Elements of group 16, 17 and 18

1. Introduction :-
p- block elements are the elementsin which the differentiating electron ( the lastfilling
electron) enters the p-orbital of the outermost shell.
Since p-orbital accommodatedmaximum 6 electrons it gives rise to groups13 to 18. In this
chapter we shall study the properties of elements of groups 16,17 &18.
• Group 16
Oxygen(8O), sulfur (16S), selenium (34Se), tellurium (52Te), polonium(84Po).
These elements are called chalcogens.
• Group 17
Fluorine (9F), chlorine(17Cl), bromine(35Br), iodine (53I), astatine (85At).
These elements are called halogens.
• Group 18
Helium (2He), neon (10Ne), argon (18Ar), krypton (36Kr), xenon(54Xe), radon (86Rn).
These elements are called noble gases.

2. Occurance :-
Group16
1.Oxygen is most abundant i.e. 20.95% by volume in air (46.6% by mass)
2. Sulfur (0.034%) by mass occurs in combined state, Sulphates and sulphides.
Sulphate :- Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), Epsom salt ( MgSO4.7H2O), Baryte ( BaSO4).

Sulphides :- Galena (PbS), Zine blende(ZnS), Copper pyrates (CuFeS2)

3. Selenium found in metal Selenides, Tellurium in sulphide ores andPolonium is a
radioactive element.
Group17

1.Fluorine occurs as insoluble fluorides present in soil, bones and teeth of animals.
i.e. Flurospar (CaF2), Cryolite (Na3AlF6), Fluroapitate [Ca3(PO4)2.CaF2]

2.Chlorides Bromides and iodides are occurs in sea water. It mainly contains NaCl(2.5% by
mass) Marine life ( sea weeds) contains upto 0.5% iodine.
3.Astatine is a radioactive having half life is 8.1 hours.
Group18
1.All noble gases except radon occurs in atmosphere. Their abundance is 1% by volume.
2.Helium and Neon are found in minerals of radioactive origin.
i.e. Pitchblende, monazite, cleveite.
3.Electronic Configuration :-
Group 16 :-
The general electronic configuration is ns2 np4 (n=2 to 7)

Group 17 :-
The general electronic configuration is ns2 np5 (n=2 to 7)

Group 18 :-
The general electronic configuration is ns2 np6 (n=2 to 7),
Helium 1s2
Neon [He] 2s2 2p6
Argon [Ne] 3s2 3p6
Krypton [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6
Xenon [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6
Radon [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6

.Atomic properties :-

Atomic and ionic radii ( Group 16,17 & 18) :-

• Atomic and ionic radii increases down the group due to increase in the number of quantum

shells.

• Across the period, atomic and ionic radii decreases due to increase in atomic number,
electrons

are added in the same shell, the effective nuclear charge increases, Hence atomic size
decreases.

Ionisation Enthalpy ( Group 16,17 & 18) :-

( Definition :- The energy required to remove an electron from the isolated gaseous atom

in its ground state is called ionisation enthalpy )

• These elements have high values of ionisation enthalpies.

• In a group, ionisation enthalpy decreases with increase in atomic size.

• Across a period, ionisation enthalpies increases with increase in atomic number. This is
due to

addition of electrons in the same shell, the effective nuclear charge increases. Hence atomic
size

decreases and ionisation enthalpies increases.

Electronegativity ( Group 16,17 & 18) :-

( Definition : The ability of a covalently bonded atom to attract the shared electrons toward

itself is called electronegativity.)

• In a group, electronegativity decreases down the group.

• Across a period, electronegativity increases. This is due to addition of electrons in the

same shell,
the effective nuclear charge increases. Hence atomic size decreases and electronegativity
increases.

Fluorine is the most electronegative element. Halogens have very high electronegativity.

