicate and
NATURE OF LANGUAGE
interpret a message, it is important to
 Speech community- is the kind of
understand the system (culture: religion,
group that socio linguistic attempts to
ethnicity, nationality, age, sex and
study
others).
- A group of people who share
3. Symbols - concrete representations
similar ideas, and uses norms
of something abstract.
of language
- allow people to perceive abstract,
arbitrary and ambiguous representation
of things using sentence
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- communication is symbolic as it ●Verbal message pertains to the
involves interaction with and through language one utters; it comes in the
symbols. form of words, phrases, and sentences
which can be oral or written
4. Meanings - can be viewed as an
“end” in ●Non-verbal message refers to
gestures, body movements, sign
itself, which means that when people
languages, and facial expressions that
communicate, they attach meaning to
carry with them their own meaning.
the symbols they use with the intent that
the person they are communicating with 4. Channel - refers to the means with
share the same meaning as intended. which

 The goal is to generate common the message is delivered.

meaning through the messages
●As the message moves from the
provided or received.
source to the receiver, it passes through
a medium or media or a channel which
COMMUNICATION HAS TWO
can be:
LEVELS OF MEANING
●Airwaves and cable (channels for
1. Content Level- refer to the literal
receiving television messages)
meaning of the message. Parallel to the
denotative meaning of the message. ●Sound waves (for radio
messages)
2. Relationship Level- expresses the
relationship between communicators. ●Sound and light waves (for face-

Can be the connotative meaning of a to-face communication allowing the

message. receiver to see and hear the sender)

5. Feedback- the receiver’s verbal and

non-verbal response to the source’s
COMPONENTS/ELEMENTS OF
message; response does not necessarily
COMMUNICATION
have to be verbal for it to be considered
1. Sender or source- is the originator of a feedback.
an idea or emotion. It is where the
6. Code - pertains to language; a
message originates.
systematic arrangement of symbols used
2. Receiver- is a person or a group of to create meanings in the mind of
persons toward whom a sender or another person
source directs messages and who
7. Encoding and Decoding -
decodes the message.
●Encoding defined as the process
3. Message - verbal and non-verbal of translating an idea or thought into a
form of code.

the idea, thought, or feeling that one ●Decoding process of assigning

intends to communicate to another meaning to an idea.
person or group of people.

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 Noise or Barrier - refers to any 5. Representational – use language
interference in the encoding and to explain.
decoding processes which affect the 6. Heuristic – language is used to
clarity and understanding of a message. find things out, wonder, or
hypothesize.
●Physical noise and Mental or
7. Imaginative – language is used to
Psychological noise is some of the
create, explore, and entertain.
examples.

According to Roman Jakobson, we

Language vs. Dialect
can classify the functions of
Dialect is a regional variety of language
language into six factors, which
distinguished by features of vocabulary,
are necessary for successful
grammar, and pronunciation from other
communication:
regional varieties and constituting
together with them a single language 1. Context
2. Addresser/Sender
3. Addressee/Receiver
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
4. Contact
Haliday (1975) identifies seven functions
of language that children demonstrate in 5. Common Code

their early years. The first four functions 6. Message

— instrumental, regulatory,
Each of the six factors has a different
interactional, and personal—help the
function of language. The diversity in
child to address his/her physical,
these functions is a result of a different
emotional, and social needs. On the
hierarchical order of functions. The
other hand, the next three functions—
functions are:
heuristic, imaginative, and
representational—help the child to adapt 1. Referential Function - denotative,
to his/her environment. cognitive function which is oriented
toward the context. Most obvious
1. Instrumental – instrumental
function of language.
language is used to communicate
preferences, choices, wants, or 2. Emotive Function - also known as
needs. expressive function that focuses on the
2. Personal – personal language is addresser. To express emotions although
used to express individuality. no information is orally provided.
3. Interactional – interactional
3. Conative Function - an orientation
language is used to interact and
toward
plan, develop, or maintain a play
or group activity or social Addressee. Finds its purest grammatical

relationship. expression in evocative and imperative

4. Regulatory – regulatory language sentences.

is used to control. 4. Phatic Function - sets for contact

establishes, prolongs, or discontinues

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the communication. Purpose is to message in his model.
maintain contact with the person we are ➔the personal fields of experience,
whether
talking to.
shared or not by the communicator, are
5. Metalingual Function - Code very
performs the metalingual function which important.
is used whenever the addresser and the ➔according to Schramman, the
addressee need to check whether they communicator’s fields of experience
use the same code. explain
why misunderstandings occur.
6. Poetic Function - orientation toward
3. Transactional Model
message and the focus on the message
➔adopted from wood (1997) in response
for its own sake. Linguistics cannot limit to the
itself just to the field of poetry.
failure of interactive model to portray
the
dynamism of human communication
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
➔it has time element which influences
1. Linear Model how
➔also called the transmission model. people communicate
➔this model is based on the assumption ●for instance, freshmen college
that
students are more reserved at the start
is transmitted in a straightforward
manner- of the semester since they are still
getting to know their classmates this will
from a sender to a receiver.
change over time as they become more
➔this clearly reflects that
communication is comfortable with their classmates due to
a one-way process. their frequent interaction.

