CENG 371: HYDROLOGY

SLIDE 2: PRECIPITATION

Dr. Daniel A. Ankrah

Jeremiah Anno-Onumah
Precipitation
Precipitation refers to all forms (both liquid and solid forms) of
water, which fall from the atmosphere to the surface of the
earth.

• It is also the process by which water is removed from the

atmosphere to the earth.

It is usually expressed as depth of liquid water on a horizontal

surface in a given period.
Precipitation
Forms of Precipitation
Depending on the meteorological conditions, precipitation occurs mainly in two forms:
Liquid Precipitation ( in most cases was frozen inside the cloud):
• Rain: Drops of water
• Drizzle: Drops of water that are .5mm in diameter
• Dew: Condensation of water vapor on a cool surface.

Solid Precipitation (temperature below freezing, except hail)

• Snow Grains: Small crystals of ice that are similar to a drizzle.
• Snowflakes: Agglomeration of grains, the equivalent of rain.
• Sleet: Frozen rain
• Hail: Spherical lumps of ice composed on concentric layers.
Rainfall is usually the predominant form of precipitation causing stream flow, especially
flood flow in majority of rivers. Thus, in this context, rainfall is used synonymously with
precipitation.
Precipitation Characteristics
• Rainfall is classified into
• –Light rain -if intensity is trace to 2.5 mm/h
• –Moderate rain -if intensity is 2.5 mm/hr to 7.5 mm/hr
• –Heavy rain -above 7.5 mm/hr
• Intensity = rate per unit time (e.g., mm/h)
• Duration = length of time over which precipitation occurs
• Amount: It is measured as total depth of rainfall over an area in one day.
• Amount = average intensity * duration
e.g., 1.5 mm/h * 6 h = 9 mm
• Distribution –relative occurrence of precipitation in space or time (e.g,
seasonal)
Precipitation Formation
• Supply of moisture
• Mechanism of lifting air higher to produce cool air (This determines
the type of precipitation)
• Mechanism to produce condensation
• Mechanism to produce growth of cloud droplets (condensation nuclei)
• Growth of the small droplets by collision and coalescence.

*Coalescence is the process by which two or more droplets, bubbles or

particles merge during contact to form a single daughter droplet, bubble
or particle.
Factors Affecting Precipitation
• The precipitation at a place and its form depend upon a number of
meteorological and other factors, such as
• Latitude –precipitation decreases with increasing latitude because
temperature reduces atmospheric moisture.
• Elevation –due to orographic cooling.
• Distance from moisture source. Precipitation is usually lower at
greater distances from the ocean.
• Prevailing wind direction –if it is into the sea.
• Relation to mountain ranges –windward sides typically cloudy & rainy
with leeward side typically dry and sunny.
• Relative temperatures of land and bordering oceans.
Factors affecting Precipitation
• The precipitation at a place and its form depend upon a
number of meteorological and other factors, such as
• Wind
• Temperature
• humidity and pressure in the area enclosing the clouds and
• the ground surface at the given place.
Types of Precipitation
Precipitation is classified according to the factor responsible for the
initial lifting and cooling of the air mass. In nature, the effects of the
various types of cooling are often inter-related and the resulting
precipitation cannot always be identified as being of any one type.
However, classification is done by the predominant factor.
• Convective precipitation

