Mulungushi University

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Lecturer: Muumbe K. Lweendo

MSc Eng. (Hohai), BEng (Unza), MEIZ, R.Eng
 Road Map
2. Precipitation

2.1 Types of precipitation and Measurement of precipitation

2.2 Missing data, Double mass curve analysis

2.3 Interception and Depression Storage

 2. Precipitation
 All types of moisture reaching the surface of earth from atmosphere.
 Precipitation is the basic input to the hydrology

 Factors determining
precipitation or the amount of
atmospheric moisture over a
region
▪Climate
▪ Geography
 Ocean surfaces is the chief
source of moisture for
precipitation
 2.1 Formation of Precipitation
• Supply of moisture
• Cooling to below point of condensation
• Condensation
• Growth of particles
Accumulation of moisture:
• Heavy rainfall amount over a river basin exceed by far the amount of
water vapor at the atmospheric volume vertically above the basin at
the beginning of the rainfall

• Convergence:
The net horizontal influx of air per unit area is called convergence.
• Clearly there must be a large net horizontal inflow of water vapor
into the atmosphere above the basin area.
• The moisture added to the atmosphere over a basin may be
transported very large distance in the lowest layer of the atmosphere.
When this moist current reaches a region of active. Vertical motion it
rises thousands of feet and loses much of its contained water vapor in
just a few hours.
Mechanism of Cooling:
• The reduction in pressure when air ascends from the surface of
earth to upper levels in the atmosphere is the only mechanism
capable of producing the degree and rate needed to account for
heavy rainfall.

• The capacity of a given volume of air to hold a certain amount of

water vapors is lowered due to cooling.

• Super saturation is known to occur in the atmosphere so the excess

moisture over saturation condenses through the cooling process
which ultimately results in precipitation.
Condensation of Water Vapors:

• It normally occurs when there is 100% relative humidity and a

condensation nuclei having an affinity for water is present.

• Sources of these condensation nuclei are the particles of sea salt,

carbon dioxide and the sulfurous and nitrogenous oxides emanating
from surface of the earth into the atmosphere.

• There appears to be always sufficient nuclei present in the

atmosphere.

• Condensation will always occur in air the lower atmosphere is

cooled to saturation, often before the saturation point is reached.
 Growth of Droplets:
It is required so that the liquid particles present in the clouds can reach the ground
There are two processes most effective for droplet growth.
i. Coalescence of droplets through collision.
ii. Co-existence of ice crystals and water droplets.

i. Coalescence of droplets through collision:

• Coalescence of droplets through collision due to difference in speed of motion between
larger and smaller droplets results in the growth of the droplets.
• The growth of the droplets increases their weight as a result of which their rate of fall is
also increased whereby more collision with other droplets and more growth of droplets
takes place.

ii.Co-existence of ice crystals and water droplets.

• The growth of droplets is also achieved by their co existence with the ice crystals.
• This generally happens in a temperature range of 10 oF to 20oF Bergeron’s theory.
When ice crystals and water droplets co exist in a cloud, an imbalance is caused due to
lower saturation vapor pressure over ice as compared to water this results in the
evaporation of water droplets and condensation of much of these droplets on ice crystals
also causing their growth and ultimate fall through clouds.
 Causes of precipitation
2.2 Lifting mechanisms

(a) Convection
 Convectional rainfall occurs when the energy of the sun (or insolation) heats the
earth’s surface and causes water to evaporate changing to water vapor. This
warm, moist air then rises, and as it rises, it cools. The air reaches a point called
the condensation level where it has cooled to such an extent that the water vapor
condenses and turns back to a liquid form.
 2.2 Lifting mechanisms

(b) Orographic lifting

 Orographic lift occurs when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to
a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain.
 Orographic precipitation is most pronounced on the windward side of
mountain range, generally heaviest precipitation occurs where favorable
Orographic effects are present
 2.2 Lifting mechanisms

(c) Frontal lifting

 Cyclonic or Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge of a warm, moist air
mass (warm front) meets a cool and dry air mass (cold front). ... As it rises, the warm
air cools, the water vapor in the air condenses, and clouds and precipitation result.
2.2 Lifting mechanisms

(d) Convergence
Distribution of precipitation over different types of surfaces
2.1a Types of precipitation
2.1a Types of precipitation
 Forms of precipitation
 Rain:
• Rain is the most common type of precipitation.
• The size of drops is more than 0.02 inch and less than 0.25 inch
in diameter.
• Flow is generally produced on the ground by it if the rate of
rainfall is more than the rate of infiltration of soil.

