Biology IGSCE 2021/2022

Chapter 1- Characteristics and Classification Of

Living Organisms
• all living organisms, show these characteristics, MRS GREN:
- movement
- respiration
- sensitivity
- growth
- reproduction
- excretion
- nutrition

1. Movement:
• movement is an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a
change of position or place
• most single-celled creatures and animals move about as a whole
• fungi and plants may make movements with parts of their bodies
2. Respiration:
• respiration describes the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient
molecules and release energy for metabolism
• most organisms need oxygen for this
3. Sensitivity:
• sensitivity is the ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external
environment and to make appropriate responses
4. Growth:
• growth is a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell
number or cell size or both
• even bacteria and single-celled creatures show an increase in size
• multicellular organisms increase the numbers of cells in their bodies, become
more complicated and change their shape as well as increasing in size
5. Reproduction:
• reproduction is the process that makes more of the same kind of organism

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 • single-celled organisms and bacteria may simply keep dividing into two
• multicellular plants and animals may reproduce sexually or asexually
6. Excretion:
• excretion is the removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism
(chemical reactions in cells including respiration), toxic materials and
substances in excess of requirements
• respiration and other chemical changes in the cells produce waste products
such as carbon dioxide
• living organisms expel these substances from their bodies in various ways
7. Nutrition:
• nutrition is the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development
• plants require light, carbon dioxide, water and ions
• animals need organic compounds and ions and usually need water
• organisms can take in the materials they need as solid food, as animals do, or
they can digest them rst and then absorb them, like fungi do, or they can
build them up for themselves, like plants do
• animals, using ready-made organic molecules as their food source, are called
heterotrophs and form the consumer levels of food chains
• photosynthetic plants are called autotrophs and are usually the rst organisms
in food chains

Classi cation of living organisms:

• classi cation is the scienti c method of dividing organisms into larger and
smaller groups, on basis of their similarities
• it helps scientists to put the organisms in order which means that organisms that
share similar features are placed in one group
• the groups, with the largest number of organisms to those with the smallest
number, are arranged as follows;
- kingdom
- phylum (plural phyla)
- class
- order
- family
- genus (plural genera)
- species
• classi cation systems aim to re ect evolutionary relationships
- these evolutionary relationships can be found by studying physical
characteristics and DNA base sequences

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 • classi cation is traditionally based on studies of morphology (the study of the
form, or outward appearance, of organisms) and anatomy (the study of their
internal structure, as revealed by dissection)

Species:
• this is the smallest natural group of organisms
• a species can be identi ed as a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce
fertile offspring
• closely related species are grouped into a genus (plural genera)

The binomial system:

• each living organism has two Latin names
• this system of naming is called the binomial system, it is used internationally
• the names are printed in italics
• the rst names always starts with a small letters
• 3 advantages of the binomial system are:
- the organism can be easily categorized
- it helps avoid confusion created by common names
- it helps understand the similarities and differences between different species
belonging to the same genera

DNA:
• the use of DNA has revolutionized the process of classi cation
• eukaryotic organisms contain chromosomes made up of strings of genes
• the chemical which forms these genes is called DNA (which is short fro
deoxyribonucleic acid)
• the DNA is made up of a sequence of bases, coding for amino acids and,
therefore, proteins
• each species had a distinct number of chromosomes and a unique sequence of
bases in its DNA, making it identi able and distinguishable from other species
• this helps particularly when different species are very similar morphologically (in
appearance) and anatomically (in internal structure)
• the process of biological classi cation called cladistics involves organisms being
grouped together according to whether or not they have one or more shared
unique characteristics derived from from the group’s last common ancestor,
which are not present in more distant ancestors
- organisms which share a more recent ancestor (and are, therefore, more
closely related) have DNA base sequences that are more similar than those
that share only a distant ancestor

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 Features of organisms:
• all living organisms have certain features in common, including the presence of
cytoplasm and cell membranes, and DNA as genetic material
• all living things are divided into 5 kingdoms
• each kingdom has certain characteristics that all members of that group shared
• the 5 kingdoms are:
- animals
- plants
- fungi
- bacteria
- protoctists
• the rst division of living things in the classi cation system is to put them into
one of ve kingdoms
- these are based on what an organism’s cells are like

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 Mitochondria:
• mitochondria are tiny structures found in cells (singular is mitochondrion)
• respiration, the chemical reaction that releases energy from glucose, happens in
mitochondria
- this is because the mitochondria contains enzymes responsible for respiration
- this provides energy for life processes such as movement and growth
• tissues and organs that need a lot of energy have large numbers of mitochondria
in their cells
- for example, liver cells and muscle cella contain a lot of mitochondria

Ribosomes:
• some cell structures are too small to be seen with the light microscope
• ribosome are like this:

• they are found in the cytoplasm and are the site of protein synthesis (the making
of proteins)
• they can only be seen using an electron microscope

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 Features of classi cation into the 5 kingdoms:
1. Animal:
• the phylum, vertebrates, are animals with backbones
• they are divided into 5 groups called classes:
- sh
- amphibians
- reptiles
- birds
- mammals

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 • the phylum of arthropods contains more species than any other phylum
• more than 75% of all know species are arthropods
• they are divided into 4 classes:
- insects
- crustaceans
- arachnids
- myriapods
• arthropods have some distinct characteristics:
- they have jointed legs
- they have a hard, outer covering over their bodies (exoskeleton)
- the body of an arthropod is always divided into many segments

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 2. Plant:
• plants are multicellular organisms, with a cell wall made of cellulose
• they include two phyla:
- non- owering plants (mosses and ferns)
- owering plants (monocots and dicots)
• Non- owering plants:
- they have basic roots, stems and leaves, just like owering plants
- ferns have 3 major parts that are used for classi cation and identi cation
- rhizome: the stem of the fern plant, it creeps along or under the ground
or it may even climb up a tree
- fronds: these are the leaves of the fern, the leaves are often divided into
segments (sometimes they may be simple and undivided)
- sporangia: (reproductive structures), these are found as brown patches on
the underside of the leaves, not every frond has sporangia underneath it
- ferns have other special features, they have roots which grow from the
rhizome and they are called adventitious roots
- adventitious roots arise from an organ other than the root, usually a
stem or sometimes a leaf
- ferns also have vascular bundles (xylem and phloem tissue)
• Flowering plants:
- they have owers which are involved in reproduction
- they have roots, stems and leaves
- they reproduce by producing seeds
- seeds are produced into the ovary which is inside the ower
- asexual reproduction is possible
- the 2 classes of owering plants are:
- monocotyledons
- dicotyledons

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 3. Fungus:
• most fungi are made up of thread-like hyphae, rather than cells, and there are
many nuclei distributed throughout the cytoplasm in their hyphae
• some fungal species are parasites and they live in other organisms, particularly
plants
the fungi include fairly familiar organisms, such as mushrooms, toadstools,
puffballs and the bracket fungi that grow on tree trunks
• there are also the less obvious, but very important, mould fungi which grow
on stale bread, cheese, fruit or other food.
• many of the mould fungi live in the soil or in dead wood
• the yeasts are single-celled fungi similar to the moulds in some respects
4. Prokaryote:
• these are the bacteria and the blue-green algae
• they consist single cells but differ from other single-celled organisms because
their chromosomes are not organized into a nucleus
• Bacterial structure:
- bacteria (singular, bacterium) are very small organisms consisting of single
cells rarely more than 0.01mm in length and they can be seen only with a
microscope
- their cell walls are made, not of cellulose but of a complex mixture of
proteins, sugars and lipids
- some bacteria have a slime capsule outside their cell wall
- inside the cell wall is the cytoplasm, which may contain granules of
glycogen, lipid and other food reserves
- each bacterial cell contains a single chromosome, consisting of a circular
strand of DNA
- the chromosomes is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane but is coiled up
to occupy part of the cell
- individual bacteria may be spherical, rod-shaped or spiral and some have
laments, called agella, projecting from them
- the agella can ick and so move the bacteria cell about

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 5. Protoctist:
• these are single-celled (unicellular) organisms which have their chromosomes
enclosed in a nuclear membrane to form a nucleus
• some of the protoctists (e.g. Euglena) possess chloroplasts and make their food
by photosynthesis
• these protoctists are often referred to as unicellular ‘plants’ or protophyta
• organisms such as Amoeba and Paramecium take in and digest solid food and
thus resemble animals in their feeding, they may be called unicellular
‘animals’ or protozoa
• Amoeba is a protozoan which moves by a owing movement of its cytoplasm
- it feeds by picking up bacteria and other microscopic organisms as it goes
• Vorticella has a contractile stalk and feeds by creating a current of water with
its cilia
- the current brings particle4s of food to the cell
• Euglena and Chlamydomonas have chloroplasts in their cells and feed, like
plants, by photosynthesis

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 Viruses:
• they are very small (100 times smaller than bacteria)
• they have no typical cell structure
• they contain a strand of DNA or RNA
• they are surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid
• the only life process they show is reproduction
• viruses are no classi ed as a living things because:
- they do not grow
- they produce no waste products
- they do not respond to stimuli
- they do not reproduce independently but must replicate by invading living
cells

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 Dichotomous key:
• dichotomous keys are used to identify unknown organisms, they simplify the
process of identi cation
• each key is made up of pairs of contrasting features (dichotomous means two
branches), starting with quite general characteristics and progressing to more
speci c ones
• by following the key and making appropriate choices it is possible to identify the
organism correctly

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 Chapter 2- Organization Of Organisms
Cells:
• a cell is the basic unit of structure and function for living organisms.
• basic unit of structure means that a cell is the smallest repeating unit/building
blocks for living organisms
• basic unit of functions means that the cell is the smallest structure in which
metabolic processes occur
• anabolism + catabolism = metabolism
- anabolism: building up and catabolism: breaking down
• anabolism (building up), catabolism (breaking down)
• all the chemical reactions that take place in living organisms are called metabolic
reactions.

Cells of all living organisms have the following structures:

• cell membrane
• cytoplasm
• genetic materials (DNA)
• ribosomes
• respiratory enzymes (eukaryotic cells have mitochondria)
- eukaryotic cells have mitochondria for respiration
- prokaryotic cells have respiratory enzymes for respiration
Structure of an animal cell:
• a typical animal cell is a liver cell

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 Animal cell features:
Nucleus:
• it is the largest organelle in a cell and it contains DNA (genetic material)
• it controls all metabolic activities of a cell
• if the nucleus is removed, the cell will die

Cytoplasm:
• it is the site where chemical reactions happen
• contains many substances dissolved in it, especially proteins
• it is a clear gel-like substance which lls the cell

Cell membrane:
• it is the sheath that surrounds the cell
• very thin layer of protein and fat
• partially permeable
• it controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell

Mitochondria:
• this is the site of aerobic respiration (occurs in the presence of oxygen)
• found in almost all cells except those of prokaryotes
• cells that have a high energy need (muscle cells) will have a large number of
mitochondria in their cytoplasm
• power house of the cell, it releases the energy needed to drive metabolic
reactions

Ribosomes:
• this is the site for protein synthesis, the place where proteins are
• they cannot be seen under a light microscope, only an electron microscope

Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

• this is a system of attened interconnected tubes found in the cytoplasm
• it has ribosomes attached to its membrane to give it a ‘rough’ appearance
• it is the site for making digestive enzymes (hydrolytic enzymes) and some of
these proteins are secreted out of the cell
• it is not visible under a light microscope
- some cell parts cannot be seen with a light microscope because these
microscopes cannot achieve a magni cation high enough to see these
relatively tiny organelles

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 Vessicles:
• these are tiny spherical structures surrounded by a membrane
• their contents may vary, they may contain digestive enzymes or any substances
that are taken up by the cell
• they help store and transport materials such as proteins and enzymes

Structure of a plant cell:

• a typical plant cell is a palisade cell, it is found in the upper part of the leaf
below the upper epidermis

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 Plant cell features:
Cell wall:
• this is a rigid layer outside the cell
• it is made from cellulose, which is a polysaccharides
• it prevents bursting of the cell when water moves in by osmosis
• is it fully permeable

Vacuole:
• this is a large central and permanent structure surrounded by a membrane called
the tonoplast, it pushes the cytoplasm to the outer edge of the cell, to help the
cell keep it’s shape
• it contains cells sap which is uid made from water, salts and pigments
• it controls movement of water in and out of the cell by osmosis

Chloroplasts:
• these are structures containing the green pigment called chlorophyll
• this is the site for photosynthesis
• often contain starch grains due to photosynthesis

Differences between plant and animal cells:

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 Feature Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell wall present absent
Chloroplasts present absent
Vacuole large, central and tiny, temporary vacuoles
permanant (vessicles)
Food Storage starch glycogen

Cell specialization:
• cells lose or gain structures in order to become more specialized for speci c roles.

Specialized animal cells include:

• red blood cells
• ciliated epithelial cells
• sperm & egg cells
• nerve cells

Specialized animal cells include:

• root hair cells
• xylem vessels
• palisade mesophyll cells

Specialized animal cells:

Red blood cells:

• carries oxygen (O2) from lungs to respiring cells

• has a biconcave shape o increase surface area to volume ratio
• has biconcave shape to increase surface area to volume ratio

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 • contains haemoglobin, which carries oxygen
• has no nucleus in order to create space for haemoglobin
• it is small so that it can t inside blood capillaries

Nerve cells:

• also known as neurons

• they are part of the nervous system
• to carry nerve impulses to different parts of the body
• they are specialized is carrying messages in the form of electric impulses over
long distances
• they have a long cytoplasmic extension called an axon, and electric impulses
moves along it
• can carry electrical signals

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 Ciliated epithelial cells:

• they line the respiratory system (trachea & bronchi)

• they have hair-like structures called cilia
• cilia beats rhythmically to move trapped particles or uid such as dust and
bacteria (wafting)

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 Female reproductive cells (egg cells) and male reproductive
cells (sperm cells):

• these are sex cells (gametes), they fuse together at fertilization and form a zygote
• they have half a set of chromosomes (genetic material) so that the number of
chromosomes does not double at fertilization
• they are said to be haploid and the zygote they form is said to be diploid
• the sperm cells function is to reach the egg cell and join/fuse with it
• the egg cells function is to join/fuse with the sperm cell and then to provide food
for the new cell (zygote) that’s been formed
• egg cells are very large in order to store food reserves and they contain lots of
cytoplasm as that’s where the food is stored
• the sperm cell has a long tail ( agellum) to allow it to swim and it’s neck region
has many mitochondria to provide energy for swimming
• the sperm cell only contributes the nucleus and its share of chromosomes to the
zygote and the rest of the zygotes necessities are provided by the egg cell

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 Specialized plant cells:
Palisade mesophyll cells:

• to absorb light energy for photosynthesis

• it is specialized to carry out photosynthesis
• it has many chloroplasts, each cell may have over 100 chloroplasts
• chloroplasts trap sunlight and convert it into chemical energy during
photosynthesis
• the cells are cylindrical in shape as this allows them to pack closely together so
that many of them can t in the smallest possible space to maximize
photosynthesis

Root Hair Cells:

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 • to absorb minerals and water from the soil
• it has a long tubular extension to have large surface area in order to absorb lots
of water
• it has a thin cell wall to allow water to pass through easily
• it does not contain any chloroplasts unlike all other plant cells
• concentrated cytoplasm, low water potential for osmosis
• they have many mitochondria for active transport
• they have many proteins channels for the uptake of ions

Xylem vessels:
• these cells transport water and dissolved minerals ions from the roots to the rest
of the plant
• the cell wall has a woody substance called lignin to make them hard and strong
and to prevent the leaking of water
• they have no cytoplasm to have uninterrupted ow of water
• they form continuous tubes by the breaking down of end walls for the smooth
ow of water

• xylem cells are joined end to end to form long hollow tubes
• these adaptations reduce resistance to the ow of water and make it smooth
• the walls have pits to allow sideways movement of water

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 Different levels of organization:
Tissue:
• it is a group of cells with similar structures working together to perform a shared
function (e.g. palisade mesophyll tissue, epithelial tissue, muscle tissue)

Organ:
• it is a structure made from a group of tissues working together to perform
speci c functions (e.g. a leaf, a stomach, a heart)

Organ system:
• it is a group of organs that work together to perform body functions (e.g.
digestive system, nervous system, skeletal system)

Question:
Explain why a leaf is an example of an organ and not a tissue. [3]
- The leaf performs many functions and has many different tissues. A tissue has
only type of cell whereas a leaf has many different tissue.(e.g. palisade mesophyll
tissue, epidermal tissue, epithelial tissue)

Magni cation:
• it is a measurement of how many times on image is larger than the actual object
• formula: M=I/A
- M= magni cation
- I= size of drawing
- A= actual size of object
• the units for the size of image and the actual size of the object should be the
same
• you should always have a x before the magni cation (e.g. x10)
• it is possible to measure magni cation with a scale bar
• there is no unit for magni cation as they cancel out, magni cation is just x value

Biological drawings:
Marks:
1. Outline- Make thin/ ne lines with no feathery lines, no tails and no shading
2. Size- Use more than half of the given space
3. Details- Show all the layers and draw to the correct proportion, never include
details of individual cells
4. Labels- Include one or two labels and use label lines
5. Total= Around 4 or 5 marks

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 Chapter 3- Movement In and Out Of Cells

Diffusion:
• it is the net movement of substances from their region of high concentration to
their region of low concentration down a concentration grade
• diffusion does not use energy from respiration, it relies on energy from the
random movement of particles of matter

Diffusion in animals:
• the movement of oxygen from the lungs into the blood is by diffusion
• the movement of carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs is by diffusion
• absorption of digestive nutrients from the small intestine to the blood is by
diffusion (partially).

Diffusion in plants:
• gas exchange at the leaves through the stomata is by diffusion
• carbon dioxide diffuses in and out in bright light (photosynthesis)

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 Factors affecting diffusion:
- temperature
- surface area
- concentration gradient

Temperature:
• the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion and vice versa
• this is because, when temperature is hight, the particles have more kinetic energy,
so they move faster

Experiment to show that diffusion is faster at higher temperatures:

• beetroot is cut into two cubes of equal size (2x2x2)
• it is washed at dried with a paper towel to remove any colored juice on the
outside of the cube
• the two cues are placed in two beakers with the same volume of water (200cm^3)
• one beaker has water at 4ºC and the other has water at 80ºC as illustrated below
• the beakers are left for 5 minutes and the colors of the water are compared

Results:
• the beaker with water at 80ºC will have a darker color

Conclusion:
• diffusion is faster at higher temperature
• independent variable - temperature of water
• dependent variable - color of water after 5 minutes
• standardized variables - size of beetroot cubes
- volume of water
- time that the cubes were left in the water
Source of error:
• it is dif cult to judge the intensity of the waters’ nal colors.
Improvements:
• put a white card behind the test tubes for better visible color intensity.
• a colorimeter can be used:

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 Surface area:
• the larger the surface area, the faster the rate of diffusion
• surfaces that are adapted for diffusion usually have a large surface area
- human lungs have a surface area of around 70m^2 each
• the small intestines are long and have villi and microvilli
• root hair cells have a tubular extension to increase surface area
• rate of diffusion is faster if there is a larger surface area : volume ratio

Concentration gradient:
• the difference in concentration between two areas, the greater the difference, the
greater the rate of diffusion and vice versa
• lungs are adapted for diffusion because their blood capillaries are associated with
them
• when oxygen is carried away, the diffusion gradient is maintained

Distance:
• diffusion occurs faster across thin surfaces
• all surfaces adapted for diffusion are thin

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 Osmosis:
• the movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential to a
region of low water potential through a partially permeable membrane
• ONLY WATER MOVES BY OSMOSIS
• partially permeable membrane - allows different substances to pass at different
rates (cell membrane)
• water potential - a measurement of the ability of a solution to give out water,
distilled water has a high water potential, dissolving a substance in water reduces
the water potential

Examples in animals:
• absorption of water from the intestines to the blood is by osmosis
• reabsorption of water from the kidneys back into the blood is by osmosis

Examples in plants:
• absorption of water from the soil to the roots is by osmosis

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 Question:
After a tsunami, sea water covered the soil. Sea water is salty. The land could not
be used for farming purposes anymore. Using your knowledge of osmosis, explain
why this is so.
- The water in the plants will be more concentrated, this will cause water to move
out of the plant…… tbc.

Experiments to demonstrate osmosis:

Experiment 1:
• the apparatus below is set up
• the apparatus is left for 10 minutes

Observations:
• the level of water in the visking tube rises
• the level of water in the beaker lowers but by very little, so we don’t mention it

Explanation:
• water moved from the beaker to the sucrose solution down a water potential
gradient by osmosis

Experiment 2:
• ve potato “chips” were cut from the same potato and each one measured 1x1x5

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 • each chip was left in a beaker with 200cm^3 of sucrose solution for 20 minutes

• after 20 minutes, each chip was dried with paper towel and its length was
measured
• the table below shows the results of the experiment

Questions:
Why did some chips get bigger?
- The sucrose solution had a higher water potential than the potato chip so water
moved into the potato chip by osmosis.

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 Draw a graph showing change in length against concentration:
Graph marks:
1. Axes - Independent variable on X-axis
- Dependent variable on Y-axis
2. Scale - (no awkward scales) (2 : 1, 2 : 5, 2 : 10, 2 : 20)
- Use more than half of the given space
3. Plots - Use x or a dot with a circle around it
4. Line - Ruled lines joining each point or a smooth curve.