2. Interactive Model ➔it depicts communication as varying

➔contrast with the linear one which (not constant) and dynamic (not static)
considers
communication as flowing only in one ●the outer lines in the model
direction, indicate that communication occurs
from a sender to a receiver. within systems that influence what and
➔communication is a two-way process how people communicate; this system
which
may include culture context and family
involves an exchange or an interaction
background.
between
the sender and the receiver. ➔it does not label one as the sender and
➔this indicates that the receiver is not the other one as the receiver
just a communicators who actively, equally and
mere absorber of the message from the simultaneously participate in the
receiver.
communication process
➔the message that is delivered back to
the ➔transactional model is a model in
sender is called feedback which is which people interact with and through
depicted by
symbols.
Wilbur Schramm (1955) as the second
form of
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 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION kind of relationship the communicators
have including their backgrounds:
1. Communication is transactional it -personal
is a two-way process; when a message is
- religious
send, a reply is expected.
- cultural
2. Communication is inevitable it is
an indispensable part of daily life. -socioeconomic

3. Communication is goal-oriented 6. Communication can be learned it

its ultimate goal is to understand each is a skill which can be learned; the
other, when communicating either foundational knowledge in this chapter
through speaking or writing, its purpose is your first step to learning and
is either to persuade, to entertain, to eventually improving your
inform, to express one’s feeling, ideas, communication skills.
emotions and to influence others
7. Communication is relational in any
(vloggers,bloggers).
communication setting, aside from
4. Communication has various levels: sharing meaning, the process how
meaning is created also echoes two vital
●intrapersonal refers to the
aspects of the relationships of the
communication that occurs when we do
communicators:
“self-talk” or engage in self-reflection
(writing, reading, thinking, listening, ●immediacy the degree of liking
reflecting or meditating). or attractiveness in a relationship; shows
a verbal expression of friendliness.
●interpersonal involves two
persons who interact with each other ●control the degree to which one
usually based on common participant shows dominance or power.
communication goals.
8. Communication is guided by
●small group which involves three culture culture may be defined as a
to twenty people. system of knowledge shared by a
relatively large group of people;
●public involves more than twenty
people as in the case of a public official ●system includes shared beliefs,
delivering a speech an audience, values, symbols and behaviors
emotions and to influence others.
●how messages are created and
5. Communication complex it entails a processed in order to foster
lot of processes, which can occur understanding is greatly influenced by
simultaneously or successively. the cultural background of
communicators
●there are implications and
considerations which are perceived ●when one communicates with
consciously or unconsciously others whose cultural backgrounds differ
from his or her own, he or she need to
●in communication, the focus is
look at himself or herself.
not just on the message but also on the

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 ●his or her sensitivity must always advocacies, and age when drafting or
be given to communication behavior as a delivering a message.
way of practicing cultural sensitivity f. Creativity- Creativity in
communication means having the
●regardless of cultural identity
ability to craft interesting messages
and ethnicity, sensitivity must always be
in terms of sentence structure and
given to the sex, age. class and sexual
word choice.
orientation of the participants in the
g. Conciseness- Simplicity and
process of communication
directness help you to be concise.
Avoid using lengthy expressions and
BASIC PRINCIPLES words that may confuse the recipient.

OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION h. Cultural Sensitivity- Today, with the

increasing emphasis on empowering
Michael Osborn (2009) claims that
diverse cultures, lifestyles, and races
communication must meet certain
and the pursuit for gender equality,
standards for effective communication to
cultural sensitivity becomes an
take place:
important standard for effective
a. Clarity- Clarity makes speeches communication.
understandable. Fuzzy language is i. Captivating- You must strive to make
absolutely messages interesting to command
forbidden, as are jargons, cliché more attention and better responses.
expressions, euphemisms, and double
speak language.
b. Concreteness- Concreteness COMMUNICATION ETHICS

reduces misunderstandings. Ethics is the discussion of the

Messages must be supported by facts judgements we make about the
such as research data, statistics or appropriateness, the right and wrong, of
figures. To achieve concreteness our actions and policies be those actions
abstract words must be avoided. communicative, political, social,
c. Courtesy- Courtesy builds goodwill. personal, or a mixture of areas
It involves being polite in terms of (Johnessen, 1990).
approach and manner of addressing
Ethics is the discipline that examines
an individual.
one’s moral standards of a society.
d. Correctness- Glaring mistakes in
grammar obscures the meaning of the Ethical communication is fundamental to
sentence. Also, the misuse of responsible thinking, decision making,
language can damage your credibility. and the development of relationships
e. Consideration- Messages must be and communities within and across
geared towards the audience. The contexts, cultures, channels, and media.
sender of the message must consider
Here ae the guidelines for ethical
the recipient’s profession, level of
communication which should shape
education, race,
communication practice:
ethnicity,hobbies, interests, passions,