Electron gain enthalpy :-

( Definition : The enthalpy change that takes place when an electron is added to an isolated

gaseous atom in its ground state is called electron gain enthalpy)

• Group 16 : Oxygen has less negative electron gain enthalpy than sulfur due to small atomic
size.

• Group 17 : Fluorine has less negative electron gain enthalpy than Chlorine due to small
atomic

size. This is due to small size of fluorine atom.

• Group 18 : They have no tendency to accept electrons because of their stable electronic

configuration. Thus they have positive electron gain enthalpies.

. Physical properties :-

Group 16

1.Oxygen is a gas while other elements are solids at room temp. Oxygen and sulfur are non-
metals, Selenium and tellurium are metalloids while polonium is a metal.

2.Melting and Boiling point increases with increasing at. number.

3.All the elements exhibits allotropy.

Group 17

1.Fluorine, Chlorine are gases, Bromine is liquid and iodine is a solid at room temperature.

2.Fluorine and chlorine reacts with water, Bromine and iodine are sparingly soluble in water.
These are soluble in various organic solvents

( i.e. chloroform, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride, hydrocarbon)

Group 18

1.These gases are monoatomic in nature.

2.These are sparingly soluble in water.

They have low values of melting and boiling points.

Anomalous behaviour :-
Group 16
Anomalous behaviour of Oxygen :-
The anomalous behaviour of oxygen is due to its
• Small atomic size
• High values of Ionisation enthalpy and electronegativity
• Absence of d-orbital in its valence shell.
Some anomalous properties of oxygen :-
• Oxygen is a diatomic gas while other elements are octatomic solids at room temp.
• Oxygen molecule is paramagnetic whereas others are diamagnetic in nature.
• Oxygen shows -2,-1 & +2 oxidation state while other elements shows -2,+2,+4 & +6
oxidation state
• The hydrides of oxygen (H2O) is a liquid at room temperature while the hydrides of other
members are gases.
• Oxygen shows a covalency is two while other members can show maximum covalency is
six.

Group 17
Anomalous behaviour of Fluorine :-
The anomalous behaviour of fluorine is due to its
• Small atomic size
• High electronegativity
• Absence of d-orbitals in its valence shell
• Low F-F bond dissociation energy.
Some anomalous properties of difference :-
• Fluorine is most reactive, it exhibits only -1 oxidation state, while other members shows +1
to +7 oxidation state.
• Due to hydrogen bonding, HF is a liquid while other hydrides are gases in nature.
• Fluorine has the highest tendency to form ionic compounds due to high electronegativity.
• Fluorine forms only one oxoacid (HOF) while other halogens forms a number of oxoacids.
• It displaces other halogens from their corresponding halides.

Chemical Properties :-
:- Oxidation states :-

Group16
1. All the elements have valence shell electronic configuration is ns2np4
2. Oxygen shows common oxidation state is -2.except in OF2 (O.S. is +2) and in peroxide
Na2O2 (O.S.is +1)
3. While other elements exhibits +2,+4,+6 oxidation states.
4. However the stability of +6 oxidation states decreases down the group while the stability
of +4 oxidation state increases due to inert pair effect.

Group 17
1. All the elements have valence shell electronic configuration is ns2np5
2. All halogen exhibits +1,+3,+5 and +7 oxidation state due to presence of d-orbitals.
3. Fluorine shows only -1 oxidation state.
Reactivity towards hydrogen :-
Group 16
1. All these elements reacts with hydrogen to form hydrides of type H2E.
i.e. H2O, H2S, H2Se, H2Te, H2Po.
2. H2O is colourless, odourless liquid while other hydrides are colourless, bad smelling
poisonous gases.
3. All hydrides have angular structures which involves SP3 hybridisation of central atom.
4. The Acidic character of the hydrides increases down the group from H2O to H2Te.
i.e. H2O H2S H2Se H2Te.
5. The thermal stability of the hydrides decreases down the group from H2O to H2Te.
i.e. H2O H2S H2Se H2Te.
6. All hydrides except H2O , acts as reducing agent reducing power increases from H2O to
H2Te. i.e. H2S H2Se H2Te.
Group 17
1. All the halogen react with hydrogen to form covalent hydrides
2. H2 + X2 →2HX. (X= F, Cl, Br, I)Type equation here.
1. HF is low boiling liquid (B.P.19oC), while HCl, HBr, HI are gases
2. The acidic strength of halogen acids increases in the order HF< HCl < HBr< HI.
3. The thermal stability of hydrogen halides decreases in the order HF > HCl > HBr > HI.