• Orographic (geographical relief) precipitation

• Cyclonic precipitation
• Precipitation due to turbulent ascent
Convective Precipitation
Solar and other forms of heating of an unsaturated air mass near the ground cause it
to expand and rise by convection. The convectional process is believed to follow
the dry adiabatic pattern until the dew-point temperature is reached.
Condensation occurs and precipitation occurs at the critical temperature.
• An adiabatic process refers to expansion or contraction of air parcels without
exchanging heat with the surrounding
Atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases. Therefore, an air parcel
expands as it ascends. The rate of adiabatic cooling is expressed as the rate of
temperature change per altitude.
The cooling rate of unsaturated air is called the dry adiabatic rate (10 ºC km-1).
Once the air becomes saturated, further cooling results in condensation of water,
which releases latent heat of fusion. The cooling rate of saturated air is called the
moist adiabatic rate (6 ºC km-1
 Orographic Precipitation
Orographic precipitation results from moist ocean air stream passing over
land and being deflected upwards by coastal mountains, thus cooling
below saturation temperature and spilling moisture. Precipitation is
heavier on the windward slopes with rain shadow regions of lighter
precipitation on the leeward slopes
Frontal Precipitation
Frontal precipitation is associated with the boundaries of air
mass where one mass is colder than the other and so intrudes
a cold wedge under the warmer one and forcing it to rise to
form clouds and rain
i) Warm–front precipitation: Warm advancing airstream is
forced up when it encounters a front of cold air stream.
ii). Cold–front precipitation: It is formed in the warm air
which is forced upwards by an advancing wedge of cold air.
Measurement of Precipitation
• Why do we need to measure rainfall?
• Agriculture - what to plant in certain areas, where and when to plant,
when to harvest, how and when to irrigate
• Engineers - to design structures for runoff control i.e. storm-water
drains, bridges etc.
• Scientists - hydrological modelling of catchments
Measurement of Precipitation
Rainfall is measured by a rain gauge and the aim of
measurement is to intercept precipitation over a known
carefully defined area bounded by the rain gauge rim.
Rainfall measured in millimetres is the vertical depth of
water accumulated on level surface during an interval of
time, if all the rainfall remained where it fell.
Types of Rain gauges
• Raingauges may be non-recording or self-recording. Non-recording
rain gauge consists essentially of a collector which intercepts the
sample rain to be measured and a receiver consisting of a base and a
bottle in which the rainfall is collected until it is measured, the
collector is exposed above the ground level while the receiver is fixed
partially below ground level.

• Often have a funnel opening into a cylinder gauge.

• Come in a variety of shapes and sizes
• Calculate the rainfall (in mm) by dividing the volume of water
collected by the area of the opening of the cup. (The gauge marking
often accounts for this).
Non-Recording Rain gauges
Requirements for gauge construction

• The rim of the collector should have a sharp edge.

• The area of the aperture should be known with an accuracy of 0.5 %.
• Design is such that rain is prevented from splashing in or out.
• The reservoir should be constructed so as to avoid evaporation.
Non-Recording Rainguages
Advantages
• Initial cost is low
• Usually, recording cannot be interrupted due to mechanical / electrical
defect.

Disadvantages

• The non-recording gauge gives only the total depth of rainfall (for the
previous 24 hours.) and does not give the intensity and duration of
rainfall during different time intervals of the day.
Recording Rain gauges
Recording gauges produce a continuous plot of rainfall against
time and provide valuable data of intensity and duration of rainfall
for hydrological analysis of storms.
Recording rain gauge can be one of the following types:

◼ Weighing bucket raingauge

◼ Tipping bucket raingauge
◼ Float type
◼ Radio-reporting
Weighing Bucket Raingauge
Weighing Bucket raingauge is the most commonly used type of the
recording gauges. It consists of a receiver bucket supported by a
spring or lever balance. The weight of rain, which falls through the
collector into the receiver bucket, depresses the entire mechanism.
Tipping Bucket Raingauge
consists of a receiver, 30cm diameter and a funnel which collects rainfall and
conveys it to a twin compartment tipping bucket. When 0.1mm of rain collects in
one compartment, it tips by virtue of its design and empties the water into a storage
reservoir and at the same time moves the second compartment of the bucket under
the funnel to receive rain. As the bucket is tipped, it actuates an electrical circuit
causing a pen to make a note on a recorder chart mounted on a revolving drum
Float Type Raingauge
The float type is easy to read
because it works on the theory
of displacement discovered by
Archimedes: a float
(calibrated in ins or mm) rises
as rainwater fills the copper
vessel.
Recording Gauges - Advantages

• Automatic recording obviates the necessity of an attendant.