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 a. Ethical Communicators are TYPES OF CULTURAL
Respectful of their Audiences. ORIENTATION
b. Ethical Communicators consider
1. Horizontal Individualism
the consequences of their
communication. Speaks of an autonomous self that

c. Ethical Communicators respect values the individual more and

truth. independence is being highlighted.

d. Ethical Communicators use 2. Vertical Individualism

information properly.
Values the autonomous self by seeing
e. Ethical Communicators do not
it as difference and an equal to
falsify information.
others. It also emphasizes status and
f. Ethical Communicators respect the
competition.
rights of others to information.
3. Horizontal Individualism

Notes the self as a member of a group

COMMUNICATION AND
sharing the same values and interests
GLOBALIZATION
the self is reliant and equality is
 Culture is perceived as the expected.
summation of values, beliefs, and
4. Vertical Individualism
behaviors from a group of
individuals having a shared history Believes that the self is an integral
of verbal and nonverbal cues. part of the group even if the members
 The cultural, micro-cultural and are different from the other. It also
environmental contexts surround specifies the group’s
the communicators, whose socio- interdependence.
relational context is defined by the
exchange of verbal and nonverbal
FORMS OF INTERCULTURAL
messages are encoded and
COMMUNICATION
decoded within each interactant’s
perceptual context, (Neulip,2008)  Interracial Communication
 Globalization may be seen as an - communicating with people
interconnectedness of economic from different races.
relationships, political units as well  Interethnic Communication-
as digital networks. Such - Interacting with people of
technology and other social different ethnic origin.
networks have transformed the  International Communication
economic and social relationships - Communicating between
breaking cultural barriers. Hence, representatives from different
cultural and civic discourse will nations.
mold information and  Intracultural Communication
communication technologies. - Interacting with members of the
same racial or ethnic group or
co-culture.
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 is more sophisticated, and certain
words are always or never used
 According to Gamble and Gamble
depending on the situation. In a
(2008), communication style
formal register, the story structure
among cultures differs, it may be
focuses on the plot: it has a beginning
high context or low context
and ending and it weaves sequence,
communication:
cause and effect, characters, and
 High-context communication
consequences into the plot.
– os a tradition linked
communication system which Ex: speeches, researches
adheres strongly to being
3. Consultative
indirect. High context cultures
(Meditteranean, Slav, Central It is a standard form of

European, Latin America, communications. Users engage in a

Africa, Arab, Asian, American- mutually accepted structure of

Indian). interfaces. It is formal and societal

 Low-context communication expectations accompany the users of

– is a system that works on speech. This register can be

straightforward communication. described as two-way participation,

Low-context cultures (most professional setting, background

Germanic and English speaking information is provided (prior

countries) expect messages to knowledge is not assumed),

be explicit and specific. interruptions and feedback fillers

allowed (“uh-huh”, “I see”), more
complex, syntax, and longer phrases.
TYPES OF LANGUAGE REGISTER Sentence structure need not to be
complete, since non-verbal assists,
1. Frozen
hand movements and body language,
This style of communication rarely or are often used to convey meaning.
never changes. It is “frozen” in time
Ex: Patient-Doctor conversation
and content. This is official business
and educational language which 4. Casual / Informal
features complete sentences and
The language used in conversation
specific word choice, which often
with friends. Aa casual register is
contains archaisms (old- fashion).
characterized by 400-500word
Ex: Preamble, 1987 Constitution vocabulary, broken sentences, and
interruptions are common. Very
2. Formal/Academic
informal language, idioms, ellipsis,
This language is used in formal and slang are common. No
setting and is one -way. This use of background information is provided,
language usually follows a commonly “group” language- must be a member
accepted format. It is generally to use, interruptions are common,
impersonal and formal. It is often and context and non-verbal
used to show respect. Word selection communication are important.
8
 General word choice and To be inclusive of all people in general
conversation are dependent upon references, one should favor gender-
non-verbal assists. The focus of the neutral words and phrases over gender-
story is characterization. It is an biased words. For example, rather than
indirect, random approach with many “man-made”. One can say
omissions and does not have a “manufactured”, “synthetic”, or
sequence, cause, and effect, or “artificial”. Instead of “layman’s terms”,
consequence. one can use “ordinary terms”. Neutral
words should also be chosen over words
Ex: friend to friend conversation
with “man” and “woman” in job titles or
5. Intimate descriptions. For example, it is more