Group 18
1. All the elements have valence shell electronic configuration is ns2np6
2. Xenon exhibits higher oxidation states due to presence of d- orbital in valence shell.
3. Hence Xenon shows XeF2 (+2), XeF4 (+4), XeO3 (+6), XeOF4 (+6) oxidation states.
Reactivity towards Oxygen :-
Group 16
1. All the elements form monoxides, dioxides(EO2) and trioxides (EO3) Where E= S, Se, Te,
Po.
2. All dioxides acts as both oxidising and reducing agents.
3. Dioxides and trioxides are acidic in nature. The acidic strength decreases down the group.
4. These oxides dissolves in water to form acids.
SeO2 + H2O→ H2SeO3 ( Selenious acid)
SeO3 + H2O→ H2SeO4 ( Selenic acid )

Group 17
1. All elements forms many oxides with oxygen.
2. Fluorine form OF2 and O2F2 both are fluorinating agents.
3. Chlorine forms Cl2O, ClO2, Cl2O6 and Cl2O7are highly reactive oxidising agents. ClO2
is acts as bleaching agent in paper pulp and textile industries.
4. Bromine forms Br2O, BrO2 , BrO3 unstable oxide which are powerful oxidising agents.
5. Iodine forms I2O4, I2O5 and I2O7 oxides. I2O5 is powerful oxidising agent
( Higher oxides of halogens are more stable than lower oxides of halogens)

Reactivity towards Halogen :-

Group16
1. All elements reacts with halogens to give large number of halides.
i.e. monohalides, dihalides( EX2), tetrahalides (EX4) & Hexahalides (EX6).
2. Monohalides are dimeric in nature. These dimeric halides undergo disproportionation.
Example : S2F2,S2Cl2, Se2Cl2.
3. Dihalides are tetrahedral structure with two equatorial positions occupied by lone pairs.
Example : SCl2, SeCl2, TeCl2.
4. Tetrahalides are trigonal bipyramidal structure with one equatorial position occupied by
lone pair. Example : SCl4, SeCl4, TeCl4.
5. Hexahalides( SP3d2
) are octahedral structures with sp3d2 hybridisation. These are
colourless gases and formed by direct combination. Example : SF6, SeF6, TeF6.
Stability of halides decreases in the order fluorides > chlorides > bromides > iodides.
Group17
1. Halogens combines themselves to form interhalogen compounds. i.e. XX', XX'3, XX'5,
XX’7
2. Where X is the halogen atom with larger size and X' is the halogen atom with smaller size.
Group18
1. Krypton and Xenon reacts directly with fluorine to gives fluorides .
2. Xenon fluorides ( XeF2,XeF4,XeF6) are powerful fluorinating agents.

Reactivity of metals :-
Group 16
1. Elements of Group 16 reacts with metals to form corresponding compounds.
2. Example :- 4Al + 3O2 ---→ 2Al2O3
Cu + S -------→ CuS
Mg + Se -----→ MgSe ( Magnesium selenide)

Group 17
1. Elements of group 17 reacts with metals to gives metal halides.
2. Example :- 2Na + Cl2 ---→ 2 NaCl
Mg + Br2 ---→ MgBr2
• Ionic chararter of halides decreases in the order MF > MCl >MBr > MI,
Where M is a monovalent metal.
• The metal halides in their higher oxidation states are more covalent than the
lower oxidation states.
• For example:- SnCl4, PbCl4, SbCl5 and UF6 are more covalent than SnCl2,
PbCl2, SbCl3 and UF4 respectively

Group 18
1. Noble gases donot reacts with metals.