Use your graph to nd the concentration of sugars in the cytoplasm of the potato
tissue.
- 15 g/dm^-3
Explain why some of the tissues decreased in length.
- Because the tissues had a higher water potential than the sucrose solution
meaning water moved from the potato and into the solution by osmosis.

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 Osmosis in plant cells:

• if a plant cell is placed in a solution with a higher water potential than the
cytoplasm, water will move in by osmosis, this makes the cell turgid
- turgidity helps to support plant tissues
- wilting is caused by loss of turgidity by leaf cells
• if a plant cell is placed in solution with a lower water potential than the
cytoplasm, water will move out by osmosis, this cause plasmolysis
- plasmolysis is when the cell membrane moves away from the cell wall
-
Osmosis in animal cells
• if an animal cell is placed in a solution with a higher water potential than the
cytoplasm, water will move in by osmosis and cause the cell to burst
- the cell bursts because it does not have a cell wall to resist the outward push
of the cytoplasm
• if an animal cell is placed in a solution with a lower water potential than the
cytoplasm, water moves out of the cell by osmosis and causes the cell to become
crenated
- crenation: the formation of an abnormal surface due to the loss of water

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 Active transport:
• it is the movement of molecules or ions across the cell membrane from a region
of low concentration to a region of high concentration
- against a concentration gradient
- uses energy from respiration
• cells that are specialized for active transport have numerous mitochondria
- root hair cells take up mineral ions by active transport and have many
mitochondria

Examples of active transport:

• absorption of glucose from kidney tubes back into the blood
• absorption of digestive nutrients from the ileum into the blood
• absorption of mineral ions (nitrates) from the soil

How active transport occurs:

1. a molecule or an ion binds to proteins on the cell membrane
2. energy from respiration is used to cause the protein to change shape
3. the molecule/ion is moved against its concentration gradient

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 Differences between diffusion and active transport:
• active transport requires energy whereas diffusion does not
• active transport occurs against a concentration gradient while diffusion occurs
down a concentration gradient
• active transport requires a membrane whereas diffusion does not
• active transport requires carrier proteins whereas diffusion does not

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 Chapter 4- Biological Molecules

• biological molecules are molecules that play a role in living organisms, they
include:
- carbohydrates
- proteins
- fats/oils (lipids)
- vitamins (C and D)
- mineral ions (calcium and iron)
- ber (roughage)
- water
- DNA

Carbohydrates:
• made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
• the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1, hence the name, hydrates of carbon
• carbohydrates consist of starches and sugars
• carbohydrates can be divided into:
1. monosaccharides (single sugar)
2. disaccharides (double sugar), these are all reducing sugars except sucrose
3. polysaccharides (many sugar)
- saccharides: a sugar unit

Monosaccharides:
• they are single sugars
• they are soluble in water and produce sweet solutions
• ALL monosaccharides are reducing sugars
• reducing sugars- these have the ability to reduce copper ions (Cu2+), which are
found in Benedict’s solution [Cu2+ (blue) + e- (electron) = Cu+ (brick red)]

Test for reducing sugars:

• add 2cm^3 of the sample to 2cm^3 of Benedict’s solution into a test tube
• heat the test tube in a water bath above 80ºC

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 Results:
• positive- color changes from blue to green, yellow, orange and to brick red
• the nal color depends on how much reducing sugar is present in the sample
• this test is a semi quantitative test as it does not give an exact value of the
amount of reducing sugar present in the sample
• this test gives a narrow estimate of the relative amounts of reducing sugars
present
• the water bath is a safety precaution because Benedict’s solution is volatile (can
easily evaporate) and should not be heated under a direct ame

Polysaccharides:
• these are large molecules made by joining monosaccharides (glucose molecules)
which are:
- starch (storage compound for carbohydrates in plants)
- glycogen (storage compound for carbohydrates in animals and fungi)
- cellulose (used to strengthen plant cell walls)
1. starch and glycogen are good storage molecules because they are insoluble, so
they do not alter the water potential of cells
2. they are compact, so they do not take up much space

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 Test for starch:
• add a few drops of iodine solution (iodine dissolved in potassium iodide [KI]),
which is brown in color, to the substance being tested

Results:
• positive- turns blue black
• negative- remains brown

Proteins
• made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur
• proteins are polymers
• the repeating units (monomers) are called amino acids (keratin and haemoglobin)
• polymers- substance made of large molecules made by lots of smaller molecules
joined together
• a protein chain is known as a polypeptide
• there are 20 naturally occurring amino acids which are used to make proteins
• the sequence of amino acids in a protein determine its function and structure

Polypeptide:

Amino Acids:

• proteins make cells and also repair damaged tissue

• proteins are found in the cell membrane and cytoplasm

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 • R- a side chain, it is the variable part of the molecule and there are 20 R groups
and some of them have sulphur
• proteins, like enzymes and antibodies rely on their shape for them to function
• enzymes have an active site which is a region where substrates bind.
• any change in the order of the amino acids will make the protein unable to carry
out its function
• enzymes have a complementary shape

Test for proteins:

• add Biuret’s reagent to the sample after adding water
• then see the color change
• Biuret Solution- contains potassium hydroxide and copper sulfate

Results:
• positive- turns purple
• negative- remains blue
• no heating is required

Fats and oils:

• made from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
• the fats are solid at room temperature
• the oils are liquid at room temperature
• these are made of glycerol and fatty acids
• they are used to store energy
- 1 gram of carbohydrate = 12J
- 1 gram of fat = 39J
• fats play a role in insulating the body against heat loss
• adipose fat- prevents heat loss
• fats protect delicate body organs (eye orbit)

Chemical test for fats (emulsion)

• add 2cm^3 of the sample to a test tube
• add 2cm^3 of ethanol to the same test tube
• shake vigorously
• allow mixture to settle then add 2cm^3 of water

Results:
• positive- a cloudy white emulsion is formed
• negative- no color change

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 DNA:

• DNA is a polynucleotide
• 1 molecule of DNA has 2 strands which form a double helix shape
• the strands are held by hydrogen bonds (cross links) between the complementary
bonds
• the cross links are formed by hydrogen bonds
• the information on DNA is carried by the sequence of bases on the molecule
• the strands contain bases A, T, C and G
- Adenine- A
- Thymine- T
- Cytosine- C
- Guanine- G
• A joins with T and C joins with G
• DNA is the inheritance molecule, it shares information needed to determine the
structure of proteins, which in turn determines the nature of an organism
• gene- section of a DNA molecule which has instructions for making a protein

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 Water:
• made up of hydrogen and oxygen
• the human body is made up of 70% water, if a person loses more than 10%,
they die
• water is polar
• polar- there is a slight separation of charge in the bonds of water

• polarity of water is responsible for most of its properties (e.g. water is a very good
solvent for ionic and polar substances)
- nitrates
- magnesium
- sucrose
- glucose
- amino acids
• water is a good transport medium because of its high solubility
- blood plasma is 90% water
• in plants, mineral ions are carried in solution in the xylem
• organic substances, which is anything that contains carbon, like amino acids and
sucrose, are carried in solution in the phloem

Excretion:
• excretory products such as urea are transported in solution to the blood than to
the kidney
• after urea is from the blood by the kidneys, it is carried in solution to the bladder
as urine
• urea is used in hydrolytic reactions like digestions
• it is the medium of chemical reactions

Vitamin C:
• made of ascorbic acid
• can be found in citrus fruits (e.g. oranges, lemons, grapefruit)

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 Chemical test for Vitamin C:
• add drops of a sample to 2cm^3 of DCPIP (dichlorophenol indophenol)

Results:
• positive- color changes from blue to colorless
• negative- color stays blue

Substance Carbohydrate, fat Elements it How to test for it?

or protein? contains
haemoglobin protein • carbon • Biueret’s reagent
• hydrogen
• oxygen
• nitrogen
glucose carbohydrate • carbon • Benedict’s solution
• hydrogen
• oxygen
cellulose protein • carbon • Biuret’s reagent
• hydrogen
• oxygen
starch carbohydrate • carbon • iodine solution
• hydrogen
• oxygen
enzyme fat • carbon • ethanol emulsion
• hydrogen
• oxygen

Synthesis and conversion in cells:

• glucose is synthesized to form glycogen, this happens in animal cells
• amino acids join and build up to form proteins, this happens in all cells
• plant cells can make their own amino acids.

Fibre:
• the bre in our diet consists of carbohydrates which are cellulose and lignin,
these are not digested in the human body
• the sources of bre are fresh fruits, vegetables, whole meal, bread and cereal
• bre helps to stimulate proteins and also helps to push food in order to excrete
them easily

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 Minerals:
• minerals are inorganic chemical elements and they regulate the body processes
• the minerals are quickly used or lost in the body
• the human body requires calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, iodine and magnesium

Vitamins:
• vitamin C and D are water soluble
• they also help to dissolve fat
• these are not meant to be consumed everyday

Vitamins Sources Functions De ciency

Symptoms
A • sh liver oil • helps with healthy • poor skin
• dairy products growth • night blindness
• green leafy • maintenance of skin
vegetables tissue
• forms visual
pigment in the
retina
B • whole grains • promotes cell • feeling lethargic
• egg respiration • retarded growth
• meat • promotes normal • degeneration of
growth nerves and muscles
• Beri-Beri
C • fruits (citrus) • strong gums • scurvy
• potatoes • helps to heal • bleeding gums
• green vegetables wounds • loss of teeth
• aids in iron • bleeding under the
absorption skin
• slow healing of
wounds
D • sh liver oil • absorbs phosphorus • rickets (children)
• dairy products and calcium • bow legs (bent legs)
• early morning • builds and
sunlight maintains bones
and teeth

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 Chapter 5- Enzymes

• a catalyst is a substance which speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without

being used up in the reaction

• MnO2 is the catalyst in this reaction

• without the catalyst, the reaction can take 3 days, but when it is added, the
reaction will be over in 3 minutes
• a catalyst is not used up by the reaction which it catalyses
• enzymes- these are biological catalysts (protein molecules) that are proteins which
speed up the rate of chemical reactions in living organisms without being used
up in the reaction
• all enzymes are proteins but not all catalysts are proteins
• without enzymes, chemical reactions in the body will be too slow to keep the
organism alive
• enzymes lower the energy needed for a reaction to occur such that it can go on
very fast (they lower the activation energy (Ea) for a reaction)

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 44

 How enzymes work:
• enzymes usually end in “ase”
- lipids: lipase
- proteins: protease
- carbohydrates: carbohydrase e.g. maltose, sucrose, amylase
• the mode of enzyme action is explained using the “lock and key” hypothesis
• the enzyme is like a lock and the substrate is like the key
• substrate- a substance that an enzyme acts upon
• the enzyme has a region on its structure called the active site
• the shape of the active site is complementary to the shape of the substrate
• the substrate bonds onto the active site to form an enzyme substrate complex
• only 1 type of substrate ts onto the active site because of its unique shape
• lipase can break down fat into fatty acids and glycerol but it cannot act on starch
• enzymes are speci c
• the formation of the enzyme substrate complex (ESC) weakens the bonds in the
substrate and it is broken down
• products are then formed and released from the active site
• the enzyme can bind to more substrate molecules when the active site is free
• not all enzymes are catabolic (not all enzymes break down substrates), some
enzymes are anabolic (build large molecules from smaller ones)
• digestive enzymes are called hydrolytic enzymes

Intercellular and Extracellular enzymes:

• intercellular enzymes are used within the cell
- enzymes which catalyze the stage of respiration in the cytoplasm are
intercellular
• extracellular enzymes are secreted outside the cell where they have their effect
- pancreatic enzymes and other digestive enzymes

Effects of temperature on enzymes:

Description:
• as the temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases up to 70ºC, then
decreases
• at low temperatures, the rate of enzyme reaction activity will be low
• an increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction
- at 20ºC, the rate of reaction is 5 arbitrary units but at 30ºC, the rate of
reaction is 10 arbitrary units
• the highest rate of reaction occurs at 70ºC in the graph above, this is the
optimum temperature

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 - optimum temperature: the temperature at which you get the highest rate of
reaction

Explanation:
• a rise in temperature increase the kinetic energy of enzyme and substrate
molecules
• more enzyme substrate complexes are formed because there are more collisions
between enzymes and substrates
• at the optimum temperature, the highest number of enzymes substrate
complexes are formed
• low temperatures inactivates enzymes, which is reversible
• raising the temperature above the optimum temperature lowers the rate of
reaction as the enzyme denatures
• denaturing- the shape of the enzyme’s active site changes and the substrate can’t
t in the enzyme anymore, this is irreversible
• it is important for living organisms to maintain a constant body temperature to
avoid denaturing enzymes
• homeostasis- the process by which living organisms maintain their body
temperature
- the optimum temperature of sperm production is 2ºC below body
temperature (36.6ºC)

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 Effects of pH on enzymes:
• pH- a measurement of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution
• a change in pH can affect the shape of an enzyme such that the active site is lost,
the active site will no longer be complementary to the substrate
• enzymes work best in narrow pH ranges
• each enzyme has an optimum pH where it works best

Enzymes practical:
• catalase is an enzyme found in many plant and animal tissues (e.g. liver and
potato tubes)
• it breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen gas
• the rate of this reaction can be determined by measuring the volume of O2 gas
produced per unit time

Practical instructions:
• you are going to observe the reaction between hydrogen peroxide and potato
tissue
• you have boiled potato tissue and potato tissue at room temperature (around
20ºC)
• place a piece of potato tissue into a test tube with 2cm^3 of hydrogen peroxide
and observe what occurs
• place a piece of boiled potato tissue into a different test tube with 2cm^3 of
hydrogen peroxide and observe what occurs
• add manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2) to 2cm^3 of hydrogen peroxide in another
test tube and observe what occurs
• record your observations in a table
• give 3 signi cant sources of error and state how they can be improved

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 Chapter 6- Plant Nutrition

Photosynthesis:
• photosynthesis is the process by which plants make carbohydrates from raw
materials, using energy from light
• light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll
• chlorophyll- a green substance found in chloroplasts in green plant cells and
algae
• absorbed light energy is used to convert carbon dioxide (from the air) and water
(from the soil) into a sugar called glucose
• oxygen is released as a a by product (secondary product)

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 • the above equations summarize what happens in photosynthesis
• these equations are simpli ed and only show glucose as a food product of
photosynthesis
- in fact, plants can make all of their food compounds through photosynthesis
and other chemical processes
• some glucose is used for respiration and some is converted into insoluble starch
for storage
- the stored starch can later be turned back into glucose and used in
respiration
• photosynthesis is best de ned as the process in which light energy, trapped by
chlorophyll, is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen

• a transducer is a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it,
often in another form, to another system

Leaf structure:
• in order for a leaf to photosynthesis ef ciently, it needs:
- a method for exchange of gases between the leaf and its surroundings
- a way of delivering water to the leaf, and glucose to other parts of the plant
- a system for the removal of glucose so it ca be transported to other parts of
the plant
- an ef cient way of absorbing light energy

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 50

 51

 Testing a leaf for starch:
• to test if photosynthesis is taking place, we can test a leaf for starch as the glucose
made during photosynthesis is converted to starch
• glucose is used not only for respiration, but is also used to make cellulose
• cellulose- main component of cell walls
• some glucose is converted sucrose
• sucrose- the form in which glucose is transported

Steps for testing a leaf for starch:

1. Boil the leaf in water:
• this stops chemical reactions by damaging the cell membranes
2. Boil the leaf in ethanol (an alcohol):
• this dissolves the chlorophyll in the leaf as chlorophyll dissolves in ethanol

• ethanol is ammable so it is heated using a water bath

• after step 2, the ethanol should turn green
3. Dip the leaf in water:
• this softens the leaf
4. Place the leaf on a white tile:
• this is good for color contrast
5. Add drops of iodine solution onto the leaf:
• this is to test for the starch

Results:
• starch present- blue/black color
• starch absent- remains red/brown (color of iodine)

Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis:

1. De-starch a plant by keeping it in a dark cupboard for 24-48 hours:
• this uses up all the starch stored in the plant so that all the starch present will
have been made during the investigation

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 2. After 24-48 hours, remove a leaf from the plant and test it for
starch:
• this is to make sure that all stored starch is used up
• we use a potted plant so it can be transported
• the plant used must have variegated leaves

3. Place the plant in the light for 6 hours:

• only 6 hours so that the starch is not transported to parts without chlorophyll
4. Remove one leaf and test it for starch:

Results:
• positive- green parts of the leaf stain blue/black
• negative- white parts of the leaf stain blue/black
• chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis

Experiment to show that light is necessary for photosynthesis:

1. De-starch a potted plant
2. Cover one of the leaves with aluminum foil to block light
3. Cover another leaf with transparent material such as plastic
4. Test the control and the covered leaf for starch

Results:
• for the control, the whole leaf stains blue/black (starch present)
• for the leaf covered with foil, the covered parts stain brown (no starch present),
while the exposed parts stain blue/black (starch present)
• light is needed for photosynthesis

Experiment to show that CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis:

1. De-starch a potted plant
2. Set up the apparatus shown below

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 3. Leave the set up in light for 6 hours
4. Remove a leaf from the control and the experiment and test for
starch

Results:
• the leaf from the control will stain blue/black (starch present)
• the leaf from the experiment will stain brown (no starch present)

Effect of light intensity on photosynthesis:

• light intensity- this is a measurement of how bright a light is
• light provides energy needed for photosynthesis

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 Experiment to show the effect:
• the rate of photosynthesis can be determined by the number of O2 bubbles
produced by an aquatic plant (e.g. Canadian pondweed)
• light intensity is varied by moving the lamp closer or further to the plant
• place a heat lm between the plant and the lamp to avoid heat passing through
to the plant
• we add the same mass of sodium hydrogen-carbonate to the water to increase
the amount of CO2 in the water
• the number of bubbles produced in 2 minutes is counted
• leave apparatus for 1 minutes after adding sodium hydrogen-carbonate, this is as
an equilibrate
• you can use a gas syringe instead of counting the number of bubbles to be more
accurate

Results:
• the largest volume of O2 is produced when the lamp is closest to the plant
• the higher the light intensity the faster the rate of photosynthesis to a certain
extent

Factors affecting photosynthesis (limiting factors):

• if a chemical reaction is affected by many factors, a limiting factor is one which
will be at its lowest point, the rate of reaction will not increase unless the limiting
factor increases

Factors affecting photosynthesis:

1. light intensity
2. carbon dioxide concentration
3. temperature

Light intensity:
• without light, a plant cannot photosynthesize very quickly even if there is plenty
of water and carbon dioxide
- increasing the light intensity will boost the rate of photosynthesis

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 Stage A-B:
• light intensity is the limiting factor because when it is increased, the rate of
photosynthesis increases by a proportional amount

Stage B-C:
• another factor is becoming the limiting factor because the rate of photosynthesis
is no longer proportional to the increase in light intensity

Stage C-D:
• another factor had become the limiting factor because light intensity does not
affect the rate of photosynthesis anymore
• CO2 concentration or temperature could be the limiting factor

Carbon dioxide concentration:

• even if there is plenty of light and water, a plant cannot photosynthesis if there is
insuf cient carbon dioxide
• the stages for carbon dioxide concentration are the same as the ones for light
intensity

Temperature:
• if it gets too hot, plants cannot photosynthesize
- if it gets too cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease
• when the temperature increases until the optimum temperature, the rate of
photosynthesis increases
- when the temperature is higher than the optimum temperature, the enzymes
that catalyze photosynthesis get denatured
• if you plot the rate of photosynthesis against the levels of these 3 limiting factors,
you will get graphs like the ones shown above and on the previous page
• any of the 3 limiting factors could limit the rate of photosynthesis

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 Using knowledge of limiting factors:
• farmers can increase crop yield by applying knowledge of limiting factors
- plants can be grown in greenhouses
• temperature is higher in a greenhouse as the sun’s rays come as short waves
which are easily able to penetrate surfaces and leave as long waves which can
barely penetrate surfaces meaning they get trapped inside the greenhouse
• CO2 can be pumped into the greenhouse to increase crop yield
• arti cial light can be provided for the plants to be able to increase the rate of
photosynthesis
• plants can be watered in a greenhouse to increase crop yield

Bicarbonate Indicators:
• this is a solution used to determine if respiration or photosynthesis is taking place
• the color of bicarbonate indicators change depending on the amount of CO2
added or removed from a solution
• adding CO2 to a solution will increase the acidity

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 • CO2 dissolves in water to form a weak carbonic acid
• in neutral conditions, bicarbonate indicator has a pink/red color (pH 7)
• if CO2 concentration increases, pH will fall, bicarbonate indicator turns yellow
(acid)
• if CO2 concentration decreases, pH will rise, bicarbonate indicator turns purple
(alkaline)

Plant mineral requirements:

• plants require nitrates (NO3) and magnesium ions (Mg2+)
• nitrates provide nitrogen which is used to make proteins
• proteins form enzymes which catalyze metabolic reactions
• a de ciency of nitrogen causes stunted growth and chlorosis (turns leaves yellow)
• magnesium ions are used to make chlorophyll
• a de ciency of magnesium cause chlorosis as the plants cannot make chlorophyll
and cannot photosynthesize and therefore cannot grow