This communication is private. It is appropriate to use “chairperson” in

reserved for close family members or place “chairman”, “flight attendant” in

intimae relations. It is non-public, the place of “stewardess”, and “labor” in

intonation is as crucial as wording place “manpower”.

and grammar, and often a special Pronouns may also be gender-biased, for
vocabulary full of coded words is example, when the masculine “he”
used. pronoun is used as generic one for both

Ex: husband and wife conversation genders. Gender- biased pronouns can
be avoided by (a) dropping pronouns
that signify gender and restating the
CULTURALLY SENSITIVE AND sentence, (b) changing to plural
BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE construction, and (c) replacing
masculine or feminine pronouns with
1. Race and Ethnicity
“one” or “you”.
Racism- is a form of discrimination
3. Social Class
against a person or persons of a
different race.in general, it is best to Class discrimination or classism – is a
avoid identifying people by race or form of prejudice against a person or
ethnic group. Race is an emotionally people because of their social class. An
charged topic, so it is best to tread example of language with a bias against
carefully with the language used and to class is the American term “white trash”,
refer to race as Patricia Arinto (2009) which is not only a racial slur but a
asserts in English for the professions, classist one that refers to white people,
“only if it is relevant to what you have to usually from the rural Southern United
say”. Words that reinforce stereotype States, coming from a lower social class
and that imply all people of a particular inside the white population. The term is
race or ethnic group are the same negative not just because of the word
should be avoided. that comprise it but because of its
connotation of danger; white trash
2. Gender and sexual orientation
people are seen as criminal,
Sexism – refers to the prejudice and
unpredictable, and without respect for
discrimination based on sex or gender.
authority. In the United States and other
9
cultures, there may also be a kind of condition”, (2) “the consequence of an
classism against those who are impairment” which “may or may not be
economically privileged. The rich are handicapping,” and (3) “the social
sometimes referred to by the derogatory implication of a disability; a condition or
terms “preppie” and “yuppie”, both of barrier imposed by society, the
which connote not jus wealth but environment or oneself”. Thus,
arrogance. according to these definitions, a “limp”
is an impairment in which a leg or foot is
4. Age
damaged or stiff. A disability that may
Ageism – is a form of discrimination result from arthritis is difficultly in
against other people because of their walking, or walking unevenly and
age, or assuming that older people are haltingly. People who limp may be
less physically, intellectually, or handicapped by having to climb stairs in
emotionally able than other age groups. buildings with no elevators.
The capabilities of younger people
When referring to people with
should also not be underestimated on
disabilities, the focus should be on the
the basis of their age. Again, it is
person, not the condition (Arinto, 2009).
important to refer to a person’s age only
She advises writes to avoid hurtful
when that information is pertinent to
expressions such as “retards” or even
what is being discussed. When referring
the seemingly neutral description “the
to a generic group, one should also ask
mentally retarded” and to use instead
their subjects what wording they prefer.
“people with mental retardation”.
According to American Psychological Similarly, instead of “the blind” and
Association, writers should be specific “cancer patients”, one should instead
when referring to males and females in use “people with vision impairments”
terms of their age: female 18 years or and “people being treated for cancer”,
older are women, not girls. “Girls” refers respectively.
to those in high school or younger
(under 18). The same is true for “boys”
and “man”. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

5. Disabilities 1. Verbal Communication

Discrimination in this area often arises Verbal communication is the exchange of

because of lack of understanding and ideas and information through spoken
awareness. Therefore, first, it is words. It is the foundation of human
important to distinguish some terms that interaction, enabling individuals to
are mistakenly understood to be express thoughts, emotions, and
synonymous. “A Guide to Bias-Free concepts effectively and promptly. This
Communications” published by the mode of communication is essential in
University of Wisconsin-Madison. It everyday life, playing a crucial role in
defines the terms “impairment”, fostering collaboration and cultivating
“disability”, and “handicap” as, relationships, particularly in professional
respectively, (1) “a physiological settings.