• It indicates intensity of rainfall at any time as well as the total rainfall
while the non-recording gauge gives only the total rainfall.
• It is the only means to get rainfall data from inaccessible places in
hilly areas.
• Element of human error is eliminated.
• Capacity of the gauge is big.
• It measures the time period also.
• It can operate over extended periods without attention.
Recording Gauges -Disadvantages

• High initial cost

• Recording may be interrupted due to mechanical or electrical
defects.
• For the tipping bucket intermittent tipping may cause loss of
water.
Measurement of Rainfall: Remote Methods
Remote survey methods are used to make records of area
precipitation with a spatial resolution level that can hardly be
achieved with point measurement methods, given the large
spatial variability of precipitation.
Remote survey methods are indirect precipitation measurement
methods involving radar and satellite precipitation
measuring.
 Radio Detecting and Ranging (RADAR)
Method
• A radar (Radio Detecting and Ranging) device uses
the fact that water droplets reflect radiation within a
microwave range. A radar device serves as a
radiation transmitter and receiver of the reflected
energy. The intensity of the received signal enables
determination of the amount of precipitation across
the observed area, with a time lag corresponding to
the location's distance from the radar
• The high spatial and temporal resolution level of the
real-time precipitation recording, information
obtained by means of radars are particularly suitable
for the flood warning services
Satellite Precipitation Measurement
Satellite precipitation measurements are delivered by geo-stationary
satellites or satellites orbiting over the Poles along elliptical paths at a
height of approx. 900 km. Geo-stationary satellites move at the Earth’s
orbital speed, and therefore stay over the same Earth’s point at a height
of approximately 36,000 km.
Precipitation amounts and periods may be estimated pursuant to the type,
thickness, surface temperature and size of clouds by means of various
practical methods. Satellite records are particularly important in areas
where no terrestrial measurement stations are available, as well as over
oceans.
The above described remote survey method entails a disadvantage in that
terrestrial observations are required for calibration
Site Selection for Rain Gauging
The following consideration govern site selection:
i. Site must be true representative of the area for which station is
to give rainfall values.
ii. Site must be in an open area
iii. Site must be on level ground
iv. In hilly areas where level space is difficult to find, site must
be shielded from strong wind.
v. Site must be easily accessible at all times
Raingauge Network
The number of raingauges necessary to ensure an accurate
assessment of a catchment's rainfall depends on the purpose
for which the data is intended to be used
The recommended optimum number of rain gauges required to
gauge average rainfall within a reasonable limit of error for
networking are given below:
Raingauge Network

Table: Minimum number of rain gauges for average rainfall estimates

a) By Bleasdale b) R.K. Sharma

Area No of Rain Area No of Rain
gauges gauges
miles2 km2 km2
10 26 2 Up to 75 1
100 260 6 76-150 2
500 1300 12 151-300 3
1000 2600 15 301-550 4
2000 5200 20 551-800 5
3000 7800 24 801-1200 6
Errors in Rainfall Measurement
The measured precipitation data are subject to errors due to:
◼ Evaporation during precipitation and manual reading.

◼ Amount used up (about 0.25mm) in wetting the. funnel and inside

surfaces of the gauge when it is dry.
◼ Loss due to rain drop splash from the collecting funnel

◼ Incorrect height of the gauge above the ground

◼ Errors in reading the scale of the gauge

◼ Effect of the wind

Analysis of Precipitation
For most stations, the total amount (either monthly or yearly) of rain
falling at a point is the usual basic rainfall data available. However,
for many engineering purposes this is not adequate and information
may be required under any or all of the following headings:
1. Intensity: is the rate at which rainfall occurs. It is expressed in
depth per unit time, usually mm per hour.
Rainfall intensity is classified into:

i. Light intensity < 2.5mm per hour

ii. Moderate intensity 2.5 – 7.5mm per hour
iii. Heavy intensity > 7.5 mm per hour
Analysis of Precipitation
2. Duration. This is the period of time during which rain falls
3. Frequency: this refers to the expectation that a given depth of rainfall
will fall in a given time
4. Areal extent: this concerns the area over which a point’s rainfall can be
held to apply.
Intensity-Duration Relationship: the intensity of rainfall is inversely
proportional to the
Duration. A general formula expressing the relationship is the type
a
i= .................... for..duration..less..than..two..hrs
t +b
c
i = n ....................... for..duration...greater..than..two.hrs
t
Rainfall Mass Curve
• A graph showing the cumulative depth of rainfall against time is
known as the rainfall mass curve. From the working principles of the
float type, the weighing bucket type and the tipping bucket recording
raingauges, they provide the cumulative values with time and therefore
the necessary data for the rainfall mass curve