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 Chapter 7- Human Nutrition

A Balanced diet:
• this is a diet that contains all the 7 nutrients in their correct proportions in order
to provide energy and nutrients that are needed for growth and maintenance of
good health
• diet is affected by; age, sex, physical activity and state of health
- on average, males are physically bigger than females so they would require
larger amount of food/slightly larger portions
• pregnant women need a higher amount of calcium ions (Ca2+), iron ions
(Fe2+), proteins and vitamins to supply for themselves and the fetus
- if a woman who lacks iron in their diet, they have a craving for soil as soil
has a lot of iron
- if a woman lacks calcium in their diet, the fetus will take calcium from the
mother’s bones
• a person who carries out manual labour/work (a gardener, construction worker)
require higher amounts of energy so they need higher amounts of
carbohydrates
- whereas, an of ce worker, who spends most of the time sitting down, does
not need as much carbohydrates as they do not need as much energy
• toddlers have a rapid rate of growth and they are very active which requires
them to have large amounts of proteins for a lot of energy
• elderly people have very slow rates of growth so they need less proteins and
carbohydrates
• a balanced diet varies for everyone as everyone has a different life and work

Malnutrition:
• this is when there is too much/too little nutrients, it can be undernourishment
or over-nourishment
• if a person is undernourished, they can suffer from de ciency diseases
- however, some diseases are caused by having too much of a particular
nutrient

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 Conditions caused by malnutrition:
1. Constipation:
• it is caused by lack of bre/roughage
• a constipated person will not have regular bowel movements
2. Kwashiorkor:
• it is caused by protein de ciency
• it is characterized by stunted growth, reduced resistance to infections and a
swollen abdomen
• caused by protein, energy de ciency
3. Marasmus:
• it is caused by a carbohydrate de ciency in the diet
• it is characterized by poor growth, general tiredness and increased
susceptibility to infections
• caused by protein, energy de ciency
• before marasmus develops, a person suffers from starvation
4. Rickets:
• it is caused by Vitamin D and calcium de ciency
• this leads to soft bones which curves due to the body weight
5. Scurvy:
• it is caused by Vitamin C de ciency
• it is characterized by bleeding gums and slow healing of muscles
6. Obesity:
• is it caused by having excess carbohydrates and fats
• the body is overweight
• obesity can lead to other conditions such as:
- high blood pressure
- diabetes
- coronary heart disease

Nutrient sources:
1. Carbohydrates:
• Main sources:
- cereals: wheat and sorghum
- potatoes
- bananas
- maize meal
• Uses:
- they provide energy

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 • De ciency:
- marasmus
• Effects of excess:
- excess carbohydrates are converted to fats and this leads to obesity

2. Proteins:
• Main sources:
- meat and meat products
- eggs
- beans
- milk and milk products
- ground nuts
• Uses:
- growth
- repair of damaged tissues
- making enzymes and some hormones
• De ciency:
- kwashiorkor
• Effects of excess:
- excess proteins are usually stored as fat which leads to obesity
- high proteins diets have a high risk of kidney stones

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 3. Fats and oils:
• Main sources:
- cooking oil
- sun ower seeds
- salmon
- ground nuts
- cod sh
• Uses:
- they are used for energy storage
• De ciency:
- dry eyes
- dry, brittle or lackluster hairs
- dry, scaly, bumpy skin
• Effects of excess:
- high cholesterol
- heart attack
- strokes

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 4. Fibre:
• Main sources:
- fresh fruits
- fresh vegetables
- unre ned cereals

• Uses:
- forms the bulk of food in the large intestines
- it allows peristalsis to occur
- prevents constipation
• De ciency:
- causes constipation
• Effects of excess:
- bloating
- gas

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 De nition of terms:
• Ingestion:
- this is the taking in of nutrient molecules through the mouth
- doesn’t matter liquid or solid

• Physical digestion:
- the breaking down of large food particles to smaller particles without
changing their chemical composition
- physical digestion increases surface area for faster digestion by enzymes
- examples of physical digestion; chewing (mastication), emulsi cation by
bile, churning in the stomach
• Chemical digestion:
- the breaking down of large insoluble molecules to smaller soluble
molecules by enzymes
- the chemical composition of the substance changes (e.g. starch to maltose
with the enzyme amylase)
• Absorption:
- the movement of digestive materials across the walls of the intestines and
into the blood
- absorption occurs partly by diffusion and largely by active transport, water
is absorbed by osmosis
• Assimilation:
- the movement of nutrients into cells where they will be used and become
part of cells (e.g. glucose is used for respiration, to release energy and
amino acids are used to make proteins )
• Egestion:
- the removal of undigested materials through the anus
- egestion is not excretion
• Excretion:
- the removal of metabolic wastes, toxic substances and substances in excess
of the body’s requirements

Diarrhoea:
• it is a condition where watery feces are removed frequently from the elementary
canal
• diarrhoea can cause death due to excessive water loss
• it leads to dehydration, leads to death
• if a person loses more then 5% of their body water, they die

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 • diarrhoea can be treated by giving oral rehydration solution (ORS), the solution
replaces water and salts lost due to diarrhoea

Cholera:
• it is a diarrhoeal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae
• the bacteria is ‘comma’-shaped and has a agellum
• it is transmitted through the oral-fecal route, a person eats food or drinks water
that is contaminated by the bacteria
• V. cholerae produces a toxin called choleragen which binds onto the cells that
line the small intestine
• the toxin causes epithelial cells to secrete chloride ions (Cl-) into the lumen of
the small intestine
• this lowers the water potential of the small intestine which causes water to move
in to the small intestine by osmosis
• the water is expelled by violent peristaltic movement
• cholera is treated by giving antibiotics and taking oral rehydration solutions
(ORS)
• cholera is prevented by properly disposing the feces and adding chlorine to
drinking water and washing fruits and vegetables before eating them and good
personal hygiene

Structure and function of the digestive system:

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 1. Mouth (buccal cavity):
• food enters the digestive system through the mouth (ingestion)
• the mouth has teeth on the upper and lower jaw
• teeth chew food (mastication) to break it into smaller pieces and increase
surface area for faster digestion by enzymes
• they are three pairs of salivary glands which empty saliva into the mouth
• saliva softens and lubricates food which makes it easier to swallow
• for digestion, saliva contains the enzyme: salivary amylase which digests
starch to maltose

• the optimum pH for salivary amylase is 7

• chemical digestion of starch starts in the mouth
• the tongue rolls food into a ball-like structure called a bolus for swallowing

2. Oesophagus:

• it is a tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach

• its walls have circular and longitudinal muscles
• food (bolus) moves down the oesophagus by the process of peristalsis
- peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles
• circular muscles contract behind the food and longitudinal muscles contract
in front of the food in order to push it down

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 3. Stomach:

• the walls of the stomach contract to mix food into a creamy paste called
chyme, this process is called churning
• cells lining the stomach produce hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• HCl inhibits the enzymes of bacteria that is swallowed with food and kills
the bacteria
• HCl provides the correct pH for stomach enzymes (pH 2)
• the stomach walls produces mucus which prevents damage to the walls
• the stomach walls secrete the enzyme pepsin, it digests proteins to amino
acids
• pepsin is a proteas

• the entry and exit of materials in the stomach is controlled by circular

muscles called sphincter muscles

4. Small intestine:
• the small intestine is divided into the duodenum and the ileum
• the duodenum is the short straight rst section and the ileum is the longer
folded second section

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 • Duodenum:
- most of the chemical digestion occurs in the duodenum
- the pancreas secretes pancreatic juices into the the duodenum, these
juices contain pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase and trypsin
- amylase digests starch to maltose, lipase digests lipids to fatty acids and
glycerol and trypsin is a protease which digests proteins to amino acids
- the liver makes bile which is a mixture of salts
- bile is stored in the gal bladder
- bile is secreted into the duodenum through the bile duct
- bile contains sodium hydrogen carbonate which is bicarbonate of soda
(NaHCO3), this neutralizes the acidic chyme
- sodium hydrogen carbonate creates a pH of around 8.5 which is the
optimum pH for enzymes in the duodenum
- bile emulsi es fats, emulsi cation increases surface area of fats so that
they are digested faster by lipase, this a form of physical digestion
- the enzyme maltase is found on the walls of the duodenum, maltase
breaks down maltose into glucose
• Ileum:
- this is the site for absorption of digested materials
- its structure shows adaptation to its role in absorption
- Adaptations of the ileum include:
1. it is very long to create a large surface area
2. the inner wall is folded to further increase surface area
- the folds of the inner wall has nger-like projections called villi
(singular: villus)
- the villi further increase surface area for faster absorption
- Adaptations of the villus:
1. the wall of the villus is one cell thick, this provides a short
distance for diffusion
2. it has a lacteal for the absorption of fats, fatty acids and
glycerol move by active transport into the epithelial cells,
they are recombined into fats which move into the lacteal,
the lacteal is part of the lymphatic system
3. it has a network of blood capillaries, this carries absorbed
materials away so that a diffusion/concentration gradient is
maintained, glucose, amino acids, mineral ions and water
are absorbed into the blood

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 4. the epithelial cells lining the villus have microscopic nger-
like projections called microvilli which further increases
surface area
- the wall of the ileum has maltase which digests maltose to glucose
- all materials that are absorbed into the blood are carried to the liver
through the hepatic portal vein, the liver breaks down toxins
- the lymphatic system eventually empties its contents into the subclavian
veins which comes from the arms

5. Large intestines:
• it is divided into the colon and the rectum
• they absorb bile so that it can be taken back to the liver
• Colon:
- it is the longer, rst part of the large intestines
- it receives undigested materials mostly bre
- their main function is to reabsorb water from undigested food/materials
- about 0.5 liters of water is reabsorbed by the colon a day by osmosis
(the small intestines absorbs about 10 liters of water a day)
- lack of bre in the diet reduces peristalsis in the large intestines and
causes constipation
• Rectum:
- it is a short, last section of the large intestines
- it temporarily stores feces for 12-48 hours, by the time material reaches
the rectum it is fecal matter
- feces are released from the rectum through the anus

Mechanical digestion:
Structure and functions of the teeth:
• an adult human has 32 teeth, 16 on each jaw
• teeth are adapted for their role in physical digestion, they are hard so that they
can cut, tear and grind food
• the types of teeth in an organisms mouth depend on it’s diet
• humans are omnivores (they feed on meat and vegetation) and the types of
teeth they have show adaptation to this diet
• other organisms skulls can give an indication of their diet
• Structure of a tooth:
- the part of the tooth visible in the mouth is called the crown
- the part of the tooth that is in the jaw is called the root

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 - the crown is covered by a hard substance called enamel (the hardest
substance that the body make)
- the enamel provides a surface that is hard enough to grind and bite food
- the layer below the enamel is known as the dentine, it is made up of soft
bone-like material
- the dentine forms the greater part of the tooth and gives it its structure
- the dentine is interrupted by the pulp cavity, it is a region containing blood
capillaries and nerve endings
- blood capillaries supply the tooth with nutrients such as calcium ions
(Ca2+)
- the nerve endings make the tooth sensitive to pain and temperature
- the teeth are anchored in the jaw by a thin layer of glue-like material called
cement
• Incisors:
- 4 chisel shaped teeth in front of each jaw
- they are for biting and cutting soft food
• Canines:
- 2 sharp pointed teeth on each side of the incisors on each jaw
- they pierce and tear food
• Pre-molars:
- 4 pre-molars on each jaw (2 on each side)
- they have 1 or 2 roots
- they have bumps on their surface called cusps
- they are used for grinding and chewing
• Molars:
- 6 molars on each jaw (3 on each side)
- they have 3 or 4 roots and have 4 or 5 cusps
- they have the same function as pre-molars, they are for grinding food
Tooth Care:
• the following practices
- brushing teeth at least 2 twice a day with toothpaste
- toothpaste is slightly alkalinic so it neutralizes the acids produced by
bacteria in the mouth
- some toothpaste in antibacterial so it kills bacteria
- avoiding sugary foods/drinks
- ossing (or using toothpicks)
- having a dental check up every 6 months
- adding uoride to drinking water

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 Tooth Decay:
• when a person eats sugary food, the sugar coats the teeth called plaque
• bacteria in the mouth feed on the sugars and produce acids as a waste product
• the acids corrode the enamel and cause cavities
• the dentine is not as strong as the enamel so it will be exposed and will also be
corroded
• the pulp cavity can be exposed and this causes pain and high sensitivity

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 Chapter 8- Transport In Plants

• this refers to the movement of substances from one place to another in plants
• plants have transport systems because substances need to be moved across long
distances and because diffusion and active transport alone are not suf cient
• diffusion, osmosis and active transport are not fast enough over long distances
to keep an organism alive
• the main conducting tissue in plants are xylem tissues and phloem tissues

Xylem and phloem cells

• Xylem:
• for the structure, see notes on specialized cells
• xylem cells carry water and mineral salts (magnesium ions and nitrates) from
the roots to the leaves
• xylem cells provide support to the plant
• the xylem is made up of dead cells
• Phloem:
• phloem cells (structure and functions)
- a phloem cells is called a sieve tube element
- sieve tubes have very few organelles that are con ned to the periphery
(edges) of the cell
- this reduces interruption to the ow of substances
- there is an area with many openings known as the sieve plate with many
perforations (holes) plasmodesmata between adjacent sieve tubes
- each sieve tube is associated with a companion cell, these carry out
metabolic activities/processes and passes nutrients to the companion cell
- the phloem carries organic solutes/assimilates such as amino acids and
sucrose from the source to the sink
- the source is the region of manufacture (e.g. leaves)
- the sink is the region of use (e.g. respiring cells or storage organ)
• the xylem and the phloem together are called vascular bundles

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 Distribution of vascular bundles in the roots:
• vascular bundles are in the center of the roots
• the xylem form a star shape
• the phloem form rings around the xylem
• the cortex is lled with parenchyma cells
• when water moves across the cortex it crosses the parenchyma cells

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 Distribution of vascular bundles in the stem:
• in monocots, the vascular bundles are everywhere and have no particular
pattern
• in dicots, the vascular bundles form a ring, this placement helps the stem resist
the sideways forces
- vascular bundles on the edge increase the strength of the stem
• the cortex and the pith are lled with parenchyma cells
- these are unspecialized cells that ll the space

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 Distribution of vascular bundles in the leaf:
• xylem is on the top
• phloem is on the bottom

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 Movement of water:
1. From soil to root hair cells:
• water crosses the cell wall of root hair cells by diffusion, this is because the
cell wall is freely permeable
• water enters root hair cells by osmosis, from a region of high water potential
(soil) to regain to low water potential (cytoplasm/vacuole), through a
partially permeable membrane
• example:
- land that was previously ooded by sea water this not ideal for growing
crops, explain why this is the case
- the sea water

2. From root hair cells to xylem in roots:

• water can move from cell wall to cell wall between adjacent cells in the
cortex by diffusion (apoplast pathway)
• the water can move from cytoplasm to cytoplasm between adjacent cells by
osmosis (symplast pathway)

3. From xylem in roots to xylem in leaves:

• the single largest factor that determines the movement of water up the
xylem is transpiration pull, it is a negative force called tension

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 • transpiration at the leaves creates a region of low water potential at the
leaves
• water moves up the xylem down a concentration gradient
• the water moves as one continuous body known as the transpiration stream
• the key factors affecting the movement of water are; cohesion and tension
- cohesion refers to the sticking together of water molecules
- tension is the negative force that pulls the water (transpiration pull)
• some water can move put of the xylem through pits along the stem, this
supplies water to parts of the plant below the leaves
4. From xylem in leaves to atmosphere:
• water can move out of the xylem at the leaves and can follow the apoplast
and symplast pathways until it reaches the cell wall of the spongy mesophyll
cells
• water lining the spongy mesophyll cell walls evaporates into the air space
• the water vapor then diffuses out of the airspace to the atmosphere through
the stomata
• Transpiration:
- transpiration is the diffusion of water vapor from the air space to the
atmosphere through the stomata
- the water vapor is created by evaporation at water from the spongy
mesophyll cells
- transpiration creates a region of lower water potential at the leaves in the
xylem compared to the xylem in the roots
- light intensity, humidity, air movements and temperature are the factors
affecting transpiration
- Light intensity:
- the stomata are open during daylight and this allows the water vapor
in the leaves to diffuse out into the atmosphere
- transpiration speeds up when light intensity increases because the
stomata responds to changes in the light intensity
- sunlight also increases temperature and so increases evaporation
- Humidity:
- if air is very humid, it van accept very little water vapor from plants
and so transpiration slows down
- the higher the humidity, the lower the rate of transpiration
- Air movements:
- in still air, the region around a transpiring leaf will become humid and
so no more water vapor can escape the leaf

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 - in moving air, the water vapor will be swept away as fast as it diffuses
out, maintaining a concentration gradient for diffusion
- the faster the wind speed, the higher the rate of transpiration
- Temperature:
- warm air can hold more water vapor than cold air
- high temperatures increase evaporation thus increasing the rate of
transpiration
- the higher the temperature, the higher the rate of transpiration

Measuring the rate of transpiration:

• a device called a potometer is used to measure the rate of transpiration

• a shoot is cut obliquely (slanting) under water and is inserted to one end of the
potometer
- obliquely cutting the shoot increases the surface area
- cutting under water prevents air lock (bubbles)

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 • the potometer has a capillary tube that has a scale next to it
• an air bubble or colored drop can be introduced to the capillary tube and as
water is lost by the leaves, the shoot takes water from the potometer and the air
bubble or colored drop moves
• the distance moved in a xed period of times is calculated

• the potometer has a reservoir of water that is used to reset the position of the air
bubble

Why using a potometer is not reliable:

• not all water that is taken up is lost through transpiration
• some of the water is used for photosynthesis and to keep it turgid
• use petroleum jelly and a rubber stopper so it is air tight and to prevent air
bubbles and water leakage
• the shoot must be cut under water to avoid air blockage of the xylem
• the surface areas of leaves must be kept the same for different experiments
looking at the different factors

Translocation:
• refers the to movement of organic solutes in the phloem
• the solutes move from the source to the sink
- the source is the region of manufacture (e.g. photosynthesizing leaves)
- the sink is the region of use (e.g. respiring cells, storage organs)
• the source and sink change depending on the time and the life cycle of a plant
- e.g. when a potato plant is growing, the leaves are the source and the tuber in
the sink
- glucose is made during photosynthesis by leaves, it is converted to sucrose for
transportation in the phloem and the sucrose is converted to starch for
storage in the tuber
- a new plant can develop and grow from the buds of a potato tuber
- the tuber acts as a source and the developing plant acts as the sink

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 - the tuber can be both the source and the sink depending on the time and life
cycle of the potato plant
- at night, when there is no light, the leaves cannot carry out photosynthesis,
starch can be broken down from storage organs and the products are
transported to the leaves for use in respiration
- organic assimilates can move in either direction in the phloem

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 Chapter 9- Transport In Animals

• this refers to the movement of substances from one place to another in humans
- the substances include: oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, amino acids and
urea, excess salts
• the circulatory system is responsible for transport in humans
- it is made up of the heart and blood vessels
- it is a closed double circulatory system
- it is said to be closed because blood always ows insides vessels and also
because every drop of blood passes through the heart twice before it goes to
any organ

head & arms

lungs

heart

liver

stomach &
intestines

kidneys

muscles in
the legs

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 Single Circulatory System:
• it is found in organisms such as sh
• blood travels through the heart once in a complete circuit
• there is a pump with two chambers; an atrium and a ventricle
- the atrium receives blood from the gills
- that blood is passed on to the ventricle
- the ventricle then pumps the blood to the rest of the body
• the disadvantage of the single circulatory system is that the blood loses pressure
so there is a slower supply of oxygen

Double Circulatory System:

• in a double circulation, oxygenated blood is pumped again to the rest of the
body to meet the oxygen demands quickly, blood passes through the heart twice
in one complete oscillation
• the advantage of the double circulatory system is that higher blood pressure is
maintained
- double circulation gives the ability to create more pressure to pump blood
round the whole body system

Structure of the heart:

• the heart is made of muscle tissue called cardiac muscle
• this type of muscle does not get fatigue/tired
• it has four chambers (compartments)
- the top two chambers are called atria (singular: atrium), they receive blood
- the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein
- the right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava
- the bottom two chambers are called ventricles, they pump blood out of the
heart
- therefore they have thicker walls than the atria and they need to generate
higher pressure
- the left ventricle pumps blood to the aorta
- the right ventricle pumps blood to the pulmonary artery
- the wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the right ventricle,
this is because the left ventricle pumps blood to a larger systemic (head
and body) circuit while the right ventricle pumps blood to a smaller
pulmonary circuit (only one organ) and also because the left ventricle has
more muscles as it needs to contract more than the right ventricle in order
to generate higher pressure
- the pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood

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 - the pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries oxygenated blood
• they are valves between the atria and the ventricles which prevents backward
ow of blood when the ventricles contract, these are called atrioventricular
valves
- the valve on the left is called the bicuspid valve or mitral valve (has two aps)
- the valve on the right is called the tricuspid valve (has three aps)
• the left and right side of the heart is separated by a muscle called the septum, it
prevents oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing

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 Other diagrams of the heart:

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 Cardiac cycle:
• this is the sequence of events that occur inside the heart in one heartbeat
• there are two main processes occurring, namely; systole (contraction) and diastole
(relaxation)
• initially the heart will be relaxed and the blood will be owing into both atria
from the two major veins
• the atria contract (atrial systole) simultaneously (at the same time) forcing blood
into ventricles
• the opens atrioventricular valves because pressure in the atria is higher than the
pressure in the ventricles
• after the atria nish contracting, the ventricles contract (ventricular systole)
• pressure in the ventricles becomes than the pressure in the atria and this forces
the atrioventricular valves to close
• blood ows out of the heart through the two main arteries, the aorta and the
pulmonary artery
• the pressure in the ventricles becomes higher than pressure in the aorta and in
the pulmonary artery and this causes the opening of the semilunar valves
• ventricles relax and the pressure in them falls below that of the two major artery,
this causes semi-lunar valves to close and prevent backward ow of blood to the
ventricles
• when ventricles relax, the entire heart will be in a state of relaxation
• the cardiac cycle takes about 0.83 seconds at rest and this gives a resting heart
rate of 72 beats per minute

Coronary heart diseases (CHD):

• coronary arteries supply the heart muscles with oxygenated blood and nutrients
• coronary arteries branch from the aorta to the cardiac muscles
• in coronary heart disease (CHD), the lumen of the coronary arteries becomes
narrow
• this is caused by the deposition of fats and cholesterol in the wall of the artery
• the cholesterol plaque that is inside the lumen, can rupture and a clot forms
inside the the coronary artery, this is called coronary thrombosis

Effects on the body:

• coronary thrombosis cuts or greatly reduces blood supply to a section of the
heart muscle
• this reduces oxygen supply so the heart muscle will fail to contract due to the lack
of energy from aerobic respiration

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 • the heart will stop beating and this is called heart attack and can cause death if
not quickly treated
• heart attack is also known as myocardial infarction or cardiac arrest
• CHDs can cause severe chest pain called angian

Factors that increase risk of getting CHDs:

1. Diet:
• a diet that is rich in saturated fats and cholesterol increases the risk of getting
CHDs
2. Physical activity:
• people who live sedentary lifestyles (do not exercise), have a higher risk of
getting CHDs
3. Sex:
• generally males have a higher risk of getting CHDs which is mainly based on
epidemiological evidence
4. Age:
• CHDs usually affect males in their 40s, these diseases accumulate over a long
period of time
5. Genetic predisposition:
• some people inherit the likelihood to get CHDs
6. Smoking:
• nicotine increase heart rate and narrows blood capillaries, this combination of
factors increases the risk of getting CHDs
7. Stress:
• stress increases risk of developing CHDs

Treatment of CHDs:
1. Medical drugs:
• drugs such as aspirin are given to make blood thinner to reduce the risk of
clotting
2. Angioplasty:
• a balloon is inserted into the coronary arteries, then it is in ated, this pushes
the plaque to open the lumen
3. Stent:
• it is a wire mesh which is inserted in the coronary artery to push it open
4. Coronary bypass surgery:
• a blood vessel is taken from elsewhere in the body and it is used to bypass the
section where a clot has been located in the coronary arteries

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 Exchange of materials:
• arteries > arterioles > capillaries > venules > veins
• arteries divide into arterioles and these divide into many capillaries to form a
capillary network, this increases surface area for the exchange of substances by
diffusion
• at the arteriole end of a capillary network, substances move out of the blood
under high pressure
- these substance form tissue uid
- tissue uid does not contain red blood cells and large blood proteins
- it contains water, glucose, amino acids, mineral ions etc.
- tissue uid is the uid that surrounds cells (it bathes cells), it occupies
interstitial spaces (space between cells)
• glucose and other wanted nutrients diffuse into cells
• CO2 and water products diffuse out of cells into the tissue uid
• 90% of the tissue uid moves back into the blood capillaries at the venule end of
a capillary network
• the remaining 10% of the tissue uid is drained from the interstitial spaces by the
lymphatic system
- if it is not drained, swelling (edema) occurs

Lymphatic system:
• this is a system of blind-ending tubes which drains tissue uid from the interstitial
spaces
• it is made up of lymphatic vessels, some organs and lymphs nodes
• it has no pump, major lymph vessels exist between muscles
- when muscles contract, they squeeze the vessels and move the uid
• the uid inside lymphatic vessels is called lymph
• they have valves to prevent backward ow of lymph
• all the lymph eventually enters the bloodstream because 2 major lymph vessels
empty their contents into a subclavian veins (veins from arms)
• lymph nodes have white blood cells
- these destroy pathogen in the lymph
• the lacteal in the ilium is part of the lymphatic system
• the lymphatic system plays a role in the absorption and transport of fats

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 Chapter 10- Diseases and Immunity

Diseases and immunity:

• a disease is any condition that reduces the effectiveness of bodily functions
• health is a state of complete mental, physical, emotional and social well being
• an infectious disease is a disease that is caused by a pathogen and it can be
transmitted from one host to another (from one organism to another)
- e.g malaria, cholera, TB, HIV/AIDS, covid-19
- they are also called transmissible diseases
- non-infectious diseases include cancer, de ciency diseases and coronary heart
diseases

How infectious diseases are passed on:

• through direct contact with infected bodily uids like blood, semen and vaginal
uids, e.g. HIV/AIDS
• through food and water that are contaminated, e.g. cholera through the fecal-oral
route
• through contaminated surfaces, e.g. covid-19
• through aerosols (droplet infections), e.g. TB, in uenza ( u)
• through vectors (animals that carry the pathogen), e.g. the female anopheles
mosquito is a vector for the plasmodium that causes malaria

Barriers to prevent infection:

• these prevent entry of pathogens thereby preventing diseases
• Mechanical barriers (physical barriers):
- skin and nasal hairs physically prevent entry of pathogens into the body
• Chemical barriers:
- hydrochloric acid in the stomach kills bacteria and other pathogens that are
swallowed with food, it inactivates bacterial enzymes
- mucus traps dust and bacteria in the respiratory system
- the pH of the vagina is slightly acidic which destroys fungi to prevent yeast
infections etc.
• Cellular barriers (leukocytes):
- white blood cells provide defense against pathogens inside the body
- the action of lymphocytes can be enhanced by a vaccination

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 Vaccination:
• each pathogen has surface proteins that are unique to it and these are called
antigens

• if a person is infected, a speci c lymphocyte identi es the antigen on the

pathogen and it binds to it

• only lymphocyte B will bind to the bacteria because it has receptors that are
complementary to the antigen on the bacteria
• the lymphocyte that binds to the antigen will divide repeatedly to many identical
lymphocytes (clone)
• some of the lymphocytes make antibodies
- antibodies are Y shaped proteins that destroy pathogens
• some of the lymphocytes form memory glands and these remain in the body for
many years

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 • if the same pathogen is encountered, memory cells quickly divide (mitosis) and
form antibodies and more memory cells
- memory cells are basis for immunological memory
• all cells has surface proteins called antigens and these are unique to them
• these proteins have speci c shapes and they are found on the cell surface
membrane
• bacteria have antigens that human body cells identify as non-self antigens and
white blood cells (lymphocytes) will start on immune response to destroy bacteria
(and other cells) with non-self antigens

Graph showing increase in antibodies:

• the rst rise in antibody concentration is slow because it takes time for
lymphocytes to divide and increase (primary immune response) in number to
form antibody producing cells and memory cells
• the second rise in antibody concentration is faster because there are many
memory cells made against the pathogen

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 • these memory cells divide to form more memory cells and some of them become
antibody producing cells quickly
• the second immune response is celled the secondary immune response
• antibodies are proteins that delay pathogens and they are called
immunoglobulins

How antibodies work:

1. Some antibodies bind to bacteria to prevent them from spreading

2. Some antibodies neutralize toxins

3. They mark pathogens so that they can be destroyed by phagocytes

4. They clump bacteria together and prevent them from spreading

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 Vaccination process:
• an attenuated (weakened) pathogen is injected into a person (e.g. heat killed
bacteria)
• lymphocytes that have a receptor that is complementary to the antigen on the
pathogen are activated
- they divide by mitosis to form a clone(group of identical cells)
- mitosis produces genetically identical cells
• some of the lymphocytes from the clone start producing antibodies while others
become memory cells (primary immune response)
• memory cells stay int he body for long periods of time
• if the same pathogen is encountered, then the memory cells will quickly divide
(mitosis) to form a clone where some antibody producing cells will be formed as
well as more memory cells and the pathogen is destroyed before it can make a
person sick

Types of immunity:
• immunity- the ability of the body to identify pathogens and stimulate a response
that destroys them and prevents diseases
• there are two types of immunity:
- active immunity
- passive immunity

Active immunity:
• this involves being infected by a pathogen and the body makes antibodies and
memory cells
• antibodies destroy the pathogens and neutralizes toxins
• memory cells provide immunological memory
• it is long lasting due to the making of memory cells
• it takes time for the antibodies to be made

Passive immunity:
• the body does not make antibodies, instead, ready made antibodies are
introduced into the body
• no memory cells are made so it is short lived
• it produces immediate protection

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 Natural immunity:
• it is immunity acquired without human interference
• natural active immunity id when a person is infected by a pathogen and they
make antibodies and memory cells, this occurs in the course of life
• natural passive immunity is when antibodies are passed on without having has an
infection (e.g. through breast milk)
- the rst milk that comes out is a pale liquid called colostrum and it is very
rich on antibodies
- this protects the baby from infections as it has a weak immune system
- antibodies are passed from mother to fetus during pregnancy, passing through
the placenta

Arti cial immunity:

• is it immunity acquired with aid of human intervention
• arti cial active immunity is a vaccination (an example)
- attenuated pathogens are introduced to the body
- the primary immune response occurs and the antibodies and memory cells
are made
• arti cial passive immunity is when the antibodies made in the lab are injected
into the body
- this is done for very lethal pathogens which can kill a person before the
primary immune response is complete (e.g. tetanus bacteria)

Preventing infectious diseases:

1. Good personal hygiene
• e.g. washing hands with clean water after using the toilet and before eating
2. Vaccinations
3. Controlling of killing vectors which spread the infection
• e.g. killing mosquitos to prevent malaria
4. Proper disposal of sewage
5. Adding chlorine ions (Cl-) to drinking water

Autoimmune diseases:
• these are diseases where the immune system mistakenly identi es its own antigen
as non-self and it initiates immune response against a speci c organ or tissue
- e.g. type 1 diabetes is an auto immune disease and the immune system
identi es ᵦ-cells that makes insulin as non-self and attacks them
- the body will have very little to no insulin
- it is an insulin-dependent diabetes

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 • Treatment:
- diet is controlled to reduce carbohydrate
- insulin injections are administered
- insulin lowers blood glucose levels
- blood glucose in monitored
- this is not an infectious disease
• Signs and symptoms:
- fatigue
- confusion
- frequent urination
- severe thirst
- coma

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 Chapter 11- Gas Exchange In Humans

• this refers to the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and respiratory
surfaces (e.g. alveolus)
• in humans, the respiratory system is responsible for gas exchange and it shows
adaptations in its role

Structure and function of the respiratory system:

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 • Nose:
- it is the point of entry for hair
- it has nasal hairs that trap dust particles
- it has mucus which also traps dust and moistens incoming air
- it has blood capillaries which warm the incoming air
- there are olfactory calls which detect the smell of incoming air
- when we breathe in through the nose, the air is ltered, moistened, warmed
and it’s smell is detected
• Trachea:
- it is also known as the wind pipe
- it carries air to the lower parts of the respiratory system
- it’s walls have soft bone like material called cartilage
- it prevents it’s walls from collapsing
- the trachea has C-shaped cartilage

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 - the inner lining has ciliated epithelial cell and goblet cell
- goblet cells produce mucus to trap dust and bacteria
- cilia beats/wafts to move trapped particles to back of throat where it is
swallowed

• Bronchus:
- the trachea divides into two bronchi and they carry air to each lung
- they have the same composition as the trachea
- cartilage
- ciliated epithelial cells
- goblet cells
- collagen bres
- smooth muscles
- however, the bronchi are narrower in diameter compared to the trachea
- the bronchi divide into several bronchioles
• Bronchioles:
- these are smaller tubes that carry air to the alveolar sacs
- they have no ciliated epithelial cells, cartilage or goblet cells
- bronchioles terminate in alveolar sacs

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 • Alveolar sac:
- it is a structure that looks like a bunch of grapes
- it has thousands of tiny microscopic sphere called alveoli

• Structure and function of the alveolus:

- the alveolus is the site for gaseous exchange

- oxygen diffuses from the alveolus to the blood capillaries
- carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries into the alveolus

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 - Adaptations of the alveolus:
- it’s wall is very thin (one cell thick) which allows faster diffusion of gases
- each alveolus is associated with a network of blood capillaries which gives
a larger surface area for gas exchange
- they are many alveoli which further increases the surface area for gaseous
exchange
- they are lined with a lm of moisture, this allows gases to dissolve in order
to diffuse through the walls of the alveoli
- it is dif cult for gases to cross a dry surface so the moisture helps for
easier diffusion

Mechanism of breathing:
• Mechanism of breathing in (inhalation):
- the pressure inside the lungs must be lower than the pressure in the
atmosphere for the person to breathe in/inspire/inhale
- air will move from the atmosphere into the lungs down a pressure gradient
(from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure)
- to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity (rib cage), the ribs move
upwards and outwards
- this movement is brought about by the contraction of external inter-
coastal muscles and the internal inter-coastal muscles relax
- the diaphragm muscles contract and it becomes at (it is normally dome
shaped)
• Mechanism of breathing out (exhalation):
- the pressure inside the lungs must be higher than the pressure in the
atmosphere for the person to breathe out/expire/exhale
- air will move from the lungs into the atmosphere down a pressure gradient
(from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration)
- to decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity (rib cage), the ribs move
upwards and inwards
- this movement is brought about by the relaxation of the external inter-
coastal muscles and the internal inter-coastal muscles contract
- the diaphragm muscles relax and it returns to its normal dome shape (it is
at during inhalation)

Composition of inspired and expired air:

• air is a mixture of gases
• the composition of air is: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide,
there is also a variable composition of water vapor

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 • air in the atmosphere is the inspired air
• some oxygen taken in is used for aerobic respiration
• expired air has 16% oxygen
• nitrogen is un-reactive and is not used by the body
• expired air 78% nitrogen
• a lot of carbon dioxide is produced during aerobic respiration which is excreted
at the lungs by diffusion
• the percentage composition of carbon dioxide in expired air is 4%
• CO2 can be tested for using limewater, the result is the limewater turns milky/
cloudy if CO2 is present
• expired air always has a content of water vapor

Table of differences between inspired and expired air

Component: Inspired air (%): Expired air (%): Reason:

O2 21 16 it is used for aerobic

respiration

CO2 0.04 4 it is produced from aerobic

respiration

N2 78 78 it is un-reactive and is
completely un-used

H2O variable saturated water evaporates from

respiratory surfaces

Dust, pollen present absent inspired air is ltered to

remove dust and other
small particles

Experiment to show the composition of expired air:

• the apparatus below is set up

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 • limewater is used to test for the presence of carbon dioxide
- when carbon dioxide is present it turns cloudy/milky
• as person breathes in and out through the tube B
• air enters the apparatus through the tube at the top
• air leaves the apparatus through tubes at the end on either side
• the positioning of the tubes determine the direction of air ow
• after several minutes of the person breathing in and out through the mouth
piece, the limewater in test tube B will turn cloudy/milky rst
- this is because expired air has a higher carbon dioxide concentration than
inspired air
• eventually the limewater in both test tube A and test tube B will turn cloudy/
milky but the limewater in test tube B will always turn cloudy/milky rst

Effects of exercise on breathing:

• the lung capacity of an average male is about 5dm^3
• when the person is at rest, they have about 12 -16 breaths per minutes
• when they exercise, the rate and depth of breathing increases
- the rate is the number of breaths per minute
- the depth is the volume of each breathe
- this is because exercise produces more carbon dioxide
- it is detected in blood passing through the brain
- the brain stimulates the body to breathe faster to expel carbon dioxide
• the tidal volume is the amount of air taken in and out of the lungs when the
person is at rest
• inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be taken into the lungs
with a forced inspiration
• expiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be taken out of the lungs
with a forced expiration
• the residual air is the amount of air that is never taken out of the lungs
• the inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume and the expiratory reserve volume is
the vital capacity of the lungs

Respiration:
• this is the breaking down of nutrient molecules (e.g. glucose) inside cells to release
energy
• Uses of energy in the body:
1. Muscle contraction
2. Protein synthesis
3. Active transport

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 4. Transition of nerve impulses
5. Maintenance of a constant body temperature
6. Cell division
7. Growth

Aerobic respiration:
• it is the breaking down of nutrient molecules inside cells using oxygen to release
energy
• this occurs on the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells (cells with a nucleus)
• the word equation of aerobic is glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
• the chemical equation is C6H12O6 +6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
• we can test for carbon dioxide in order to show that aerobic respiration occurs
• Investigating aerobic respiration in small invertebrates and
germinating seeds:
- a device called the respirometer is used to measure the rate of respiration

- it can be used to measure the rate of respiration in small invertebrates or

germinating seeds
- a substance that absorbs carbon dioxide is put in the respirometer (e.g.
potassium hydroxide KOH)
- the carbon dioxide produced in respiration is absorbed by the potassium
hydroxide
- the invertebrates are separated from the carbon dioxide absorber by a mesh
gauze
- this is because the carbon dioxide absorber is corrosive
- a colored drop of liquid is introduced in the capillary tube of the
respirometer
- to ensure that the respirometer is air tight we used vaseline (petroleum jelly)

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 - capillarity is when liquids move up a narrow tube on its own when the
organism respires, it uses oxygen in the respirometer
- the carbon dioxide produced is absorbed by the potassium hydroxide which
causes the volume of air in the respirometer to decrease
- there will be lower pressure inside the respirometer compared to the
atmosphere
- this results in the colored drop to move towards the small invertebrates or the
test tube/syringe
- the distance moved by the colored drop in a xed amount of time (e.g. 5
minutes) is measured
- the rate of respiration can be determined/calculated using distance divided
by the time (e.g. if the colored drop moves 15mm in 5 minutes, the rate of
respiration is 3mm/minute)
- alternatively, the volume of oxygen used can be calculated using the formula
V= r^2h, where r is the radius of the capillary tube and h is the distance
moved by the colored drop of liquid
- if the volume is calculated then the rate of respiration will be in cubic mm
per minute

Anaerobic respiration:
• anaerobic respiration are chemical reactions occurring inside cells to breakdown
nutrient molecules to release energy without the use of oxygen
• the waste products of anaerobic respiration are energy-rich molecules therefore it
releases a relatively low amount of energy comparatively to aerobic respiration
• Anaerobic respiration in yeast:
- yeast is a single-celled fungus which can respire both aerobically and
anaerobically
- yeast respires using glucose as a respiratory substrate and produces ethanol
and carbon dioxide
- the word equation of anaerobic respiration is glucose → (with the use of
enzymes) alcohol + carbon dioxide
- the chemical equation of anaerobic respiration is C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH
+ 2CO2
- when carrying out experiments to measure anaerobic respiration in yeast, a
layer of oil is placed on top of the sugar and yeast mixture to prevent entry
of oxygen

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 • Experiment to determine the effect of temperature on the rate of
anaerobic respiration in yeast:

- the apparatus above is set up

- 1 test tube is put in a water bath at room temperature (25ºC) and the other
one is put in a water bath at 50ºC
- the set up is left for 15 minutes
- the size of the balloon is measured before and after the experiment
- a string can be used to measure the circumference of the balloon at the
widest part
- expected results are that the circumference around the balloon in the water
bath at 50ºC will be larger
- an increase in temperature will increase the rate of anaerobic respiration in
yeast
- this is because at higher temperature, enzymes and substrate have more
kinetic energy which causes more enzyme-substrate complexes to form
- the independent variable is the temperature and the dependent variable is the
circumference of the balloon
- 3 variables that should be standardized are:
- the volume of yeast suspension
- the time
- the volume of water in the water bath
• Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells (human muscle cells):
- when a person carries out vigorous exercise, there muscles can respire
anaerobically
- this is meant to provide some energy for a short period of time
- the word equation is glucose → lactic acid

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 - the chemical equation is C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3

- when lactic acid accumulates in blood and muscle cells, the body is said to
have incurred an oxygen debt
- lactic acid causes muscle fatigue (cramps)
- the oxygen debt is removed by the following ways:
- after exercise, lactic acid is carried to the liver by the blood where it is
broken down to carbon dioxide and water using oxygen
- after exercise, the heart rate remains high in order to carry the lactic acid
to the liver and supply oxygen at a higher rate
- the rate and depth of breathing remains high in order to supply more
oxygen to break down the lactic acid and remove the extra carbon dioxide
- when there is too much lactic acid accumulated in the blood it will change
the pH of the blood which will denature the enzymes as they work in a pH of
7

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 Chapter 13- Excretion In Humans

• excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes, toxic substances and substances in

excess of the body’s requirements
• metabolic wastes include CO2 and urea
• CO2 is a waste product or aerobic respiration and it removed when a person
breathes out, this is an example of excretion

• urea is produced by the liver and the body cannot share excess amino acids
• the amine part is removed by the liver in the process of deamination
• it is used to form urea which is a toxic substance (less toxic than ammonia)
• urea is removed from the blood by the kidneys and is carried away from the liver
by the hepatic vein to the blood
• the remaining part of the amino acid is used for respiration
• the liver also plays a role in the assimilation of amino acids
• it joins amino acids to form proteins such as brinogen
• the kidney removes excess urea, water and excess salts
• its structure shows adaptations to its functions

Structure of the urinary system:

• this is the urinary system and is also known as the urinary-genital system
• oxygen diffuses from the alveolus to the blood capillaries
• there are two kidneys that lter blood
• each kidney receives oxygenated blood with a concentration of urea from the
renal artery which branches off from the aorta
• blood that has been ltered leaves the kidney to the bladder by the ureter
• the bladder temporarily stores urine and the urine leaves the body through the
urethra
• in males, the urethra is passage for urine and semen but for females it is only for
urine

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 Structure of the kidney:

• the kidney is covered by a tough, brous, protective layer known as the capsule
- it protects the inner layers similar to how the skin protects us
• the outer most layer is the cortex
- it contains the Bowman’s capsule and the proximal convolutes tubule
- the nephron is in the cortex and it is the part of the kidney that actually lters
the blood
• the middle region is called the medulla
- it contains part of the nephron known as the loop of Henle which reabsorbs
water
• the pelvis collects all the materials that are not reabsorbed into the blood
• Structure of the nephron:
- the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney
- it is the smallest structure that is capable of ltering blood
- each kidney has thousands of nephrons
- the diameter of the afferent arteriole is larger than the diameter of the
efferent arteriole
- the rate at which you put blood into the glomerulus is faster than the rate at
which blood is removed from it

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 112

 - Glomerulus:
- it is a network of blood capillaries
- these capillaries have more pores (fenestrations) than capillaries in the rest
of the body
- the allows more leaking of substances out of the blood
- the afferent arteriole which brings blood into the glomerulus is wider than
the efferent arteriole which takes blood out
- more blood enters the glomerulus compared to the blood that comes out
and this creates high pressure which causes ultra ltration
- small molecules like glucose, water, urea and salts can move out of the
blood through capillary walls
- large structures like blood proteins and red blood cells cannot pass
through the capillary walls like small molecules
- Bowman’s capsule:
- this is a cup shaped structure which surrounds the glomerulus
- it collects material that are ltered from the glomerulus
- the uid in the Bowman’s capsule is known as the glomerular ltrate
- the glomerular ltrate contains glucose, water, urea and salts among
other things
- Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
- this is a long, thin, coiled tube near the Bowman’s capsule
- it is the site for selected reabsorption
- materials in the glomerular ltrate that are needed by the body are
reabsorbed into the blood by active transport
- all glucose is reabsorbed into the blood from the proximal convoluted
tubule by active transport
- there is no glucose in the urine of a healthy person
- the only time when there is glucose in the urine is when a person has
sugar diabetes which is when the glucose level in the blood is too high and
the body cannot reabsorb all of the glucose
- urea is very soluble so some of it diffuses it back into the blood from the
proximal convoluted tubule
- Loop of Henle:
- it is a hair pin loop which is the site for the reabsorption of water
- water is reabsorbed by osmosis
- the water will move from the loop of Henle and goes back into the blood
- the longer the loop of Henle, the greater the amount of water is
reabsorbed

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 - the loop of Henle for aquatic animals will be a lot shorter than those of
animals that live in hot, dry places
- Distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct:
- these structures play a role in regulating the amount of water in the blood
- they are under hormonal control
- on a hot day, a lot of water is lost through sweating to cool the body, the
kidneys need to reabsorb more water so a hormone known as antidiuretic
hormone (adh) is released and it makes the distal convoluted tubule and
the collecting duct more permeable to water so that water is reabsorbed
into the blood
- antidiuretic hormone makes a person produce a small amount of
concentrated urine (strong yellow in color)
- diuresis is the production of a large amount of dilute urine
- on a cold day, antidiuretic hormone is not produced therefore the distal
convoluted tubule and the collecting duct are not permeable to water
which causes the body to produce a large amount of dilute urine which is
light in color or usually colorless

Dialysis:
• when the kidneys stop working, dialysis is used to remove toxins from the body
• the dialysis machine mimics the functions of the nephron to lter toxins

• blood is drawn from a vein in the arm using a catheter

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 • an anticoagulant is added to the blood to prevent clotting
• the blood is pumped through the dialysis machine
• the machine has dialysis tubes that are made from partially permeable
membranes so that small molecules like glucose, water and salts can pass through
but large structures like blood proteins and red blood cells cannot pass through
• the dialysis tube is surrounded by dialysis uid
• the dialysis uid does not have urea to create a steep diffusion gradient for
maximum removal of urea
• fresh dialysis uid has the normal concentration of salts so that only excess salts
can diffuse out
• fresh dialysis has the normal concentration of glucose so that there is not net loss
or gain of glucose

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 Chapter 14- Coordination and Response

• this refers to the ability of the body to detect changes in the internal and external
environmental and make the correct reaction
• the nervous and endocrine systems are responsible for the coordination and
response

Nervous system:
• it is made up of:
- The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord):
- the brain controls the responses that are selected by the nervous system
- the spinal cord carries electrical impulses up and down, to and from the
brain
- The peripheral nervous system (cranial and spinal nerve):
- cranial nerves are found inside the skull and are attached to the brain
- spinal nerves connect different organs to the spinal cord

- The nerve cells (neurons):

- neurons are not the same as nerves
- nerves are made up of a group of neurons
- they are 3 different types of neurons, namely:

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 - Sensory neurons:

- the cell carries electrical impulses from sense organs to the central
nervous system
- the axon carries impulses away from the cell body
- the dendron carries impulses to the cell body
- it has its cell body in the central nervous system
- it has a long cytoplasmic extension which is surrounded by a fatty
sheath known as the myelin sheath
- the myelin sheath is made up of Schwann cells
- adjacent Schwann cells leave tiny gaps between them known as
nodes of Ranvier
- the nodes of Ranvier are the non-myelinated regions of the axon

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 - electrical impulses jump from one node of Ranvier to another in a
myelinated neuron and this is called saltatory conduction
- it makes the transmission of electrical impulses faster
- a myelinated neuron transmits impulses at 100m/s while a non-
myelinated neuron transmits impulses at 0.5m/s
- the cell body is where metabolic activities take place
- the ends of the neurons have dendrites which increase points of
contact with other neurons
- Motor neurons:

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 - the dotted line represents how long the motor neuron is
- it carries impulses from the central nervous system to effector
organs (e.g. muscles and glands)
- it carries electrical impulses which trigger effector organs to respond
- Relay neurons (interneurones):

- it is also known as the interneuron

- it is found between motor neurons and sensory neurons in the
central nervous system and it connects them
- this diagram shows a bipolar relay neurons (‘bi’ meaning it connects
two neurons only)

Re ex arc and re ex action:

• a re ex action is a very fast response to a stimulus and it does not involve
conscious control of the brain and it usually has a protective function (e.g.
removing your hand quickly after touching a hot object and the pupil re ex)
• features of a re ex action include:
1. it is very fast
2. it is automatic (does not involve the brain)
3. it always gives you the same response
4. it does not need to be learnt
5. it is usually protective in nature
• the path along which a re ex action travels is known as the re ex arc

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 • diagram of a re ex arc:

• a stimulus is detected by a sense organ which causes the generation of an

electrical impulse which travels along the sensory neuron to the central nervous
system
• the impulse is passed onto the relay neuron which in turn passes the impulse to
the motor neuron
• no impulses are passed to the brain
• the motor neuron carries impulses to the effector organs which then carry out the
response
• if the motor neuron is cut then the person can detect the stimulus but they
cannot carry out the response

Voluntary and involuntary actions:

• voluntary actions are carried out under direct control of the brain, examples
include:
- writing
- eating
- clapping
- any muscle contractions
• involuntary actions are not under direct conscious control of the brain but a
person has limited control
- these are actions that occur even if the person does not want them to happen
- some examples include:
- breathing
- blinking
- coughing

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 - sneezing
- urination
- defecation

Synapse:
• this is the point where neurons meet
• the neurons are not in physical contact, there is a small gap known as the
synaptic cleft between the neurons

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 • How impulses cross the synapse:
- when electrical impulses arrive at the pre-synaptic knob, they cause the
release of a neurotransmitter from the synaptic vessicles
- vessicles containing the neurotransmitter move and fuse with the pre-synaptic
membrane and release their contents
- the neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to the
receptors on the post-synaptic membrane
- an electrical impulse is then generated on the post-synaptic neuron
- transmission of messages across the synapse is by chemical means but
transmission along the neurons is by electrical impulses
• Roles of synapses:
- they ensure that there is unidirectional transmission of impulses
- they do this by:
1. having vessicles containing the neurotransmitter only in the pre-
synaptic neuron
2. receptors for the neurotransmitter are only found on the post-
synaptic membrane

Drugs on the nervous system:

• drugs affect the nervous system by interfering with/at the synapse
• drugs like heroin are depressants and they slow down the transmission of
impulses
• heroin prevents the sensation of pain and it does so by releasing chemicals that
mimic the body’s natural pain killers
• this prevents the release of neurotransmitter from neurons that are connected to
pain receptors

Sense organs:
• a sense organ is an energy transducer, it converts one type of energy to another
- e.g. the eye coverts light energy to electrical energy
• energy from different stimuli is converted to electrical energy and it’s transmitted
along neurons
• generally sense organs are made up of specialized tissues that can convert one
type of energy into electrical impulses

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 Sense Organ Stimulus
eye light
ear noise
tongue chemical
skin touch/pressure
nose chemical

• Structure and function of the eye:

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 - the sclera is the tough outer layer of the eye and it protects the inner parts of
the eye
- the layer beneath the sclera is the choroid which is the dark layer which
absorbs light and prevents internal re ections
- the retina is the innermost layer and it contains light sensitive cells called rods
and cones
- the rods and cones are the cells that convert light energy into electrical
impulses
- the fovea is a depression in the retina and has a very high concentration
of cones and has no rods
- cones are sensitive to light of high intensity and bring about colour vision
- there are 3 types of cones which correspond to the 3 primary colours
which bring about colour vision
- rods are sensitive to light of low intensity and they bring about black and
white vision
- rods are found throughout the retina except at the fovea and the blind
spot
- the blind spot has no light sensitive cells as it is the point where the optic
nerve leaves for the brain
- the optic nerve is the nerve that carries electrical impulses to the brain
- the cornea is the transparent disc in the front of the eye and to refract the
light before it enters the eye
- there is a thin membrane in front of the cornea called the conjunctiva which
protects the cornea
- the lens is a biconvex disc made of living materials and it refracts light so that
the focus falls on the retina
- it is suspended in its place by suspensory ligament attached to the ciliary
muscle

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 - the iris is the colored part of the eye and it has circular and radial muscle
which are antagonistic muscle (a pair of muscles that work together)
- the iris has a hole in the middle which allows light to enter the eye
- this hole is known as the pupil

Distribution of rods and cones on the retina:

• the blind spot is where the optic nerve leaves for the brain
• there are no rods and cones on the blind spot
• if the focus of an image falls on the blind spot, it cannot be seen
• there is a low concentration of cones throughout the retina but the highest
concentration of cones is in the fovea
• rods are unevenly distributed throughout the retina
• there are no rods on the fovea and the blind spot
• when an object is being analyzed, it’s image falls on the fovea

Pupil re ex:
• when a person is in bright light, the pupil constricts (becomes smaller)
- this prevents too much light from getting into the eye and that prevents
damage to the retina
- to constrict the pupil, the radial muscles relax and the circular muscles
contract
• when a person is in dim light, the pupil dilates (becomes bigger)
- this allows enough light to enter the eye and reach the retina
- to dilate the pupil, the radial muscles contract and the circular muscles relax

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 Accommodation:
• accommodation refers to the bending/refraction of light by the lens so that the
focus falls on the retina
• the lens is a converging lens (biconvex lens)
• if the lens is thin, the focal length increases and becomes longer
• if the lens is thick, the focal length decreases and becomes shorter
• When viewing distant objects:
- light rays from a distant object are parallel by the time they reach the eye
- for the focus to be put on the retina, the rays need to refracted by a small
angle which is why the lens needs to be thin
- the lens has to be thin for the focus to fall on the retina
- the thin lens is brought about by the relaxing of ciliary muscles and this
causes suspensory ligament to be tight
• When viewing near objects:
- light rays from a near object diverge (spread out)
- to bring the focus of the rays to the retina, the lens needs to be thick so that
the focal length is short
- the thickening of the lens is brought about by the contraction of ciliary
muscles which makes suspensory ligaments to be slackened

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 127

 Hormones in humans:
• a hormone is a chemical that is produced by a gland
• it is released directly into the blood in very small amounts
• it has an effect on a speci c target organ
• glands that produce hormones are called endocrine glands
• endocrine glands are ductless, they don’t have tubes
• examples of endocrine glands:

Gland Hormone Target Organs Effecr

Produced
adrenal adrenaline muscles, respiratory increase rate of
system organs, liver, breathing, heart rate
eye, heart and respiration in
muscle cells
testes testosterone sex organs development of male
sex organs, facial hair
and change in voice
ovaries estrogen sex organs development of
female sex organs,
regulates menstrual
cycle
pancreas insulin all cells controls blood glucose
by lowering blood
glucose levels
pancreas glucagon all cells increases blood
glucose, stimulates the
breakdown of
glycogen and fat

• Adrenaline:
- it is referred to as the ‘ ght or ight’ hormone
- this is because it is released in response to fear or anxiety
- fear can arise on a person being attacked
- anxiety can arise before a race
- responses to adrenaline prepares the body to defend itself or get away from
danger
- adrenaline increases the rate of respiration in liver cells

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 - glycogen stored in the liver is converted into glucose and this glucose is used
for respiration
- some of the glucose gets into the bloodstream and goes to muscles and
other respiring cells
- adrenaline causes pupils to dilate and more light enters the eyes so the person
can easily escape
- adrenaline increase the rate and depth of breathing
- more oxygen is taken in and more carbon dioxide is removed
- adrenaline increases the heart rate so that more oxygen and glucose can be
supplied to respiring tissues
- the release of adrenaline also increases the removal of metabolic wastes such
as carbon dioxide and lactic acid

Comparison of nervous and endocrine system:

Feature Nervous System Endocrine System

duration of effect (longevity) effect is short-lived effect is usually long-lasting

speed faster relatively slower

pathway of message nerve cells blood
type of message electrical impulses (and chemicals (hormones)
chemicals at the synapse)
target organs speci c muscle or gland usually has several target
organs

Homeostasis:
• ‘homeo’ refers to inside/home and ‘stasis’ refers to unchanging/static
• homeostasis is the maintenance of a fairly constant internal environment
• it is important to maintain the internal environment within narrow limits because
enzymes work best at certain optimum conditions
• when enzymes work best, metabolic reactions are ef cient
• Conditions that are kept constant by homeostasis:
- blood glucose concentration
- if the blood glucose concentration is too high, the water potential outside
the blood cells will be slow so the water will move out of the blood cells by
osmosis which in turn can also lower the water potential of tissue uid
- if blood is too dilute. water can enter blood cells by osmosis and they burst
- temperature

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 - if the temperature is too low, metabolic reactions become too slow and the
person cannot survive
- if the temperature is too high, enzymes are denatured
• homeostasis is maintained by a negative feedback mechanism

• Diagram of a negative feedback loop:

- parameters/factors are kept within a certain optimum point known as the set
point
- when the level of a parameter/factor rises above the set point, it is detected
by receptors which then send a message to effectors which a going to cause a
fall in the parameter/factor
- when the level of a parameter falls below a set point, it is detected by
receptors which then send a message to effector that trigger a series of
changes that cause a rise in the level of a parameter/factor
- in negative feedback, a change in the level of a parameter/factor trigger an
opposing effect which brings back the level of the parameter/factor to the set
point
• Maintenance of blood glucose concentration:
- the normal blood glucose concentration is 100mg per 100 cubic centimeters
of blood
- a rise in blood glucose concentration is caused by meal that is rich in
carbohydrates

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 - the rise is detected by alpha cells ( beta cells (β) the pancreas in regions
known as islets on Langerhans
- beta cells respond by producing the hormone, insulin
- insulin triggers a series of reactions which lower blood glucose
concentration and these include:
- the liver increases its use of glucose as a respiratory substrate
- formation of glycogen in the liver increases (glycogenesis)
- uptake of glucose by muscles cells increases
- when blood glucose falls below the set point threshold, the fall is detected
by alpha and beta cells
- beta cells respond by not producing insulin
- alpha cella respond by hormone, glucagon
- glycogen (stored in the liver) is broken down to glucose and the glucose
diffuses into the blood (aka glycogenolysis)
- the use of glucose for respiration is reduced
- fats and proteins are used for respiration

Diabetes:
• this is a medical condition where the body does not make enough insulin or does
not make insulin at all
• diabetes mellitus is also known as sugar diabetes or type 1 diabetes
• it starts of when the person is young so it is also called juvenile-onset diabetes
• the body fails to make insulin or produces insuf cient insulin
- this is because the body makes antibodies against beta cells and destroys them
• type 1 diabetes is an example on an autoimmune disease
• Diagnosis:
- a blood glucose test is done using a biosensor
- a test strip is used to detect the presence of glucose on the urine
- a biosensor which directly tests the concentration of glucose in the blood is
better than a test strip because the test strip shows glucose concentration
when urine was formed, not at the present moment

The skin and temperature regulation:

• the skin is the largest organ
• it is a layer that covers the body and prevent the entry of pathogens
• it is the rst line of defense against pathogens since it’s a physical barrier
• the skin plays a role in regulating body temperature
• its structure shows adaptations for its role in temperature regulation

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 Diagram showing the structure of skin:

Adaptations of the skin:

• there is a layer of fat at the bottom of the skin known as adipose fat
- it insulates against heat loss
• the skin has specialized nerve ending which act as receptors for temperature,
touch and pain
• the skin has arterioles and blood capillaries
- the arterioles can dilate (become wider) or constrict (become narrower) in
order to regulate the amount of blood that ows to the surface of the skin
- vasodilation increases the amount of blood that ows to the surface of the
skin
- vasoconstriction decreases the amount of blood that ows to the surface of
the skin
• the skin has sweat glands
- they are associated with blood capillaries so that they can respond according
to the body temperature
- the sweat gland has a sweat duct which carries sweat to the surface of the
skin

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 - How sweating cools down the body:
- when sweat is produced it covers the skin
- when sweat evaporates, heat to make it evaporate is taken from the body
and that cools the body
• the skin has hair and hair erector muscles
- when hair erector muscles contract, the hair stand upright/erect
- when hair erector muscles, the hair lies at on the skin
• Role of the skin when it is cold:
- receptors in the skin detect when the temperature is cold and send an impulse
to the brain
- the brain selects responses to increase the body temperature and these
include:
- muscles in the body con tract involuntarily (shivering)
- contraction requires energy so the rate of respiration increases and
respiration produces heat
- sweat glands do not produce sweat
- arterioles in the skin constrict
- this allows less blood to ow to the surface of the skin
- this reduces heat loss by radiation, conduction and convection

Coordination and control of plants:

• plants are capable of detecting changes in their environment and making
appropriate changes
• some plants such as the Venus ytrap can respond to touch
• plants can also respond to light and gravity
- the plant’s response to light is known as phototropism
- the plant’s response to gravity is known as gravitropism
• a tropism/tropic response is a response by part of a plant to an external stimulus
• Phototropism:

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 - shoot tips show positive phototropism as they grow towards light
- if a plant is grown in an environment where light comes from one direction
(unidirectional light), then it will grow towards the light
- Advantages of phototropism:
- more leaves are exposed to light
- leaves receive more energy for photosynthesis
- more carbohydrates are made and there will be more growth
- How positive phototropism is brought about:
- a plant growth substance known as auxin (plant hormones) brings about
positive phototropism in shoot tips
- auxin is made by the shoot tips only
- when light comes from one direction, the auxin moves to the side that is in
the shade
- the unidirectional light causes an uneven distribution of auxin
- auxin causes the side in the shade to grow faster than the side that is
exposed to the light
- the auxin causes cell elongation (the cells become longer)

- this response is a growth response

- Experiment to show that uneven distribution of auxin causes
tropic response:

- a shoot is cut just below the tip

- and an agar block is placed to collect the auxin

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 - agar blocks is placed unevenly on cut shoots as shown in B and C
- A is a control
- after some days, the shoots appear as shown by A1, B1 and C1

- uneven distribution of auxin caused growth responses

- auxin diffuses from the air block to one side of the shoots
- the side that receives more auxin grows more causing the shoot to bend
- if there is no auxin, there will be no growth as shown by the control
- if a shoot tip is covered by material that blocks light, the plant will be
unable to respond and this shows that the shoot tip is responsible for
detecting light and making auxin
• Gravitropism:
- How root tips respond to gravity:
- root tips grow towards gravity
- they show positive gravitropism
- roots shows negative phototropism (away from light)
- to investigate gravitropism in roots, the experiment must be done in the
dark to avoid possible responses to light
- if a root is placed in a horizontal position, it will grow downwards towards
gravity
- this occurs because auxin accumulates on the lower side of the root
due to the pool of gravity
- in the roots, auxin slows down growth unlike in the shoot tips
- the lower side of the root grows slower than the upper side causing the
root to bend downwards
- the advantages of root growing towards gravity:
- it helps to the keep the plant in the ground
- it helps the plant to absorb more water and mineral ions
• Synthetic weed killers:
- the chemical 2.4D is a synthetic auxin
- the full name is 2.4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
- it is used to kill weeds
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 - most crops such as cereals are monocots
- cereals are grasses that have edible seeds
- e.g. maize, rice and sorghum
- most weeds are dicots
- 2.4D is sprayed onto a eld and it only affects dicots
- it causes the dicots (weeds) to grow very fast such that they are unable to
support themselves with their stems
- this causes them to fall over and die