10
2. Non-Verbal Communication many forms, including face-to-face
conversations, phone calls, emails,
on-verbal communication encompasses
and video conferences.
aspects of communication other than
3. Extended communication - Involves
spoken or written words. It includes
the use of electronic media Includes
elements such as tone, pitch, and body
tele, audio, or phone conferencing;
language, which significantly influence
Video-conferencing; Skype calls;
how messages are perceived.
Other technological means. The
3. Written Communication extension needs to use a variety of

Written communication involves the communication methods to reach as

exchange of ideas and information many people as possible. The

through written words. It is a structured extension is available to everyone,

and permanent form of communication, regardless of location.

often used in formal and professional 4. Organizational communication -

settings. refers to the communication that

takes place between people who are
4. Visual Communication
working towards common goals
Visual communication relies on images, within an organization.
symbols, and graphics to convey Organizational communication' as the
messages. It is a powerful tool in sales, sending and receiving of messages
marketing, design, and data among interrelated individuals within
representation. a particular environment or setting to
achieve individual and common goals.
Organizational communication is
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
highly contextual and culturally
ACCORDING TO CONTEXT
dependent.
1. Intrapersonal communication – latin  Formal Structure
intra prefix means within or inside. 1. Downward communication - is a
Intrapersonal communication (also type of communication where
known as auto communication or important messages flow from
inner speech) is communication with upper management down to
oneself or self-to-self communication.
Examples are thinking to oneself "I
will do better next time" after having
made a mistake or imagining a
conversation with one's boss in
preparation for leaving work early.
2. Interpersonal communication -
Interpersonal communication refers
to communication between two or
more people. It involves the exchange
of messages, ideas, and information
between individuals. This can take

11
 lower-level employees. It is people of different cultures,
typically initiated by C-level backgrounds, or social groups.
executives, such as the CEO,
and then transmitted by
managers to their team VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

members. According to Braj Kachru, the Three

2. Upward communication - is the Concentric Circle of Asian English
process in which employees presents the three circles: Inner Circle
provide feedback to their (English as a native language) member
managers and company countries, Outer Circle (English as
leadership. Upward second language) member countries and
communication is the process of Expanding Circle (English as a foreign
information flowing from the language) member countries
lower levels of a hierarchy to
the upper levels.
3. Horizontal communication – World Englishes (WE) -
also called “lateral Stands for localized varieties of English
communication” is a type of as they are used or spoken in certain
communication in the areas.
workplace that takes place
According to Bautista and Gonzalez
between two employees who
(2006), the structural characteristic of
work at the same level. This can
these new varieties differ. In terms of
refer to employees within the
social features, differences can also be
same department that have the
highlighted through these following
same job title, or it can refer to
varieties of English within the same
employees in different
Speech Community:
departments who are at the
1. Acrolect - comes to the closest to
same hierarchical level.
the standard. In sociolinguistics,
4. Crosswise communication -
acrolect is a creole variety that
Diagonal or crosswise
tends to command respect because
communication is a type of
its grammatical structures do not
communication that crosses all
deviate significantly from those of
organizational units and
the standard variety of the
hierarchical levels. Such
communication involves staff language; often spoken by the

members of different most educated speakers.

departments interacting with 2. Mesolect - A variety of speech

each other, regardless of their that is midway between the

reporting relationship. acrolect and the basilect. The

 Informal structure mesolect has unique grammatical

1. Intercultural communications - features that distinguish it from

are communications between Standard English; often retaining

semantic and syntactic features

12
 not found in the acrolect and A variety refers to any variant of a
tending to vary from speaker to language which can be sufficiently
speaker, such as between standard delimited from one another. Social,
Jamaican English and Jamaican historical, spatial, or a combination of
Creole. these.
3. Basilect - A variety of a language
1. Pidgin
that has diverged greatly from the
standard form, and is only Is a new language which develops in

considered suitable for very situations where speakers of different

informal contexts by speakers. languages need to communicate but do

Especially in an area where creole not share a common language.

is spoken. For example, in Jamaica, A lexifier is a particular language where

Jamaican Creole is the basilect the vocabulary of a pidgin comes from.
whereas Standard Jamaican
Pidgins have a limited vocabulary, some
English is the acrolect or prestige
elements of which are taken from local
language.
languages, and are not native languages,
but arise out of language contact
between speakers of other languages.

2. Creole

a creole is a type
of natural language that developed
historically from a pidgin and came into
existence at a fairly precise point in

4. Edulects -for these varieties time.

resulting from certain types of The historical transition from a pidgin to

education ascertained by social a creole is
class but are conveyed or called creolization. Decreolization is the
transferred by kind of instruction process by which a creole language
of the school system especially for gradually becomes more like the
those coming from higher-income standard language of a region (or the
families or better educated acrolect). A creole is a language
classes. constructed from the languages of two

According to Kachru and Nelson (2006) different cultures, each of which have

claim that these varieties of English are their own tongues. The development of a

influenced by the local language/ss in creole often takes place after the

various areas of their grammars and development of a pidgin, which is a

exhibit specific phonological, lexical, simple tongue composed of words from

syntactic and discoursal characteristics. either parent language.

3. Regional Dialect

LANGUAGE VARIETIES

13
Is not a distinct language but a variety of
a language spoken in a particular area of
a country or a region.

4. Minority Dialect

Is a variety used as a marker of identity,

usually alongside a standard variety, by
the members of a particular minority
ethnic group.