• Rainfall mass curve –Is a graph showing the cumulative depth of

rainfall against time, plotted in chronological order.
Rainfall Mass Curve
Intensity of Rainfall
The difference in ordinates of the mass
curve at any two points, A, and B gives the amount of rainfall
occurring in the time interval. The quantity ∆P/∆t represent
the average rainfall intensity in the time period of ∆t.
lim P dP
i= =
t → 0 t dt
gives the intensity of rainfall at a given time t.
Rainfall Hyetograph
If the instantaneous intensities are plotted against the
corresponding times, the hyetograph of the storm is
obtained.
For the construction of a rainfall hyetograph, a constant time
interval (e.g. 5 mins, 3hrs) is selected and the average
intensities in successive time periods equal to the selected
time interval are computed and the hyetograph is constructed
with these average intensities.
Hyetograph with 3Hr Interval
Hyetograph
The interval used for the construction of a hyetograph depends
on the sensitivity required. When the greatest possible
sensitivity is required, the smallest interval (5 mins) over
which the rainfall rate is constant is selected.
The area under the hyetograph storm represents the total
rainfall received during the period of that storm
Preparation of Data
Before using rainfall data for analysis. It is necessary to check the
record for
• Missing data
• Consistency of data
Inconsistency in rainfall data may root from
• Change in location of raingauge (i.e. shifting to new site)
• Changes in instrument or observational procedure
• Change in exposure such as the erection of new buildings and, the
growth of trees, which may change the wind pattern around the gauge.
Preparation of Data-Estimating Missing
Rainfall Data
• Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records
because of absence of the observer or because of instrumental failures.
It is often necessary to estimate this missing record. The missing
record is approximated with reference to the stations as close to the
particular site with missing records
• There are two methods for estimation of missing data.
• Arithmetic Mean Method
• Normal Ratio Method
Arithmetic Mean Method
• This method is applicable if the normal annual rainfall at the missing
station is within 10 per cent of the normal annual rainfall at the
adjoining three stations. An arithmetic mean of the rainfall of the three
stations is taken as the rainfall at the station with the missing record.

Px = (PA + PB + PC )
1
3
• Using data from three surrounding gauges should give good results
Normal Ratio Method
• This method is used if the normal annual rainfall at the surrounding
stations differ from the normal annual rainfall of the station in
question by more than 10%. The rainfalls are weighted by the ratio of
the normal annual rainfalls.
Px 1  PA PB PC 
=  + + 
N x 3  N A N B NC 

Px – missing rainfall value at station X

PA, PB, PC – rainfall values at neighbouring stations
Nx – normal long-term (usually annual) rainfall at station X
NA, NB, NC – normal long-term rainfall values at neighbouring stations
A minimum of three surrounding stations are generally used in the
normal ratio method
Test for Consistency - Double-mass curve
technique
• The double–mass curve analysis is a consistency check used
to detect whether the data at a site have been subjected to
significant change in magnitude due to external factors
• This technique is based on the principle that when each
recorded data comes from the same parent population, they
are consistent.
• In the analysis, a plot is made of accumulated annual or
seasonal precipitation values at the site in question against the
concurrent accumulation values of surrounding stations
Double-mass curve technique