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 Chapter 15- Drugs

Drugs:
• a drug is a substance that is externally administered
• it alters the metabolic functions of the body
• they can be medicinal or abused
• Medicinal drugs:
- these are drugs used for medicinal purposes
- they include antipyretic drugs, anti-in ammation drugs, antibiotics,
analgesics etc.
- Antibiotics:
- these are made from fungus extracts (e.g. penicillin)
- the fungus, penicillium chrysogenum produces the substance penicillin,
which kills bacteria
- penicillin weakens the cell walls, such that bacterial cells burst when water
moves in by osmosis
- Antibiotic resistance:
- there is an increasing number of bacteria becoming resistant to
antibiotics
- this increases the number of deaths from bacterial infections and
prolongs treatment
- How antibiotic resistance arises:
- there is variation amongst bacteria populations
- some naturally have a greater survival chance (some bacteria produce
penicillinase to digest penicillin)
- some bacteria mutate (change DNA bases) and become resistant
- when antibiotics are introduced, some bacteria die and the resistant
ones survive, this is called natural selection (survival of the ttest)
- resistant bacteria reproduce and pass on genes to the next generation
and new populations of resistant strains are formed

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 - if you stop taking antibiotics in the 3rd step, the resistant bacteria will
multiply and you will have many more resistant bacteria
- How to reduce development of antibiotic resistance:
- avoid the overuse of antibiotics (don’t use antibiotics for viral
infections)
- take prescribed antibiotics until the prescription is over so that all
bacteria die
- always keep one antibiotics as an antibiotic of last resort (most
hospitals keep methicillin as the last resort)
- Methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA):
- s. aureus is responsible for many infections (e.g. skin infections)
- the antibiotic methicillin is kept and used for severe cases of s. aureus
- cases of methicillin resistant s. aureus have been recorded
- MRSA is a threat to humans and shows how serious it is
• Misused drugs:
- these are drugs used in the wrong ways
- Alcohol:
- it is a depressant of the nervous system
- a depressant slows down the nervous system (the reaction time increases)
and it is dangerous to operate machinery under the in uence of alcohol
(driving)
- Effects of excessive alcohol consumption:
- addiction (alcoholism) is when the body is dependent on alcohol
- liver cirrhosis is when the functional part of the liver is reduced and
turned into bre
- brain damage
- liver cancer
- social problems as alcohol can tear apart families
- Cigarettes:
- the main chemicals in cigarette smoke are carbon monoxide (CO), tar and
nicotine
- Effects of carbon monoxide:
- it permanently binds to haemoglobin and this reduces the oxygen
carrying capacity of haemoglobin
- it damages the lining of blood vessels leading to their narrowing and
increasing the risk of coronary thrombosis
- Effects of tar:
- it paralyses cilia which leads to the accumulation of mucus and makes
a person more prone to infection

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 - tar contains carcinogens (cancer causing chemicals) such as
benzopyrene which damages DNA
- tar increases the risk of getting lung cancer
- Effects of nicotine:
- it causes addiction, increases the stickiness of platelets leading to
coronary thrombosis
- it increases heart rate and narrows blood vessels which leads to an
increase in blood pressure
- an increased blood pressure increases the risk of stroke, heart attack
and kidney damage
- Smoking and pregnancy:
- babies born from mothers who smoked during pregnancy have an
average low birth weight
- smoking narrows the umbilical arteries so it reduces the supply of
oxygen and nutrients to the fetus
- cigarette smoking can be active or passive
- passive smoke is not ltered and so it is more dangerous as it has more
toxins in it
- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD):
- this refers to diseases that cause the blocking or narrowing of the
respiratory system and are usually irreversible (e.g. chronic bronchitis
or emphysema)
- emphysema is characterized by the breaking down of the walls in the
alveolus
- this reduces the surface area available for gaseous exchange
- a person with emphysema becomes bed ridden and get easily tired
- chronic bronchitis is characterized by a thick mucus blocking the
bronchioles
- the prevalence of COPD is higher in smokers than non-smokers
- Heroine:
- it is taken intravenously and is a depressant
- it slows down the nervous system and causes euphoria
- euphoria is the feeling of surreal happiness and excitement
- it is also a painkiller
- it can causes addiction in 2 weeks

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 - How it affects the nervous system:

- heroine acts as a neurotransmitter on synaptic pathways that

suppresses pain
- the body can stop making the natural neurotransmitter if there is a lot
of heroine and this causes addiction
- cicetylchkoline is a common neurotransmitter (NH16O2+)
- Effects of using heroine:
- causes addiction
- has severe withdrawal symptoms
- users can have collapsed veins and infections on points of application
- people resort to crime in order to get money for the drug
- there is a risk of getting HIV or AIDS by sharing needles
• Drug abuse in sports:
- testosterone and anabolic steroids are the most commonly abused drugs in
sports
- testosterone is androgenic, as it brings about male characteristics
- e.g. an increase in bone density and muscle mass
- anabolic steroids mimic testosterone and also result in signi cant increases in
muscle mass
- this gives athletes advantages during competitions
- Effects of steroids:
- they are illegal so a person can be arrested
- an athlete can be banned from pro sports
- they have severe side effects like:
- increased risk of heart attack
- acne breakout
- development of breast tissue in males (gynecomastia)
- mood swings and aggressive behavior (road rage)
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 Chapter 16- Reproduction

Asexual reproduction:
• reproduction is when organisms make more of the same type of organism
• asexual reproduction is when new organisms are formed without the fusion of
sex cells (gametes)
• asexual reproduction makes genetically identical organisms
• examples include:
I. Vegetative propagation:
- this is when a part of a plant (e..g branch, stem or tuber) develops into a new
plant
II. Mitosis in yeast:
- this is a type of nuclear division which produces genetically identical
daughter cells
- yeast is a single celled organisms, so when cells divide, the yeast will be
reproducing
III.Fungi in spore formation:
- most fungi reproduce by spore formation
- spores are not seeds, they are just structures formed by mitosis
• Advantages of asexual reproduction:
- it is fast
- this is because there is no need for seed formation
- it produces genetically identical offspring
- if the parent is adapted for the environment then the offspring will also b
adapted
- for crop plants, they would have the same characteristics as the parent
plants and this can be desirable
- it uses less energy
- this is because there is no need for seed and fruit formation
- it requires on parent
- this increases the chances of survival
-
• Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:
- there is no variation
- when there is a change in the environment, there is a high chance that all
the organisms will die

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 - there is more competition
- this is because the plants are not spread from the parent plant

Sexual reproduction in plants:

• this is the formation of new organisms from existing organisms involving the
fusion of the nuclei of sex cells (gametes)
• Advantages of sexual reproduction:
- there is genetic variation
- this is due to meiosis, random fertilization and random mating
- organisms are likely to be adapted to that environment
-
- there is a higher chance of survival if the environment changes
-
-
• Disadvantages of sexual reproduction:
- it wastes a lot of energy
- this is due to the formation of a lot of pollen grains which is not
guaranteed to fertilize a plant
- it is slow
-
- it may require two organisms
-

Structure of a insect-pollinated ower (bisexual ower):

• the ower has the reproductive systems of owering plants
• owers show adaptations to their role in reproduction

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 • B and E are both wind-pollinated owers not insect-pollinated
• Petal:
- this is the brightly colored part of a ower
- it attracts insects
- there are guide lines that are invisible to the humans eye but visible to insects
- these guidelines help insects to land on the ower
• Sepal:
- these are modi ed green leaves at the bottom of the ower
- they protect the ower bud before it blooms
• Stalk:
- it is a thing structure that attaches the ower to the plant
• Nectar gland/nectary:
- it is a structure inside the petals at the bottom of the ower
- it produces a sweet, sugary substance called nectar
- nectar has a scent that attracts insects
- insects visits owers to collect nectar because they use it as food

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 • Stamen:
- it is the male part of the ower
- it has the anther and the lament
- the anther produces male sex cells (gametes) known as pollen grains
- the lament is a thin stalk which supports the anther
• Carpel/pistil:
- it is the female part of the ower
- it is divided into the stigma, the styles, the ovary and the ovules
- the stigma for an insect-pollinated ower is broad and sticky
- it receives pollen grains during pollination
- the style is a stalk that supports the stigma and the pollen tube grows through
it
- the ovary is at the bottom of the carpel and contains ovules which contain
the female nucleus
- a fertilized ovule develops into a seed
- a mature ovary develops into a fruit
- fruits play a role in seed dispersal (spreading of seeds from the parent plant)
- dispersal allows plants to colonize new areas and reduces competition for
nutrients

Pollination:
• this is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
• Agents of pollination:
- this refers to the mechanisms that facilitate the process of pollination
- the two main agents of pollination are insects and wind
- the structure of a ower shows adaptations to its agent of pollination
- the bisexual ower is an insect-pollinated ower
- features that shows adaptability for insect-pollination:
1. the presence of nectar and nectar glands
2. the large and brightly colored petals with guidelines for insects
3. the stigma is broad and sticky and it is inside the petals
4. the laments are short and the anther is inside the petals
5. the pollen grains are relatively large and rough
• How insects pollinate owers:
1. insects are attracted by the bright color and the scent
2. insects such as bees land on the petals and move towards the nectar glands
following the guidelines on the petals which are invisible to the human eye
3. body parts of insects such as the legs have hair like structures to which
pollen grains attach because they are rough

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 4. when the insect moves out, pollen grains attached to the legs of the insect
are rubbed onto the stigma of the same ower or of a different ower
5. since the stigma is sticky, the pollen grains stay on the stigma
• Structure of a wind-pollinated bisexual ower:

- adaptation of wind-pollinated owers include:

1. there are no nectar glands and nectar, hence there is no scent
2. there are small and dull petals
3. the stigma is feathery so that it can catch pollen grains in the wind
4. long laments so that they can be easily blown about by the wind and
the anthers are outside the petals
5. the pollen grains are very small (powder like) and smooth which allows
them to blown away by the wind

• Pollen grains:

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 - the pollen grain on the left in for a wind-pollinated ower and the pollen
grain on the right is for an insect-pollinated ower
- the actual size of a wind-pollinated pollen grain according to the picture
above is 55 micrometers
- the actual size of an insect-pollinated pollen grain according to the picture
above is 245 micrometers
- pollen grains of an insect-pollinated ower are larger than pollen grains of a
wind pollinated ower
- pollen grains of an insect-pollinated ower have a rough surface while pollen
grains of a wind pollinated ower have a smooth surface
• Types of pollination:
- there are two types of pollination, self-pollination and cross-pollination
- Self-pollination:
- it is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same
ower or different ower on the same plant

- Advantages of self-pollination:
1. if the plant is adapted to the environment, it will spread and colonies
it better
2. only one plant is needed
3. there is a greater chance than pollination will occur
4. reproduction and fertilization are successful even if there are no other
plants of the same species nearby
5. there is less wastage of pollen
6. it is not dependent on insects or wind for pollination

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 - Disadvantages of self-pollination:
1. there is little to no variation
2. there is a high chance of the plant becoming homozygous
3. there is less chance of adapting to changing environmental conditions
4. there is a high risk of extinction since there is little ability to evolve
5. there is an increased chance of genetic disease occurring since all of
the plants are susceptible to the same diseases
6. if there is a change in the environment, all organisms all likely to die
- Cross-pollination:
- this is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one ower to the
stigma on a ower on a different plant of the same species

- Advantages of cross-pollination:
1. it mixes genes of different plants
2. this brings about variation in offspring
3. offspring can successfully colonies different has iata so that they have
a wider distribution
4. wider distribution prevents overcrowding thus reducing competition
5. they can easily adapt when there is a change in the environment
- Disadvantages of cross-pollination:
- it may require two plants (e.g. for dioecious plants)
- it may require a pollinating agent (e.g. bees)

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 Fertilisation:
• fertilization is the fusion of male and female sex cells to form a zygote
• the sex cells are haploid (n) and the zygote is diploid (2n)

- when a pollen grain lands on a compatible stigma (on a plant of the same
species) it develops a pollen tube which grows down the style to the ovary
- the male nucleus which is in the pollen grain will move down the pollen tube
to the ovary
- in the ovary, the male and female nuclei fuse to form a zygote
• a fertilized ovule matures into a seed and the ovary becomes a fruit
• fruits help disperse seeds away from the parent plant
- this reduces competition for sunlight, water and nutrients
- it allows plants to colonies new areas
• when the ovary becomes a fruit, the petals and sepals wither and die

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 Germination:
• germination is the development of a seed into a seedling
• Conditions necessary for germination:
1. Optimum temperature (it varies for different types of plants):
- optimum temperature ensures that the enzymes work ef ciently
2. Oxygen:
- oxygen is required for aerobic respiration in the embryo
3. Water (moisture):
- water activates the production of enzymes in the seed (e.g. amylase and
maltase)
- amylase breaks down starch to maltose and maltase breaks down
maltose to glucose
- the glucose is then used for respiration by the growing embryo

Experiment to show that oxygen, water and optimum temperature are

needed for germinate:

• in test tube B, all the seeds germinate because there is oxygen, water and the
optimum temperature
• in test tube A, there is no germination because there is no water/moisture
• in test tube C, there is no germination because there is no oxygen
• in test tube D, there is no germination because the temperature is not optimum

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 Sexual reproduction in humans:
• Structure of the male reproductive system:

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 - Testicles:
- these are two ball-like structures that are suspended close to the body in a
pouch called the scrotal sac or scrotal pouch
- the testicles produce sperm and also the male hormone testosterone
- testosterone brings about secondary male characteristics
- Scrotum:
- the scrotum contains the testes
- they hang to ensure the optimum temperature for sperm production as
the optimum temperature is below average body temperature
- Sperm duct:
- it is a tiny tube which carries sperms from the testes to the base of the
penis
- it is cut and dries in a vasectomy (male sterilization)
- Penis:
- the role of the penis is to pass sperm/semen into the vagina
- another role of the penis is to urinate
- it contains spongy erectile tissue which gets lled with blood to give an
erection when a male is sexually aroused
- Erectile tissue:
- it is a spongy tissue which lls up with blood to give a male an erection
when they are sexually aroused
- Prostate gland:
- the prostate gland adds uid to sperm in order to create semen
- they also provide nutrients to the sperm
- Seminal vessicle gland:
- it is a gland that also secretes uid to form semen
- Urethra:
- the urethra carries semen and urine out of the body
- Epididymis:
- the epididymis is a mass of tubes that store the sperms

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 • Structure of the female reproductive system:

- Ovary:
- this is known as the female reproductive organ
- it produces the female gametes (egg cells) by meiosis
- it also produces the hormones, estrogen and progesterone
- Fallopian tube (ovi duct):
- this is the site of fertilization
- it transports the zygote (fertilized egg) to the uterus by two ways:
- the ciliary cells waft and move the egg slowly
- the muscles of the ova duct contract and relax in the form of peristalsis
to move the egg
- Uterus wall ( ? ):
- it is a muscular wall
- it contracts and relaxes which causes movement and pushes the baby out
of the uterus

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 - Uterus lining (endometrium):
- it is a soft, spongy layer
- it has many blood vessels
- this is the site for the implantation of the embryo
- the blood vessels provide oxygen and nutrients to the embryo
- Uterus:
-
- Cervix:
- this is a ring of muscles
- when it contracts, it closes and separates the uterus and the vagina
- Vagina:
- it is a muscular tube
- it links the uterus to the outside
- it is also known as the birth canal
• Sex cells (gametes):
- Sperm cell (male gamete):

- the acrosome is a vessicle that contains hydrolytic enzymes which digest

the jelly costing of the egg cell in order for the nuclei of the sperm to
enter the egg cell
- the mitochondria provides energy for the sperm to swim by aerobic
respiration
- the mid-piece and the tail fall off and separate from the head and diffuse
out of the body
- Egg cell (female gamete):
-

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 Table of differences between egg cells and sperm cells
Features: Sperm cell: Egg cell:
Mobility it can move/swim it cannot move by itself
Relative size smaller than the egg cell larger than the sperm cell
Numbers millions are produced per only one is produced per
ejaculation month

• Sexual intercourse:
- when a male is sexually aroused, blood ows to the spongy erectile tissue in
the penis and it becomes erect
- an erect penis is inserted into the vagina and semen ( uid containing sperms)
is released into the upper parts of the vagina, close to the cervix
• Fertilization:
- this is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female
gamete (egg cell) to form a zygote
- the gametes are haploid and the zygote is diploid
• Early development:
- this is the development that occurs immediately after fertilization
- the zygote divides by mitosis to form a ball of cells known as the blastocyst
- some cells of the blastocyst form supporting structures such as the placenta
and other cells form the embryo
- the placenta is the region where the exchange of materials between the fetus
and the mother occurs
- the process of the formation of the placenta is known as implantation
- implantation occurs 72 hours after fertilization and happens in the uterus
lining
- when implantation occurs, the woman is said to be pregnant
• Pregnancy:
- this is the time between implantation and childbirth
- it takes 9 months
- during pregnancy, there is exchange of materials between the fetus and the
mother through the placenta by diffusion
- the maternal and fetal circulatory systems are separated but are in close
contact
- the mother’s blood and the fetus’s do not mix

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 - oxygen, nutrients and antibodies cross from the maternal circulation to the
fetal circulation
- harmful substances present in the maternal circulation can also cross to
the fetal circulation and these include; viruses (HIV or the rubella virus)
and drugs (nicotine and heroine)
- carbon dioxide and waste materials diffuse from the fetal circulation to the
maternal circulation
- during pregnancy, the fetus is surrounded by amniotic uid
- this is produced and stored by the amniotic sac
- the roles of amniotic uid include:
- it protects the fetus from mechanical shock, therefore reducing the risk
of physical injuries to the fetus
- it has buoyancy and allows the fetus to oat
- it collects wastes from the fetus
- it helps to maintain constant temperature around the fetus

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 • Child birth:
- it occurs after 9 months of pregnancy
- the walls of the uterus start to contract
- the amniotic sac ruptures and the amniotic uid comes out through the
vagina
- the contractions then increase in intensity and frequency and the cervix
dilates
- the woman pushes the baby out through the vagina (birth canal)
- normally, the baby comes out with the head rst
- the umbilical cord will still attached to the baby so it is tied and cut
- the placenta is delivered immediately after as the afterbirth
- the time when the contractions starts util the baby is born is known as labour
• Antenatal care:
- this refers to the care that is given to the baby after it has been born
- the baby breastfeeds until about 18 months
- the duration of breastfeeding depends on the mother’s choices
- the mother can also give the baby formula milk
- in the rst weeks of breastfeeding, a pale yellow liquid comes out and is
known as colostrum
- it is very rich in nutrients and contains a lot of antibodies
- Advantages of breastfeeding compared to formula milk:
- it contains antibodies
- it always has the correct temperature
- it is free and readily available
- it offers a balanced diet for the baby
- it strengthens the bond between the baby and the mother
- Disadvantages of breastfeeding compared to formula milk:
- viruses (e.g. HIV) can be passed on to the baby
- it causes mastitis, which is the in ammation of the mammary glands
(nipples)
• Menstrual cycle:
- the refers to the sequence of events inside the body of a female
approximately every 28 days
- there are events that occur in the uterus called the uterine cycle and there are
events that occur in the ovaries called the ovarian cycle
- these events are synchronized through the actions of four hormones to sync
the two cycles

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 - Days 1-5:
- the lining of the wall of the uterus breaks down
- blood comes out through the vagina and this is known as menstruation or
the “period”
- day 1 of the menstrual cycle is the rst day when blood comes out from
the vagina
- the anterior (front part) pituitary gland produces follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) and this triggers the development of many follicles in the
ovaries
- follicles are structures that contain the egg
- only one follicle grows to maturity and it starts producing the hormone,
oestrogen
- oestrogen suppresses the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone
- Days 6-13:
- the lining of the uterus develops until it reaches a level that can support
implantation by around day 13
- the hormone oestrogen, triggers the development and repair of the lining
if the uterus
- the follicle matures until it is ready to release the egg inside it

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 - Day 14:
- this is the day ovulation occurs
- ovulation is the release of an egg from the ovary into the fallopian tube
- the rise in oestrogen triggers a surge in the level of luteinizing hormone
(LH)
- the surge in luteinizing hormone triggers ovulation
- the mucus plugging the cervix becomes less viscous and thinner
- body temperature rises by 0.5ºC
- the egg cell will last for about 24 hours which will breakdown after
- Days 15-28:
- the empty follicle is known as the corpus luteum and it starts making the
hormone, progesterone
- progesterone maintains the lining of the uterus
- as the corpus luteum breaks down, there is less progesterone and
eventually the lining of the uterus breaks down
• Birth control:
- this is the process of avoiding pregnancy
- it is done to preserve the health of the mother
- it allows people to have children only when they able to look after them
- there are four categories of birth control namely; natural methods, barrier
methods, chemical methods and surgical methods
1. Natural methods:
- all the natural methods can be used together to increase the
effectiveness of birth control
- natural methods include:
- Monitoring cervical mucus:
- the mucus becomes thinner (less viscous) on the day of ovulation
- Monitoring body temperature:
- the body temperature rises by 0.5ºC on the day of ovulation
- Abstinence:
- this is avoiding sexual intercourse at speci c times during the
menstrual cycle
- e.g. a couple would avoid intercourse around the time of
ovulation
- Advantages of natural methods:
- does not violate religious beliefs
- Disadvantages of natural methods:
- it does not prevent the spread of STI’s and STD’s