In the most straightforward sense, a

minority language is simply one spoken
by less than 50 percent of a population
in a given region, state or country.

5. Indigenized variety

Are spoken mainly as second language in

ex-colonies with multilingual
populations.

14
 -By adjusting his message
according to his audience and the
occasion, Mr. Alvarez is following
COMMUNICATION MODEL Aristotle's principles of persuasive

These are graphic representations communication.

of the proposed elements included in the

communication process, which shows
 Lasswell’s communication
the relationship between elements.
model

Lasswell’s model of communication, also

known as the “action model,” and the
“FATHER OF MODERN
COMMUNICATION” was proposed by
Harold D. Lasswell in 1948. This
communication model provides a
comprehensive framework to analyze
and understand the communication
process by addressing five fundamental
questions:

1. Who is the source of the message

or the communicator?
 Aristotle’s Model
2. What is the content or message
This aligns with Aristotle's model of
being conveyed?
communication, which emphasizes the
importance of tailoring the message to 3. Through which channel or medium

the specific audience and situation. is the message being transmitted?

Aristotle believed that effective 4. Who is the intended target

communication involves considering the audience or receivers of the
audience's needs, interests, and values, message?
as well as adapting the message to the
5. What effect does the message have
specific context or occasion.
on the audience or receivers?
 Example:
Mr. Alvarez adjusts his message
according to his audience and the
occasion to achieve a particular
effect. In what model he based his
speech?

 Shannon-Weaver Model

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The Shannon-Weaver model of
communication, also known as the
"telephone model," was developed by
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in
1949. This model views communication  Berlo’s communication model
as a linear process that involves a
Berlo’s model considers the emotional
sender, a message, a channel, a receiver,
dimension of the message. Operating on
and feedback. It emphasizes the
the SMCR model, Berlo’s approach takes
importance of encoding and decoding
into account the Source, Message,
messages, as well as the potential for
Channel, and Receiver to comprehend
noise or interference in the
communication dynamics more
communication process. It comprises
comprehensively. Berlo’s communication
five fundamental components:
model underscores the elements that
1. Source of information: The influence effective communication and
initiator or sender begins the identifies the different components
communication process by
creating a message to
convey information.
2. Transmitter: The transmitter
encodes the message into a
signal suitable for
transmission through a
communication channel. involved in the

3. Communication channel: process.

This refers to the medium or  Barnlund’s transactional

pathway used to transmit the communication model
encoded message from the
Barnlund’s transactional model of
sender to the receiver.
communication is a comprehensive and
4. Receiver: The receiver
interactive approach that emphasizes
represents the intended
the reciprocal nature of communication.
audience or target group
It portrays communication as a dynamic
who receives the transmitted
exchange of messages where both the
message.
sender and receiver actively participate
5. Destination: The destination
in the process. This model takes into
is where the receiver
account various factors like context,
decodes the message to
culture, and individual perceptions that
interpret its meaning.
influence communication.

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The Barnlund’s transactional model Osgood-Schramm's communication
recognizes that model emphasizes the importance of a
effective communication is not one- common field of experience between the
sided; it involves dynamic and sender and receiver for effective
interactive exchanges. It underscores communication. This means that both
the significance of active listening, parties should have shared knowledge,
feedback, and shared understanding in beliefs, and experiences that allow them
the professional world, leading to to understand each other's messages
improved decision-making, teamwork,
and successful outcomes.

 Dance’s Helical communication

model

Dance’s Helical model of communication

represents communication as a spiraling accurately. This model recognizes that

and dynamic process, acknowledging the effective communication requires more

continuous evolution of interactions over than just transmitting information, but

time. also involves shared understanding and

interpretation of the message. The
The Helical model highlights
Osgood-Schramm model underscores
communication’s non-linear nature and
that effective communication goes
emphasizes continuous learning,
beyond just sending a message; it
adaptation, and building on shared
involves active engagement between all
knowledge for effective teamwork and
parties, considering feedback, and
successful project outcomes in
understanding the context.
professional settings.
 The Westley and MacLean
communication model

The Westley and MacLean model of

communication, also known as the
Conceptual Model of Communication, is
a circular approach that highlights the
dynamic and evolving nature of
communication.

It comprises five components: source

(sender), encoder, message, decoder,
and receiver. This model views
communication as an ongoing process
 Osgood-Schramm's
with constant feedback and adaptation.
Communication Model

17
The Westley and MacLean model noise include: A baby crying when they
emphasizes the circular and ongoing wake up from a nap.
nature of communication, where
2. Physiological Noise
feedback and adaptation play vital roles
Physiological noise occurs when you
in ensuring effective communication in
encounter a barrier to hearing. It could
the professional context.
be a barrier you create, or it may be an
issue with another person speaking.
Physiological noise is any physiological
issue or health state that interferes with
you paying attention to the message
being communicated to you. It
encompasses physical problems such as
being hard of hearing or not being able
to differentiate low noises.