 Glaze:
• It is the ice coating formed on the drizzle or rain drops as it
comes in contact with the cold surfaces on the ground.

 Sleet:
• It is the frozen rain drops cooled to the ice stage while falling
through air at subfreezing temperatures
 Forms of precipitation
 Snow:
• Snow is the precipitation in the form of ice crystals resulting from
sublimation i.e. from water vapor to ice directly
• Often the warm surface of earth melts the freshly fallen snow.
• However, if the Earth’s surface is cold, the snow can accumulate on
the ground

 Snowflake:
• It is made up of a number of ice crystals fused together

 Hails:
• Precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of ice over 0.2 inch
diameter
• Formed by alternate freezing and thawing as the particles are carried
up and down in highly turbulent air currents
• Their impact is also more as compared to other forms of precipitation
 2.1b Measurement of Precipitation

Precipitation Data
• Precipitation data are necessary for most land use plans and for
hydrologic planning like water for human, agriculture, disposal of
waste water and the control of excess rainfall .

• In agriculture precipitation data can be indicate when and where a

lack or a surplus of water for crops may be expected.

• State and federal government have collected and published precipitation data
and it is available in some libraries, in electronic tapes or CD’s and now it is
also available on the Web.

• Special reports are published on special occasions like flood events

of major importance, rainfall rate duration frequency or droughts
 2.1b Measurement of Precipitation

• Gauges
• Radar and satellite
2.1b Measurement Methods
 2.1b Measurement Methods

• Rain gauges are most commonly used for the measurement of precipitation,
both in terms of rain fall and snow.

Types of rain gauges

2.1b Measurement Methods

Non Recording Gauges

2.1b Measurement Methods

Recording Gauges
2.1b Measurement Methods

Types of Recording Gauges

 2.1b Measurement Methods

1. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge

 2.1b Measurement Methods

2. Weighing Type Gauge

 2.1b Measurement Methods

3. Float Recording Gauge

 2.1b Measurement Methods

Errors in precipitation measurements by guages

Measurement of Snow
Snow Gauges
Equivalent Water in Snow
 Estimating Missing Precipitation

Point Data Analysis

• Point precipitation data refers to precipitation of a station, data could be in form of

hourly record, daily record, monthly precipitation or annual precipitation.

• Depending upon the nature of catchment and its area, there could be as many
gauging stations as feasible. Before using records from a rain gauge check its
continuity and consistency.

• The precipitation record should be complete but due to absences of the observer or
because of instrumental failures some precipitation stations may have short breaks in
the records.
 Rain gauge Network

 the catchment area per gauge should be small.

What limits number of gauges in an area?

 Economic considerations

 Topography

 accessibility

To obtain reasonably accurate information about storms, WMO recommends some density
based mostly on

Acceptable (1
Description Ideal (1 stn/area)
stn/area)

In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean

and tropical zones 600 - 900 900-3000

In mountainous regions of temparate,

meditarranean and topical zones 100-250
25-1000
In arid and polar zones 1500 -10,000
 Adequacy of Rain gauges
The optimum number of stations that should be in an area is given by:
 Example

A catchment has 6 rain gauge stations. In a year, the annual rainfall recorded by the stations is
as follows:
Station A B C D E F

Rainfall
(mm) 82.6 102.9 180.3 110.3 98.8 136.7

For a 10% error in the estimation of the mean rainfall, calculate the optimum number of
stations in the catchment.
 Arithmetic Mean Method

Normal Ratio Method

Normal annual precipitation: Mean of 30 years of annual precipitation data

 Example
 The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B,C and D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28 and
92.01cm respectively. In the year 1975, the station D was inoperative and stations A, B and C
recorded annual precipitations of 91.11, 72.23 and 79.89cm respectively. Estimate the rainfall
at station D in that year.
 TEST FOR CONSISTENCY OF RECORD

 If the conditions relevant to the recording of a rain gauge station have undergone a
significant change during the period of record, inconsistency would arise in the
rainfall data of that station

Causes of inconsistency of records

i. Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new location
ii. The neighborhood of the station undergoing a marked change
iii. Change in the ecosystem due to calamities. E.g. forest fires, land slides
iv. Occurrence of observational error from a certain date.