1 2 3 4 5
Year X Y X i Y i

1951 X1 Y1 X1 Y1
1952 X2 Y X1 + X2 Y1 + Y2
1953 X3 Y X1 + X2 + X3 Y1 + Y2 + Y3
` ` ` ` `
` ` ` ` `
` ` ` ` `
1985 Xn Yn X1 + X2 +……...+ Xn Y1 +Y2 +………+ Yn
Double-mass curve technique
If a plot of accumulated values of test site (column 4) is plotted
against accumulated values of surrounding stations (column
5), a double mass-plot will be obtained. If the data are
consistent, the plot will be a straight line. On the other hand,
an inconsistent data will exhibit a change in slope or break at
a point where the inconsistency has occurred
Double-mass curve
Double-mass curve technique
The point A can be located on the table to determine the time
when the inconsistency began. If the slope of the line OA is
a and that of the line AB is b, the adjustment of the
inconsistent data is made by the ratio of the slopes of the two
line segments
Long Term Trends using Moving Averages
Moving averages is a simple statistical used to discern trends in data.
◼ Suppose the rainfall records at a station over a number of years are
shown. The first five years on the record are averaged and this
average is plotted at the mid point of the group. The next point is
obtained by omitting the first year and averaging years 2 to 6, again
plotting the average at the mid point of the group. In this way the
wide variations of particular years are smoothed out and long-term
trends may be detected.
Moving Averages Technique
Areal Precipitation
The representative precipitation over a defined area is required
in engineering application, whereas the gauged observation
pertains to the point precipitation.
The areal precipitation is computed from the record of a group
of gauges within the area by one of the following methods:
◼ Arithmetic mean method

◼ Thiessen weighted average method

◼ Isohyetal method

◼ Centre of gravity method

Areal Precipitation_ Arithmetic Mean method

Arithmetic method: This simple method consists of

computing the arithmetic average of the values of the
precipitation for all stations within the area irrespective of
the area covered by each raingauge.
Average precipitation over an area is given by:

P1 + P2 + P3 + − − − − − − − Pn  Pi
Pav = =
n n
Areal Precipitation: Thiessen Weighted
Method
The Thiessen Weighted Method: The method gives weight to
the areal distribution of stations in order to make allowance
for irregularities in gauge spacing by weighting the rainfall
of each gauge in proportion to the area the gauge is assumed
to represent.
The area a gauge represents is obtained as follows:
Thiessen Weighted Method
1. The stations are plotted on a map of the area drawn to scale
2. The adjoining stations are connected by lines.
3. Perpendicular bisectors are constructed on the connecting lines
4. The perpendicular bisectors form polygons around each station. For stations
close the boundary, the boundary lines form the closing limit of the polygons
5. The area of each polygon is determined by using a planimeter and then
multiplied by the value of rainfall for the station within the polygon
6. The sum of item 5 divided by the total drainage area provides the weighted
average rainfall

Pav =
 PA i i

A i
Thiessen Weighted Method

Station Rainfall (mm) Area of Thiessen Ai x Pi

Polygon (Ai)
1 P1 A1 P1A1
2 P2 A2 P2A2
3 P3 A3 P3A3

n Pn An PnAn
n n

A
n =1
i PA
n =1
i i
Thiessen Weighted Method
Thiessen Weighted Method
Disadvantages of Thiessen Method:
1. Inflexibility: The Thiessen polygon has to be redrawn
whenever there is a change in the gauge network by
abandonment or addition of one or more stations
2. It does not allow for orographic influences
Areal Precipitation- Isohyetal Method
The isohyetal method: consists of plotting the depth of
rainfall at the location of various raingauges and plotting the
isohyets. The points of a required isohyets are located by
linear interpolation between the adjacent gauges.
An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude
The procedure is as follows:
The Isohyetal Method
1. The stations and rainfall values are plotted on a map to a suitable scale.
2. The contours of equal precipitation (isohyets) are drawn
3. The area between successive isohyets is measured multiplied by the
numerical average of the two isohyets
4. The sum of item 3 divided by the drainage area provides the weighted
average precipitation

 Pi + Pi +1 
  2  Ai
Pav =
 Ai
The Isohyetal Method
Isohyet Area covered by Area between two Average of Precipitation x Area.
(mm) the Isohyet (km2) Isohyets (km2) Two Isohyets Col 3 x Col 4
P1 0
A1 P1 + P2  P1 + P2 
  A1
2  2 
P2 A1
A2 – A1 P2 + P3  P2 + P3 
  (A2 – A1)
2  2 
P3 A2

A3 A3 – A2 P3 + P4  P3 + P4 
  (A3 – A2)
2  2 

P An
n

A
The Isohyetal Method