For example, you can speak more slowly

or loudly, or be more succinct if you see
your audience’s interest waning before
lunch.

3. Psychological Noise

Psychological noise refers to the noise

TYPES OF NOISE/INTERFERENCE in your head that can prevent you from
IN COMMUNICATION PROCESSES concentrating. It may include wandering
thoughts, like switching topics too

1. Physical Noise quickly, making it difficult for the

listener to follow your narrative.
Any disturbance or interference that
Psychological noise can also stem from
is coming from an external source is
considered a form of physical noise. It differences between individuals’
occurs externally and may distract you personal views, attitudes, assumptions
from what you are trying to hear such as and biases. Because people see and
traffic noise, loud music, or a noisy room. understand the world in different ways,
they might misinterpret the language
For instance, someone whispering in a
used, content, perceived beliefs or
attitude of the messenger during
communication. As a result, the receiver
might not understand the message the
way it was intended to be
communicated.

4. Semantic Noise

Semantic noise occurs when people try

classroom can disrupt a presentation given
by a teacher. Other examples of physical to communicate about something but

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lack the common background or understanding your message. Online or
knowledge to share ideas effectively. video conferencing equipment may not
They may have different primary work for everyone, connectivity may be
languages or rely on a separate dialect. slow, or servers may go down.
Sometimes cross-cultural
7. Organizational Noise
communications can result in semantic
noise and add to misunderstandings. Organizational noise can occur if you are
unaware of, or disregard, expected
Arises from misunderstandings due to
communication channels in your
differing interpretations of words,
organization. Some organizations are
phrases, or symbols. For example, jargon
structured so that employees at certain
or technical language that is not
levels only communicate with employees
understood by all parties can create
at similar levels, while other
confusion.
organizations are less structured with
5. Cultural Noise their communication channels.

Differences in cultural backgrounds can

lead to misunderstandings and
 Internal Interference
misinterpretations. Cultural norms and
values influence how messages are sent Internal interference refers to factors

and received, and differing expectations within the communicator themselves

can cause friction. that disrupt the flow of information.

People can belong to many different  External Interference

cultures or cultural groups. Some of External interference involves factors

these include nationality, region, social outside the communicator that impact
position, gender, age and careers. the communication process.
Because every individual is a member of
unique cultural groups, their values,
beliefs, attitudes and expectations also DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPEECHES
differ. This can often lead to cultural ACCORDING TO:
noise as the messenger might not
PURPOSE, DELIVERY, AND
communicate the message in the best
OCCASION
way for the receiver to understand it due
 PURPOSE
to cultural differences.

6. Technological Noise 1.Informative Speech

This includes issues related to the To educate or inform the audience about

technology used for communication, a specific topic. It is clear, objective, and

such as poor internet connections, fact-based. Often includes data,

software glitches, or incompatible statistics, and explanations.

communication devices. Examples: Lectures, presentations on a

Technical equipment issues can interfere new research finding, or instructional

with your audience receiving and talks.

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2. Demonstrative Speech or entertain. To amuse or engage the
audience through humor or storytelling.
Is a type of informative speech designed
Light-hearted, often includes anecdotes,
to teach the audience how to perform a
jokes, and engaging narratives.
specific task or understand a particular
process. The primary goal of a Examples: Stand-up comedy routines,
demonstrative speech is to provide clear, wedding toasts, or humorous
step-by-step instructions that allow the presentations.
audience to replicate or comprehend the
demonstrated activity.
 DELIVERY
Examples: Cooking demonstration,
1.Impromptu Speaking
tutorial, etc.
Is the presentation of a short message
3. Persuasive Speech
without advance preparation.
To convince the audience to adopt a Impromptu speeches often occur when
particular viewpoint or take a specific someone is asked to “say a few words”.
action. A persuasive speech works to
2. Extemporaneous Speaking
convince people o change in the way
they think, the way they do something, It is the presentation of a carefully

or to start doing something that they are planned and rehearsed speech, spoken

not currently doing. in a conversational manner using brief

notes.
Example: improve your health through
influencing our children, etc. 3. Debate Speech