 Checking for inconsistency of record is done by the double mass curve technique
 Technique is based on the principle that when each recorded data comes from the
same population, they are consistent.
 Pa = k x Po
Where
Pa = Adjusted precipitation
Po = Observed Precipitation
Example
Annual rainfall data for station M as well as the average annual rainfall values for a group of ten
neigbouring stations located in a meteorological homogeneous region are given below:

Annual Average Annual Average

Rainfall annual Rainfall annual
Year Year
of station rainfall of of station rainfall of
M (mm) the group M (mm) the group

1950 676 780 1965 1244 1400

1951 578 660 1966 999 1140
1952 95 110 1967 573 650
1953 462 520 1968 596 646
1954 472 540 1969 375 350
1955 699 800 1970 635 590
1956 479 540 1971 497 490
1957 431 490 1972 386 400
1958 493 560 1973 438 390
1959 503 575 1974 568 570
1960 415 480 1975 356 577
1961 531 600 1976 685 653
1962 504 580 1977 825 787
1963 828 950 1978 426 410
1964 679 770 1979 612 588

Test the consistency of the annual rainfall data of station M and correct the record if there is
any discrepancy. Estimate the mean annual precipitation
Example:
The isohyets due to a storm in a catchment are and area of the catchment bounded by isohyets
are given below. Estimate the mean precipitation due to the storm

Isohyets (cm) Area (km2)

Station-12.0 30

12.0-10.0 140

10.0-8.0 80

8.0-6.0 180

6.0-4.0 20
Rainfall Frequency Distribution:-
Hydrologist need to estimate the probality that a given rainfall event will occur to
assistant planners in determining the likelihood of the success or failure of a given
project
Parameters
i. Duration
ii. Intensity
iii.Return period
i. Duration: The time from the beginning of the storm to the end is called
duration.
ii. Intensity: Amount of precipitation per unit time is called the intensity of
precipitation.
iii. Return period:- The return period is the average period of he time in years
expected either between high intensity storm or between very dry periods.
 Interception and Depression Storage

Prologue

The purpose of this chapter is to:

 Define interception and depression storage

 Define the roles these abstracting mechanisms play in affecting the

amount of precipitated water ultimately available for other distribution.

 Provide some approaches to estimating the quantities of water

intercepted and stored in depressions during precipitation events.
Interception and depression storage
 Interception and depression storage
Interception

 Intercepting surfaces: trees, crops, grass, and civil engineering structures

 Interception is a function of (1) the storm character, (2) the characteristics of the
prevailing vegetation, and (3) the season of the year
 Interception

 Interception Storage (S): The maximum volume that can be intercepted and
retained on the foliage against the forces of wind and gravity. (S is often expressed as
depth over the entire area).
 If the total rainfall volume is less than S, then all rainfall will be intercepted.
Potential interception losses during storm can be estimated:

Generally, interception losses are difficult to estimate. For large storms this loss is relatively insignificant. That’s why in engineering
hydrology, it is either neglected or combined with other losses.
 Depression Storage

Once precipitation reaches the ground, part of the precipitation may become trapped in numerous
small depressions (the land surface is not smooth and flat) from which the only escape is
evaporation or infiltration.
 Depression storage
 Maximum Depression Storage (Sd): the maximum storage capacity of all the depressions
(mm over the entire catchment).
 Depression storage depends on a vast number of factors such as:
(i) Type of soil,
(ii) Condition of the surface reflecting the amount and nature of depression,
(iii) slope of the catchment
(iv) Antecedent precipitation. as a measure of the soil moisture.

 Because of extreme variability in the nature of depressions, no generalized relation exists to

estimate the depression storage of a catchment.