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 - it is unreliable because the menstrual cycle can be irregular due to
stress and synchronicity
2. Barrier methods:
- Males and female condoms:
- the male condom is a rubber sheath that is worn over an erect penis
- if the penis is not erect then the condom cannot be worn
- the female condom is a rubber sheath with two loops, one loop os
used to insert it into the vagina and the other loop allows it to rest
on the labia (vulva)
- they work by trapping sperms so that they do not meet with the egg
- Advantages:
- it is very ef cient when used correctly and consistently
- it prevents the spread of STI’s including HIV/AIDS
- Disadvantages:
- some people believe that they encourage ? therefore they violate
some people’s religious beliefs
- Diaphragm:
- this is a cup shaped structure that is worn over the cervix
- it prevents sperms from entering the uterus
- Advantages:
- it can be used for a long time (3 months)
- it still allows menstrual blood to leave
- Disadvantages:
- it does not prevent the transmission of STI’s

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 3. Chemical methods:
- The pill:
- these are 28 pills, 21 of them have a high concentration of
oestrogen and progesterone
- these hormones suppress the follicle stimulating hormone and
therefore prevent follicles from developing so that there is no egg to
fertilize
- the progesterone helps to maintain the lining of the uterus
- 7 of the pills have a different color and a lower concentration of
hormones and these pills allow menstruation to occur and it mimics
the body’s natural cycle
- IUS (intra uterine system):
- this is a T shaped structure that is inserted in the uterus and it
contains hormones
- it slowly releases hormones into the uterus
- these hormones prevent the thickening of the uterus lining and
therefore prevents implantation and pregnancy
- IUD (intra uterine device):
- this is a T shaped structure that has a copper coil wrapped around
it
- the copper irritates the lining of the uterus and prevents
implantation and pregnancy
- Injection and implant:
- the injection contains oestrogen and progesterone and it is
deposited in the fat tissue
- the implant contains the same hormones and is put under the skin
- they both release hormone slowly into the blood
- they prevent the development of follicles
- Advantages/disadvantages of chemical methods:
- these chemical methods are highly effective
- but they can have side effect such as weight gain and headaches

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 4. Surgical methods:
- Vasectomy:
- this is the cutting and tying of the sperm duct (vas deference)
- it is very dif cult and almost impossible to reverse
- it prevents sperms from being released
- Female sterilization:
- this is cutting or tying the fallopian tubes (tubal ligation)
- it prevents sperms from reaching the egg
- Advantages of surgical methods:
- they are highly effective
- Disadvantages of surgical methods:
- they are invasive surgeries
- it is permanent and almost impossible to reverse
- it does not prevent STD’s and STI’s
• Infertility:
- a couple is said to be infertile if they failed to have a child within 12 months
of trying
- Causes of infertility in females:
- the woman could have reached menopause
- failure to release enough follicle stimulating hormone such that follicles
are not formed and eggs are not released
- the fallopian tubes may be blocked (possibly due to a previous STI)
- failure of thickening of the uterus lining, the lining develops but doesn’t
have the thickness to have an embryo implant
- this can be caused an insuf cient amount of progesterone produced
- Causes of infertility in males:
- blocked sperm ducts due a previous STI
- deformed sperm calls due to trauma to the testes (e.g. badly formed
agellum so it cannot swim to the egg)
- low sperm count
- Treatment of infertility:
- infertility can be treated through in vitro fertilization (AVF) or arti cial
insemination (AI)
- In vitro fertilisation (IVF):
- a woman is given drugs that stimulate the production of follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) in the early stages if her cycle
- two weeks later, the woman is given luteinizing hormone (LH) to
stimulate ovulation
- the eggs are then collected from the ovaries

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 - sperms are collected from the male
- the eggs are sperms are mixed to allow fertilization to occur
- the zygote is allowed to divide to form a ball of cells (blastocyst) which
is the embryo
- the embryo is then implanted in the uterus

- Arti cial insemination (AI):

- a doctor may decide that arti cial insemination is the best method to
treat infertility
- arti cial insemination involves the placement of sperms in the uterus
so that they can fertilize the egg and this has to be done at a time when
the egg is available for fertilization
- the woman is given drugs to stimulate the release of folic stimulating
hormone (FSH)
- drugs that mimic follicle stimulating hormone can also be given
- ovulation is stimulated by giving luteinizing hormone two weeks after
the drugs that mimc follicle stimulating hormone has been given
- after ovulation is triggered, sperms are introduced in the uterus
- this increases the chances of fertilization as compared to
introducing the sperms in the vagina

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 - Social implications of contraception and fertility treatments:
- fertility treatments allow people who have not had the chance to have a
child to have the opportunity to be able have a biological child
- fertility treatments can cause multiple births
- contraception allows women to maintain good health by not having a
child every year
- contraception also allows women to focus on their education and careers
- contraception can make a woman struggle to fall pregnant after coming
out of it
• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs):
- these are infections that are transmitted through sexual intercourse or any
other sexual contact that results in the exchange in bodily uids such as
vaginal secretions, semen and blood
- an example of an STI is human immunode ciency virus (HIV/AIDS)
- HIV is spread by:
- unprotected sexual intercourse
- sharing of infected sharp objects such as needles by drug users
- breastfeeding or birth from mother to child
- HV destroys white blood cells and the body becomes unable to produce a
suf cient amount of antibodies to ght of the virus and it is susceptible to
opportunistic infections
- opportunistic diseases include tuberculosis (TB), meningitis and some types
of cancer
- HIV can be prevented by:
- abstinence (not having sex at all)
- being faithful to one partner as having multiple partners increases the risk
of spreading HIV
- the correct and consistence use of condoms (female and male condoms)
- there is no cure for HIV
- antiretroviral drugs (ARV) can be given to slow the progression of the disease

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 Chapter 17- Inheritance

Inheritance:
• inheritance refers to the passing on of information from parents to offspring
• the information is passed on in the form of genes that are found on chromosomes

Chromosomes and genes:

• a chromosome is a thread-like structure made up of a DNA molecules associated
with proteins known as histones
- ‘chroma’ is latin for colour and ‘soma’ is latin for body
• histones allow DNA to be packed tightly

• chromosomes are visible when the cell is diving so they are seen as 2 sister
chromatids
• a gene is a section of a DNA molecule that codes for a particular protein
- e.g. insulin is a protein, so the section of a DNA molecule that codes for
insulin is known as the insulin gene
• an allele is a alternative form of the same gene
- e.g. the gene for eye colour can have allele for brown eyes or blue eyes
- e.g. the gene for height can have an allele for being short or being tall
• alleles have slightly different base sequences and that causes them to produce
slightly different polypeptides (proteins)
• body cells (somatic cells) contain 2 sets of chromosomes and their nuclei are said
to be diploid (2n)
- ‘soma’ is latin for body
• human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes)
• sex cells (gametes) have 1 set of chromosomes and they are said to be haploid (n)

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 Inheritance of sex:
• sex is a characteristic that is controlled an entire chromosome and not just the
gene
• chromosome pair no. 23 are known as sex chromosomes because they determine
the sex
• they are called X and Y chromosomes because of their shape
• a person with a genotype (genetic make up) XX is female
• a person with a genotype (genetic make up) XY is male
• the genetic cross diagram below shows how sex os inherited
• the X chromosome contains some genes and these are said to be sex -linked
genes (e.g. gene for factor 8)
• the Y chromosome is thought to be genetically empty and it does not code for
anything except for making an human male

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 Protein synthesis:
• the sequence of bases on DNA is the genetic code
• it is used to determine the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
• the sequence of amino acids also determines the shape of the protein and
proteins such as enzymes rely on their shape for them to function
• the nucleus controls the function of a cell by producing speci c proteins at
speci c times
- some of these proteins are enzymes and they catalyze metabolic reactions
• Outline of the process of protein synthesis:
- the gene that codes for a particular protein unwinds and it is copied to form
messenger RNA (mRNA)
- RNA is ribonucleic acid
- messenger RNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores
- the DNA stays in the nucleus, only the mRNA moves out
- messenger RNA binds to a ribosome which is the site for protein synthesis
- mRNA goes through the ribosome and a protein is assembled
- the sequence of bases on mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids in
a polypeptide

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 Mitosis:
• this is a type of nuclear division which produces genetically identical daughter
cells
• it occurs in somatic cells (body cells)
• Signi cance of mitosis:
1. mitosis allows growth to occur (growth is a permanent increase in dry mass
due to an increase in cell number or cell size or both)
2. cells formed by mitosis carry out the same functions as parent cells
3. it allows the replacement of damaged cells
4. it allows the repair of damaged tissue
5. it allows asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms
• Outline of the process of mitosis:
- the genetic material of a body cell doubles during DNA replication
- this is followed by a single division where the genetic material is shared
equally between two daughter cells
• stem cells are unspecialized cells that divide repeatedly by mitosis and some of
them can differentiate into specialized cells

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 Meiosis:
• this is reduction division
• it brings about variation
• the daughter cells produced are genetically different from each other and from
parent cells
• meiosis occurs in the formation of sex cells
• Outline of the process of meiosis:
- DNA replication occurs on the parent cell and it doubles genetic material
- this is followed by two nuclear divisions which reduces the genetic material to
half of what is in the parent cells
- chromosomes of the mother and the father exchange parts and there is
shuf ing of the chromosome and this brings about variation
- reducing the genetic material to half prevents the doubling of chromosome
at fertilization

Table of differencse between mitosis and meiosis

Features: Mitosis: Meiosis:
Site of occurance somatic (body) cells gonads (testicles and ovary)
Variation cells are genetically identical cells are genetically different
Type of nucleus of diplod (2n) haploid (n)
daughter cell
Number of cells formed 2 4

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 Monohybrid inheritance:
• this is the inheritance of one characteristic
• this inheritance can be shown on a genetic cross diagram
• De nition of terms:
- a gene is a section of a DNA molecule that codes for a particular
polypeptide/protein
- e.g. in the garden peas/green peas (Pisum sativum), there is a gene for
height
- alleles are alternative forms of the same gene
- e.g. the gene for height has two alleles, allele T for tallness and allele t for
shortness
- each diploid organism (2n), can only have two alleles of a gene
- a dominant allele is an allele that is always expressed whenever it occurs
- in genetic cross diagrams, it is shown with a capital latter
- e.g. in P. sativum, the allele for tallness, T, is the dominant allele as the
peas are tall
- the dominant allele is always written rst
- a recessive allele is an allele that can only be expressed if it is the only one
present
- e.g. in P. sativum, the allele for shortness, t, is a recessive allele
- homozygous is having identical alleles on a particular gene locus
- ‘homo’ means the same
- ‘locus’ refers to the position of the gene
- e.g. TT is homozygous dominant and tt is homozygous recessive
- heterozygous is having two different alleles on a particular gene locus
- ‘hetero’ means different
- the genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism and it refers to the alleles
that are present
- e.g. TT, Tt, tt
- the phenotype is the observable characteristics of an organism
- e.g. the tallness and the shortness/dwarfness
- pure breeding refers to the crossing of homozygous organisms
- they give offspring that are identical to them when they are crossed with
each other
- rst lial generation (F1)
- this is the rst generation of offspring from pure breeding parents
- second lial generation (F2)
- this is the offspring of the rst lial generation

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 • Genetic cross diagram:
- when a pure breeding tall pea plant is crossed with a pure breeding short pea
plant, all the offspring of the rst lial generation (F1) will be tall
- this shows that the allele for tallness is dominant and the allele for
shortness is recessive
- the results of this cross are shown in the genetic cross diagram below

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 - if the F1 offspring are crossed among themselves, we obtain a 3:1 ratio for
tall:short

- the results are shown in the genetic cross diagram below

- the 3:1 ratio is known as the monohybrid ratio
- it is always obtained as the phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation when
there is a dominant and recessive allele

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 - Test cross:
- when an organism has a phenotype that is brought about by a dominant
allele, it is not possible to determine it’s genotype jus by looking at the
phenotype
- e.g. if a garden pea plant is tall, it is not possible to determine if it is
homozygous or heterozygous by looking at it’s phenotype
- a test cross is carried out and the results are used to work out the genotype
of the organism
- an organism that is homozygous recessive is used for testing
- if none of the offspring are short, it means that the organism that was
tested is homozygous dominant (TT)
- if the ratio of the offspring is 1:1 for tall:short, it means that the
organism that was tested is heterozygous (Tt)
- genetic ratios are only realized/achieved if there is a large number of
offspring

Co-dominance:
• this is when both alleles at a particular gene locus are expressed in the phenotype
• the ABO blood group system shows co-dominance (and multiple alleles)
• blood group type is controlled by 3 alleles that is I^A, I^B, I^O

• the alleles I^A and I^B are both dominant to I^O

• the alleles I^A and I^B are co-dominant

- a person with the genotype I^A I^B will have the blood group type of AB

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 Genotype: Phenotype (blood Antibodies: Receive blood
group): from:
I^A I^A
I^A I^O
A anti B antibodies A and O

I^B I^B
I^B I^O
B anti A antibodies B and O

I^A I^B AB no antibodies A, B, AB and O

I^O I^O O anti A and anti B O
antibodies

• Question:
- A heterozygous man with blood group A has a child with a heterozygous
woman with blood group B. Use a genetic cross diagram to show the possible
genotypes of their children.

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 • the 4 o’clock plant (Mirabilis jalapa), shows co-dominance in the inheritance of
the ower colour
- it has the following alleles:
- W - allele for white owers
- R - allele for red owers

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 Sex linkage:
• chromosome pair number 23 are known as sex chromosomes
• the Y chromosome does not carry any gene, it only makes an individual male
• the X chromosome carries other genes
- e.g. the gene for colourblindness and the gene for haemophilia
- red/green colourblindness is a condition where a person cannot
distinguish between the two colours
- haemophilia is a condition where a person cannot produce the protein
known as factor 8 (VIII) which is a protein needing for the clotting of
blood
- blood takes long to clot and a person can bleed excessively from small
wounds
- female haemophiliacs undergo hysterectomy (surgical removal of the
uterus) to prevent excessive blood loss during menstruation
• sex-linked characteristics are traits are carries on the X chromosome
• it’s hesitance is linked to the inheritance of sex
• if a genetic disease is caused by a sex-linked trait, more males will be affected
than females
- this is because females can be carriers (heterozygous)

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 • Question:
- A female carrier has a child with a normal male. Use a genetic cross diagram
to determine the probability that they will have a child with haemophilia.

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 Chapter 18- Variation and Selection

Variation:
• variation refers to the differences that occur among organisms of the same
species
- species refers to organisms that can reproduce and give fertile offspring
• Sources of variation:
1. meiosis
- events that occur during meiosis produce genetically different daughter
cells
2. random fertilization
3. random mating
4. mutation
- this is a random change in the sequence of bases in DNA
- it forms new alleles
- mutation is the only source of variation that forms a completely new allele
- meiosis, random fertilization and random mating form new combinations of
the same alleles
• there are two types of variation, namely, continuous and discontinuous variation
• Continuous variation:
- this is a form of phenotypic variation
- traits that show continuous variation have a gradual change from one
extreme to another
- there are no clear-cut differences as there is a gradual change
- examples of traits that vary continuously include mass and linear
dimension such as height
- both nature (genes) and nurture (environment) play a role in determining the
characteristic
- e.g. a plant that has the genotype to make it tall will not reach its full
height if it grows in an environment that is de cient of nutrients
- traits that vary continuously are controlled by many genes
- each gene has a small effect on the phenotype (the trait is an additive effect of
many genes)

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 - if you plot the frequency of a trait that varies continuously such as height, we
get a normal distribution curve

- very few organisms have extreme characteristics and the majority of

organisms are found around the mean
• Discontinuous variation:
- characteristics show clear-cut differences and the traits can be put into
distinct categories
- they environment has no effect that varies discontinuously
- it is controlled by one gene (or a few genes)
- examples of these traits include; having attached or detached earlobes,
tongue rolling, the ABO blood groups and sex
- if you plot the frequency against the trait that varies discontinuously, you get
a bar chart

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 • Adaptive features:
- it is an inherited feature that increases an organism’s tness
- tness is the ability of an organism to serve and reproduce in the
environment tin which it was found
- Adaptive features of xerophytes:
- xerophytes are plants that are adapted to survive in environment with very
little to no water and adaptations of xerophytes allow them to reduce los
of water and maximize water uptake
1. long and deep roots
- this allows them to reach the water underground
2. roots cover a large area
3. smaller leaves
- this reduces the surface area for transpiration
4. thick waxy cuticle
- this reduces evaporation
5. this succulent stem
- it stores water and some stems have ridges that allow them to increase
in size so that they can store more water
6. thorns instead of leaves
- this prevents animals from eating them
7. leaves are whitish
- it re ects the heat
8. leaves have hairs (trichomes)
- they trap air that stores moisture so it reduces the water potential
gradient
9. stomata are in pits
- it traps the air to reduce the water potential gradient
10. rolled leaves
- it reduces the surface area
- Adaptive features of hydrophytes:
- hydrophytes are plants that are adapted to grow in environments with a
lot of water
- they do not need to conserve a lot of water since it is readily available
1. many air spaces
- allows them to be light and oat and air spaces allow easy diffusion of
gases
2. stomata on upper surface
- this is because there os ore CO2 in the atmosphere than in the water
3. thin cuticles

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 • Mutation as a source of variation:
- mutations form new alleles and these give rise to new phenotypes
- some chemicals increase the chances of a mutation (e.g. tar in cigarette
smoke)
- ionizing radiation increases chances of a mutation
- an example of a phenotype that is caused by a mutation is sickle cell anemia
- it is caused by a mutation in the gene for haemoglobin
- the mutation forms a haemoglobin molecule that can not dissolve well
when oxygen levels are low
- the haemoglobin forms long bers which make red blood cells have a
sickle shape
- nickel shaped red blood cells carry less oxygen

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 - Signs and symptoms of sickle cell anaemia:
1. person feels generally tired
2. enlarges liver and spleen
3. increased susceptibility to infections
4. pain in the joints
5. sickle celled crisis (struggling to breathe)

• Inheritance of sickle cel anaemia:

- the allele for normal haemoglobin is Hb^N
- the allele for sickle cell anaemia is Hb^S
- these alleles are co-dominant
- Hb^NHb^N is for normal red blood cells
- Hb^NHb^S is for the sickle cell trait
- Hb^SHb^s is for sickle cell anaemia
- if two parents have the sickle cell trait, there is a 25% chance that they will
have a child with sickle cell anaemia

- in areas where malaria is endemic (constantly present), there is a high

incidence of sickle cell anaemia
- this is because having the sickle cell trait (Hb^NHb^S)
- confers resistance to malaria
- the plasmodium (genus of a protoctist) that causes malaria cannot survive in
red blood cells
- people with the sickle cell trait in areas where malaria is endemic and have a
1 in 4 chance of having a child with sickle cell anaemia
- in areas where malaria is endemic, people with he genotype Hb^NHb^N die
of malaria and people with the genotype Hb^SHb^S die of sickle cell
anaemia

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 Selection:
• this is the process where some organisms survive in their environment and pass
on their alleles to the next generation
• selection can be natural or arti cial (selective breeding)
• Arti cial selection:
1. humans choose a desired characteristic (e.g. high milk yield in dairy cows or
large carcass size in beef cattle)
2. the selected organisms are allowed to breed
- this can involve arti cial insemination for animals
- it can be dusting pollen on the stigma for plants
3. offspring with desired characteristics are selected and allowed to reproduce
4. this is repeated over several generation
5. allelic frequency of the desired characteristics is increased
• Natural selection:
- environmental forces determine which organisms survive and pass their
alleles to the next generation
- there is variation amongst organisms of the same species
- there is a large number of young organisms
- there are limited resources available and there is competition for available
resources
- there is a struggle for existence as organisms that are better adapted to utilize
the resource survive and those that are not die
- organisms that survive pass on their alleles to the next generation
- this include the survival of the ttest
- the development of antibiotic resistance is an example of natural selection
- presence of an antibiotic acts a selection pressure
- there is variation among bacteria and some are resistant to the antibiotic and
others are not
- bacteria that are not resistant die and the resistant bacteria survive and
reproduce and the number of resistant bacteria increases
• Evolution:
- this is the gradual change in an adaptive feature over a long period of time
- organisms become more adapted to their environment over a period of time
- evolution occurs by natural selection
- e.g. giraffes are thought to have developed long necks and it is believed
that short necked giraffes existed but competed for food with the long
necks as the long necks could reach higher parts of plants to eat the leaves
so they survived and passed their alleles to future generations over several
years and the number of long necked giraffes increased

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 Chapter 19- Organisms and their Environment

Energy ow in ecosystems:
• the principle source of energy for all ecosystems is the sun
• light from the sun is absorbed by plants and used to make carbohydrates in
photosynthesis
• plants covert light energy to chemical energy (stored in carbohydrates)
- this energy is passed on to other trophic levels by feeding
• the ow of energy in ecosystems is non-cyclical

Food chains:
• it is a diagram which shows the ow of energy from one organism to the next
starting with a producer
• the sun is not part of any food chain
• arrows are used to show the direction of energy ow

• a food chain does not give a realistic feeding relationship as one organism feeds
on more than one other organism
• there are very few food chains with 5 or more organisms
- this is because only 10% of energy in one trophic level is passed on to the
next
- 90% of energy is lost to the environment as heat, used in the organism, and is
lost through excretion and egestion

Questions:
1. Explain why it is energetically more ef cient to feed humans with
plants rather than meat [4]
- When humans feed on plants, they are the primary consumers so less energy
is lost. When humans feed on meat, they are secondary consumers so more
energy is lost as the food chain is longer.