4. Argumentative Speech To present arguments for or against a

specific proposition in a formal debate
Is a persuasive speech in which the
setting. Structured, with clearly defined
speaker attempts to persuade his
arguments, counterarguments, and
audience to alter their viewpoints on a
rebuttals.
controversial issue. This type of speech
is extremely challenging; therefore, the 4. Motivational Speech

speaker should be careful to choose a To inspire and encourage the audience

topic which he feels prepared to to take action or overcome challenges.
reinforce with a strong argument. Uplifting, often includes personal
Argumentative speeches are stories, quotes, and empowering
characterized by a structured approach messages.
that includes logical reasoning and
 OCCASION
evidence to support a position.
1.Ceremonial Speaking
Example: dieting makes people fat,
religion, etc. Ceremonial speeches are speeches given
during a ceremony or a ritual marked by
5.Entairtaning Speech
observance of formality or etiquette.
The speaker provides pleasure and These ceremonies rend to be very
enjoyment that make the audience laugh special for people, so it shouldn’t be

20
surprising that they are opportunities for Schramm is known for his work on the
speech making. "Field of Experience" concept, which
emphasizes the shared experiences
2.Inspirational Speaking
between communicators and how they
The goal of an inspirational speech is to influence the effectiveness of the
elicit or arouse an emotional state within message. His contributions are crucial in
an audience. A speech to ensure understanding the context and
goodwill that is an intangible asset that background that affect purposive
is made up of the favor or reputation of communication.
an individual or organization.
 Dean Barnlund

Dean Barnlund proposed the

SOME KEY PROPONENTS IN Transactional Model of communication,
COMMUNICATION LANGUAGE which views communication as a

 David K. Berlo dynamic, two-way process where

senders and receivers are constantly
Berlo is known for his "SMCR Model" of
exchanging roles. This model highlights
communication, which stands for
the interactive nature of purposive
Source-Message-Channel-Receiver. This
communication.
model emphasizes the importance of the
communicator's skills and the message's  Paul Watzlawick

content and delivery channels in Watzlawick's work in pragmatic

effective purposive communication. communication theory focuses on the

 Shannon and Weaver function of communication in social

contexts and how it shapes interpersonal
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver
relationships. His theories are important
developed the Shannon-Weaver Model of
for understanding how communication
communication, which focuses on the
strategies can achieve specific
transmission of information and includes
outcomes.
the concepts of encoding, decoding, and
noise. This model is foundational in  M. Scott Peck

understanding how messages are Peck’s work on communication in

effectively conveyed and received. groups, particularly in his book "The

 Harold D. Lasswell Road Less Traveled," explores how

communication can facilitate personal
Lasswell’s communication model
growth and collective problem-solving,
outlines the process as: "Who says what
underscoring the strategic use of
in which channel to whom with what
communication for group cohesion and
effect?" This framework helps analyze
effectiveness.
the purpose and impact of
communication, making it highly  James Carey

relevant to purposive communication. Carey’s "Communication as Culture"

 Wilbur Schramm theory explores how communication

practices are deeply embedded in

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cultural contexts and influence societal Their book, “Theories of Human
values and norms. His work is significant Communication,” provides a
for understanding the cultural comprehensive overview of various
dimensions of purposive communication. communication theories, including those
relevant to education and classroom
 Erving Goffman
dynamics. Understanding these theories
Goffman's dramaturgical theory, which can help teachers apply different
likens social interactions to a theatrical communication strategies in their
performance, helps analyze how teaching.
individuals use communication
 Charles Berger
strategically to manage impressions and
achieve desired outcomes in social Berger’s Uncertainty Reduction Theory
settings. explores how people reduce uncertainty
in communication. This theory is useful
 Noam Chomsky
for teachers to understand how students
Chomsky’s theories on language seek clarity and how to provide effective
development and generative grammar feedback to reduce confusion and
offer insights into how language enhance learning.
acquisition affects communication.
 James Paul Gee
Understanding these principles can help
teachers support language development Gee’s work on discourse analysis and the
and address communication challenges role of language in learning and identity
in the classroom. formation can help teachers design
communication practices that support
 Albert Mehrabian
students’ academic and personal
Mehrabian’s research on nonverbal development through effective language
communication and the relative impact use.
of verbal and nonverbal messages can
 Michael G. Moore
help teachers understand the
importance of body language, tone, and Moore’s theory on transactional distance
other nonverbal cues in effective in distance education explores how
classroom communication. communication and interaction impact
learning in online and hybrid
 Bernard S. Luskin
environments. His ideas are useful for
Luskin’s work on communication teachers managing various teaching
strategies and decision-making formats and ensuring effective
processes can help educators communication.
understand how to effectively manage
 Paul Grice
classroom discussions and group
activities, facilitating better decision- Grice’s theory of conversational
making and communication among implicature and his maxims of
students. communication (quantity, quality,
relation, and manner) are important for
 Stephen W. Littlejohn and
understanding how to ensure clarity and
Karen A. Foss
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effectiveness in verbal communication,
which is vital for teaching and classroom
management.

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