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 2. Explain why there are only a few food chains with 5 or more
organisms [3]
- Energy is lost from one trophic level to the next. (e.g. through respiration).
Only 10% of energy is passed on to the next trophic level so there will be
very little energy to support higher trophic levels.

Food webs:
• it is a chart showing the interconnection of food chains, where one organism eats
more than one other organism
• the arrows show the direction of energy ow
• food webs and chains do not show the number of organisms involved

Pyramid of numbers:
• food pyramids always start with the producers at the bottom level
• higher trophic levels are shown above the producers in their correct order
• rectangular bars with equal width are used to represent the number of organisms
in a trophic level
• food pyramids do not account for the size of the organism, if ther is a very large
producer and many small primary consumers, the pyramid will be inverted and
will look unstable

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 Pyramid of biomass:
• biomass is the amount of matter in an organism
• a pyramid of biomass accounts for the size of the organisms in a trophic level
• the mass is determined by estimation
• biomass can be wet or dry mass
• wet mass is the mass of an organism with its water
• dry mass is the mass of an organism without its water
• water makes up about 65% of a living organism, therefore the dry mass can be
calculated
• dry mass can be determined in a dead specimen by nding the mass of the
organism and then heating it in an oven without the mass changing

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 Nutrient cycles:
• nutrients in an ecosystem move from one trophic level to another in a cycle
- e.g. nitrogen and carbon
• Nitrogen cycle:
- it is a chart showing the ow of nitrogen between trophic levels in an
ecosystem
- nitrogen ows in nitrogen containing compounds
- Main processes:
1. Nitrogen xation:
- this is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) to compounds
of nitrogen
- it occurs in nature using energy from lightning
- lightning provides energy to make atmospheric N2 and O2 react

- bacteria from the genus, Rhizobium can covert atmospheric N2 to

ammonium ions

- these bacteria are called nitrogen xing bacteria

- this bacteria is found in root nodules and legumes
- nodules are lumps in roots and legumes are plants with seeds in pods
(e.g. beans)
- the bacteria live sin root nodules and it gets carbohydrates from the
plant and in turn, xed N2 in soil
- this is a symbiotic relationship
- it is also done by the addition of fertilizer into the soil
- the harbor processes (industrial manufacture of ammonia) is an
example of nitrogen xation

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 2. Nitri cation:
- this is the conversion of nitrogen compounds from one form to
another (e.g. converting ammonium compounds to nitrites and then to
nitrates)
- bacteria produce enzymes that catalyze these reactions
3. Denitri cation:
- this is the conversion of nitrogen compounds to nitrogen gas
- it returns N2 gas to the atmosphere
- this usually happens in water logged soils, where aerobic bacteria break
down nitrates so they can use the oxygen
- this bacteria is called denitrifying bacteria
4. Ammoni cation:
- this is the formation of ammonium ions (NH4+) from amino acids and
other nitrogen containing compounds
5. Feeding and assimilation:
- this is when the nitrogen compounds in one organism become nitrogen
compounds in another through feeding assimilation
- when a consumer feeds in proteins they are digested and
absorbed\they are then used to make the consumers own proteins
(assimilation)
6. Decomposition:
- when plants and animals die, their proteins are digested to amino acids
by decomposers such as fungi and bacteria
- their amino acids are deaminated and their amine group os used to
form ammonia
• Carbon cycle:
- Main processes:
1. Photosynthesis:
- this is the reaction of H2O and CO2 to form C6H12O6 and O2 in
the presence of light and chlorophyll
- it is the only process which removes CO2 from the atmosphere
2. Respiration:
- this is the breaking down of C6H12O6 and O2 inside cells to release
energy, CO2 and H2O
- it adds VO2 to the atmosphere
3. Combustion:
- this is the reaction of carbon containing compounds with oxygen
- it adds CO2 to the atmosphere

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 4. Fossilisation:
- it results from the death of plants or animals and they become buried
under millions of tons of soil so that they don’t decompose
- they only change form and become fossil fuels
- this removes carbon compounds from circulation

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 • Water cycle:
- the water cycle is also known as the hydrological cycle
- it describes how water moves on above or just below the earth’s surface
- water molecules move between various locations such as rivers, oceans and
the atmosphere
- by speci c processes, water can change state
- Main processes:
1. Evaporation:
- energy from the sun heats the Earth’s surface and water evaporates
from oceans, rivers and lakes
- the warm air rises, carrying water vapor with it
2. Transpiration:
- transpiration in plants releases water vapor into the air
3. Condensation:
- the moist air cools down as it rises
- water vapor condenses back into liquid water, and this condensation
process produces clouds
4. Precipitation:
- as the water droplets in the cloud gets bigger as well as heavier, they
begin to fall as rain, snow and sleet

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 Population:
• population is a group of organisms of the same species occupying the same area
at the same time (e.g. people in Botswana in 2020)
• a community refers to organisms of different species interacting amongst each
other (interactions between different populations)
• an ecosystem refers to organisms of different species interacting amongst
themselves and the non-living (abiotic) components of the environment (e.g. air
or water)
• Population growth:
- is a population is placed in a new environment, the number of organisms
increase ]if numbers of organisms is plotted against time, the graph below is
obtained

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 - Lag phase:
- it is characterized by slow population growth as organisms are still
adapting to their new environment
- Log phase:
- it is characterized by very fast (exponential) growth
- this occurs as there is little competition for available nutrients and very
few wastes
- there are unlimited nutrients
- Stationary phase:
- the rate at which new organisms are produced is equal to the rate at which
organisms die, so there is no change in the number of organisms
- Death phase:
- the rate at which organisms die is greater than the rate at which new
organisms are being born
- this could be due tp an outbreak of diseases, a high accumulation of
wastes, limited food because food gets used up or because the rate of
reproduction decreases

The human population:

• the human population has increased exponentially in the last 250 years.
• the increase is largely due to:
1. improved food production- through the use of modern technology
2. improved health- due to better medication and healthcare facilities
3. better protection from natural factors- e.g. clothes, clean water
• Challenges due to growing human population:
1. increased population density- can lead to faster spread of diseases
2. deforestation- to create space for houses and roads
3. famine- due to an improper distribution of food
- the human population can be analyzed using the population pyramid
- Differences:
- the developing country has a wider base showing that there are more
children under the age of 15
- there are more people above 65 in developed countries
- there are more middle aged people (45-65) in developed countries

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 Chapter 20- Biotechnology and Genetic
Engineering

Biotechnology:
• this is the process of using living organisms to get a product or process
• bacteria are used extensively in biotechnology because of the following reasons:
1. they reproduce very fast
2. they can make complex molecules such as proteins
3. there are no ethical considerations with the use of bacteria
• Biological washing powders:
- clothes can be stained by biological molecules such as proteins and fats
- theses stains are dif cult to remove from fabric because they are not soluble
- biological washing powders have proteases and lipases
- protease breaks down proteins to amino acids
- lipase breaks down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol
- the products of digestion are soluble and they can easily be removed from
fabrics
- these products of digestion are amino acids and the fatty acids and
glycerol
- temperature of the water must be controlled in order to prevent denaturation
• Lactose-free milk:
- lactase is added to milk
- the lactase breaks down the milk sugar lactose into glucose and galactose
- people who are lactose intolerant can then use the milk
- the lactase can b immobilized by putting it in alginate beads
- this prevents contamination of the milk by the enzyme and the enzyme can
be reused
• Examples of biotechnology:
1. making bread using yeast
- yeast is added to the baking dough
- it respires anaerobically using the sugar in the dough
- the carbon dioxide tries to escape but is trapped by the sticky particles in
the dough
- this causes the dough to rise
- heat can move evenly through the dough
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 2. making ethanol for biofuels
- some countries grow a lot of sugarcane
- they use yeast to convert the sugar in the sugarcane to ethanol (alcoholic
fermentation)
- the ethanol can be added to petrol to form a petrol blend which is cheaper
and has a low carbon footprint
3. making clear juices using pectinase
- pectins are substances that hold plant cells together
- when fruits are put in a blender to form fruit juices, pectins are suspended
in the juice
- pectinase is added to fruit juices to digest pectins so that it becomes clear
- using pectinase allows more juice to be extracted
4. making penicillin
- penicillin is an antibiotic
- it is produced the fungus from the genus Penicillium, it is a secondary
metabolite because it is not needed for the survival of the fungus but it is
released when the fungus is growing under stressful conditions
- e.g. moisture stress
- the fungus Penicillium is grown in a large container known as a fermenter
shown below
- the nutrients are added to the fermenter and the fungus uses them to
make penicillin
- the contents of the fermenter is collected and ltered to remove insoluble
materials
- penicillin is extracted from the ltrate
- it is concentrated and packaged for use
- Steps for making penicillin:
1. the fungus Penicillium is added to the fermentor and the fungus
produces the antibiotic penicillin
2. nutrients such as carbohydrates and amino acids (source of nitrogen)
are also added
3. carbohydrates are used for energy
4. amino acids or ammonium ions (NH4+) are used to make proteins
5. the fermentor has a double wall known as a water jacket and it is
used to regulate temperature
- if temperature becomes too high, cold water is run in between the
walls to cool the contents of the fermentor
- if the temperature falls (unlikely), stem can be run through the
water jacket to raise the temperature

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 6. respiration produces heat and this raises the temperature of the
contents of the fermentor
7. there is a temperature sensor which detects changes in temperature
8. there is a pH sensor to detect uctuations in pH
- the changes in pH affect enzyme activity so it is important to keep
the pH within a narrow range
9. weak acids and weak alkalis can be added as required to keep the pH
optimum
10. there is an outlet for waste gases and this prevents pressure build up
in the fermentor
- carbon dioxide is an acidic gas, if it dissolves in culture medium
(contents of the fermentor) it can lower the pH
11. sterile air is blown into the fermentor
- it is sterile so that all unwanted bacteria does not contaminate the
product
- the air has oxygen needed for aerobic respiration
12. blowing air into the fermentor mixes the culture medium and
prevents settling
13. the culture medium is stirred by paddles to prevent settling
- this also mixes the nutrients evenly

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 Genetic engineering:
• this is this process of removing a gene from one organism and inserting it into
another organism of a different species
• the genetically modi ed organism will start to make proteins that it normally
would not
• examples of genetic engineering:
1. Improving nutrient content of crop plants:
- the gene for beta carotene was taken from a certain bacteria and from
maize and it was incorporated in rice embryos
- the genetically modi es rice is known as golden rice and it produces
golden colored grains that are rich in beta carotene
- Advantages:
- it prevents nutrient diseases
- Disadvantages:
- people resist it because they want governments to x poverty and not
the results of poverty
- genetically modi ed rice plants is more expensive for the farmer to
plant
- people are also afraid unknown effects of eating genetically modi ed
crops
2. Making pest resistant crops:
- the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produces a toxin (Bt toxin) which
kills speci c insects
- the gene for Bt toxin is taken from the bacteria and is incorporated in
maize embryos (or cotton)
- the Bt maize/Bt cotton, kills pests as they grows
- Advantages:
- it increases the quality and quantity of the yield
- it increases pro ts for the farmer
- Disadvantages:
- it can kill unintended insects
- the genetically modi ed crops can pollinate crops on organic farms
3. Herbicide resistant crop plants:
- plants and bacteria have an enzyme that makes amino acids needed for
growth
- the enzyme in plants is inhibited by herbicides but the enzyme in bacteria
in not
- the gene for herbicide resistance is taken from bacteria and put in oil seed
rape (Brassica napus)

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 - when herbicides are sprayed on the plants, the genetically modi ed oil
seed rape is not affected
- Advantages:
- it reduces competition for nutrients and therefore it increases the yield
- it increases pro t for the farmer
- Disadvantages:
- it can form herbicide resistant weeds
4. Making human insulin:
- the gene for insulin in incorporated into bacteria
- then the bacteria starts making insulin
- Advantages:
- the insulin is identical to human insulin so it ef cient
- it is produced very fast and in large amounts
- there is no risk for passing on diseases
- there are no allergic reactions
• Outline of the process of genetic engineering:
- this process can be used to manufacture insulin using bacteria
- the gene for insulin is obtained from a human chromosome by cutting it from
enzymes known as restriction endonuclease (restriction enzymes)
- this leaves “sticky” ends at the end of a genes
- these are single strands of DNA that can form complementary base pairs
- plasmids are obtained from bacteria and they are cut by the same restriction
enzymes as the chromosome to form complementary sticky ends
- the plasmid and the gene as mixed and they form recombinant DNA
- the enzyme DNA ligase is used to join the DNA of the plasmid and the
insulin gene to form a recombinant plasmid
- the plasmid is inserted into harmless (non-pathogenic) bacteria
- the plasmid is a vector for the wanted gene because it carries it into the host
organism
- a vector is like a carrier
- the genetically modi ed bacteria is cultured on a large scale and it produces
insulin or any wanted protein

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 Chapter 21- Human Influences On Ecosystems

1. Food supply:
- modern technology has resulted in better food supply for the world
population
- the lling ways have resulted in better food supply:
1. Use of fertilizers:
- this has improved the quantity and quality of food
2. Herbicides:
- these kill weeds which compete with plants for food
3. Pesticides:
- pests damage crops and the use of pesticides improves the quality of crops
4. Irrigation:
- it allows plants to survive during droughts as irrigation provides water
5. Greenhouses:
- crops that are sensitive to low temperatures can be grown in a greenhouse
when they are traditionally “off season” (e.g. tomatoes)
- they have CO2 and arti cial light to improve crop growth
6. Farming machinery:
- this allows large areas to be cultivated (e.g. tractors combined harvesters)
- Famine:
- this is a severe food shortage
- factors that cause famine include:
1. increase in population
2. poverty as some countries have no resources to provide for their
population
3. war and political stability as it disrupts families
4. natural disasters
5. urbanization because the city grows so agricultural lans is lost
- Problems with large scale monoculture:
- monoculture is the growing of a single crop in the same piece o land every
year and this causes multiple problems
1. the soil becomes infertile and this occurs as the same nutrients are
absorbed every year and so they will eventually run out
2. deforestation

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 3. an increase in pests for that particular crop will cause a decrease in
the pest population that have other adaptive features
4. diseases spread easily as there are no other plants to break the path of
pathogens
5. excessive use of fertilizers leads to eutrophication
6. bioaccumulation is when pesticides and herbicides are found in a
higher concentration in higher (tertiary) consumers
- Intensive livestock production:
- this is also known as “factory farming”
- a large number of animals are kept on a farm and it is done to produce
meat produces on a large scale
- some farmers specialize in beef production and may have over 1000 cattle
on one farm
- Problems:
- Enhanced greenhouse effect:
- cattle produce a lot of methane (CH4) from their digestive systems
as well of the decay of cow dung
- methane is a greenhouse gas and contributes to the enhance
greenhouse effect
- Surpasses the carrying capacity:
- there is a tendency to surpass the carrying capacity of the land
- this means keeping more animals than the land can sustain
- this leads to overgrazing which increases the risk of soil erosion
- Overuse of antibiotic on livestock:
- this causes antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria
- Eutrophication:
- waste from animals enters water bodies causing eutrophication
- eutrophication is the process by which an entire body of water, or
parts of it, becomes progressively enriched with minerals and
nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus
2. Habitat destruction:
- this is the cutting down of trees without replacing them
- it is done for the following reasons:
1. to clear land for farming, buildings, roads and houses
2. to obtain raw materials to make paper
3. to develop mines
4. to make dams

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 - Effects
- loss of animal habitats
- species become extinct die to the lack of food and protection
- there is a rise in CO2 levels as there are less trees to absorb the CO2 from
the atmosphere and the trees which are cut down are usually brunt which
produces even more CO2
- biodiversity refers to all the different types of organisms in an area where
usually only one type of plant is grown and so the decrease and/or loss of
biodiversity leads to an ecological imbalance and in disrupts food chains
- soil erosion is increased by deforestation and plant roots hold the top soil
in place so soil erosion causes a decrease in plants
- an increase in ooding because is becomes easier for lying areas to be
ooded
3. Pollution:
- this is an addition of materials (or energy) in quantities that cause harm to
the environment (humans and animals)
- Land pollution:
- materials that currently pollute the land are:
- plastic
- scrap metal
- glass/bottles
- plastic is not biodegradable (cannot be broken down by
microorganisms) and so they can last up to 40 years in the soil and
choke animals
- Water pollution:
- the most common water pollutants are:
- oil
- plastic
- industrial wastes
- sewage
- fertilizers
- insecticides and pesticides
- fertilizers and sewage wastes cause eutrophication
- this is excessive nutrient enrichment and eutrophication causes the
death of aquatic animals
- the following sequence of events occur when there is eutrophication:
1. eutrophication causes algal blooms which is the growth id aquatic
plants in an excessive manner

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 2. the plants block light and there is increased competition for nutrients
and so some plants die
3. the decay of the dead plants is cause by aerobic bacteria
4. oxygen is used up by the aerobic bacteria in the water
5. aquatic animals die due to the lack of oxygen
- Global warming:
- this is the rise in average atmospheric temperatures
- it is known the enhanced greenhouse effect
- it is caused by greenhouse gases (mostly CO2 and CH4)
- greenhouse gases trap radiation coming from the earth resulting in
increase temperatures
- the radiation form the sun is shortwave radiation and can easily penetrate
the atmosphere
- when it is re ected by the ground it is long wave radiation and not all of
the radiation can escape out of the atmosphere
- the greenhouse effect keeps the earth’s temperature warm enough to
support living organisms but the enhanced greenhouse effect has an
adverse effect
- Effects of the greenhouse effect:
- it causes extreme wether patterns (e.g. severe drought and ooding)
- it causes melting of ice at polar regions leading to ooding in low lying
areas and animals on polar regions die from habitat destruction
- it causes forest res
- Effects of contraceptives in waste water:
- there is an extensive use of female contraceptives and these eventually
nd there way to water sources such as rivers and lakes
- these contraceptives affect aquatic organisms and people who mat use
the water
- they cause infertility in male animals
- they can also cause behavioral changes in aquatic animals such that the
mating rituals are lost or changed
- Acid rain:
- the burning of fossil fuels containing sulfur produce sulfur dioxide
- this SO2 then dissolves in rain water and forms a weak sulfurous acid
- the acid mixes with rain water and falls as acid rain
- the oxides of nitrogen do the same
- Effects of acid rain
- it damages vegetation

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 - it lowers the pH of water and this dissolves CaCO3 (calcium
carbonate) shells if crustaceans
- it damages limestone buildings and statues
- it lowers the pH of soil and plants only do well in alkaline soils
- Nuclear fallout:
- accidents at nuclear power stations or a nuclear bomb can lead to a
nuclear fallout
- radioactive debris (particles) fall from the sky for several days o moths
after the nuclear accident
- the radiation causes death of organisms of organisms and it also causes
cancer
- the affected area inhabitable for decades after exposure to radiation
4. Conservation:
- this refers to actions that are taken to maintain the ora and fauna and efforts
made to rebuild areas where the numbers are very low
- conservation involves managing con icting needs of people and it involves
international cooperation between governments and non-governmental
organizations
- Endangered species:
- these are species that have very low numbers and are in danger of being
extinct
- e.g. rhinos, tigers, gorillas, sea turtles, orangoutangs
- Reasons plants and animals are endangered:
- poaching/hunting
- habitat destruction
- natural disasters
- disease outbreaks
- How can animals be conserved:
- putting animals in a protected environment such as nature reserves and
zoos
- laws to make hunting illegal, only allowing seasonal hunting and
having stiff poaching penalties
- educating people on the need to conserve
- keeping some in sperm banks
- How can plants be conserved:
- seed banks and botanical gardens
- laws that regulate the use of plants
- education
- removal of alien species

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 - Sustainable development:
- this is providing resources for the growing human population without
harming the environment
- a sustainable resource is a resource that can be replaced faster than it is
used (e.g. sh stocks)
- forests (plantations) are sustainable resources
- trees are planted each year such that a plantation will have trees of
different ages and only the matured trees are cut to provide timber and
paper
- sustainable farms can be established where there is small dam used for
irrigation and small number of animals are kept
- water for animals is taken from the dam
- sh are kept in the dam for foos and waste from crops can be used to feed
animals
- animal waste can b used as manure for crops
- sustainable development requires management of con icting needs
- sustainable development also involved the use of a renewable resource
(one that nature can replace) like solar, wind or hydroelectric power
- a non-renewable resource cannot be replaces naturally and like fossil fuels
and nuclear material
- Sewage treatment:
- the main step are the following:
- Filtering:
- this the removal of materials accidentally in the sewage
- Sedimentation:
- the waste is allowed to settle so the solids sink to the bottom
- Decomposition of solids:
- aerobic bacteria is used to break down proteins to amino acids,
carbohydrates to glucose and lips to fatty acids and glycerol
- Chlorination:
- this is when water is clear and the chlorine in added to kill any bacteria
- Recycling:
- some nutrients can be recycled
- this involves reprocessing them so they can be reused
- some include; metals, plastic, paper and glass
- recycling conserves natural resources
- sometimes it uses a lot of energy
- the quality of products are not the best and sorting materials for recycling
is very dif cult

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