.Allotropy :-

• Oxygen has two allotrops O2 and O3 ( Ozone)

• Sulphur has two allotrops forms Rhombic and monoclinic
• Selenium exists in two allotropsred (non-metallic) and grey (metallic)
• Tellurium exists in two allotrops crystalline and amorphous
• Polonium exists in two allotrops α and β ( both are metallic)
Allotropes of Sulphur

Sulphur exists in numerous allotropic forms of which three forms are the most
important. These three main allotropic forms are:
(i) Rhombic sulphur
(ii) Monoclinic sulphur

(i) Rhombic sulphur or α-Sulphur

(i) It is the common form of sulphur and is formed by slowly evaporating the solution of roll
sulphur in CS2, when octahedral crystals of sulphur appear.
(ii) Its specific gravity is 2.06 g cm3.
(iii) Its melting point is 385.8 K.
(iv) This is the most stable form of sulphur at room temperature and all other varieties of
sulphur change into this form on standing.
(v) It is insoluble in water but dissolves to some extent in benzene, alcohol and ether.
However, it is readily soluble in CS2.
(vi) It has low thermal and electrical conductivity.
(vii) Its specific gravity is 2.07 g cm-3.
(viii) It is bright yellow in colour.
(ix) Rhombic sulphur exists as S8 molecules. The sulphur atoms are arranged in a puckered
ring.
(ii) Monoclinic sulphur or β-Sulphur

(i) This form of sulphur is prepared by melting rhombic sulphur in a dish and cooling till a
crust is formed. Two holes are made in the crust and the remaining liquid poured out. On
removing the crust, colourless needle shaped crystals of B-sulphur are formed.
(ii) It is dull yellow in colour and like rhombic sulphur, it is also soluble in carbon disulphide.
(ii) It has specific gravity of 1.98 g cm-3.
(iv) Its melting point is 393 K.
(v) Monoclinic sulphur also exists as S8 molecules with puckered ring structures like rhombic
sulphur. However, the two forms differ in the symmetry of their crystals.
(vi) It is stable above 369K and transforms into α-sulphur below this temperature.
Conversely, α-sulphur is stable below 369 K and transforms into β-sulphur above this
temperature. Thus, at 369 K both the forms are stable and coexist. This temperature is
called the transition temperature.
Thus, both rhombic and monoclinic sulphur have S8 molecules. These S8 molecules are
packed to give different crystal structure . The S8 ring in both the forms is puckered and has
a crown shape.

oxoacid of Sulfur
Sulfur oxoacids are chemical compounds that contain sulfur, oxygen, and hydrogen. The best
known and most important industrially used is sulfuric acid. Sulfur has several oxoacids;
however, some of these are known only from their salts (these are shown in italics in the table
below). The acids that have been characterised contain a variety of structural features

Formal oxidation
Acid Formula Structure
number
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 +6

Polysulfuric acids
including disulfuric
H2SO4·nSO3 +6
acid (pyrosulfuric
acid)

Peroxymonosulfuric
H2SO5 +6
acid

Peroxydisulfuric
H2S2O8 +6
acid

Dithionic acid H2S2O6 +5

0 (for the terminal

Thiosulfuric acid H2S2O3 sulfur), +4 (for the
central atom)

+5 (of the sulfur

atom bonded to 3
Disulfurous acid or
H2S2O5 oxygen atoms),
pyrosulfurous acid
+3 (of other sulfur
atom)

Sulfurous acid H2SO3 +4

Oxo acids of Chlorine :-
• Halogens form several oxoacids .
• Only four oxoacids have been isolated in pure form:
Hypofluorous acid (HOF),
perchloric acid (HClO4),

iodic acid (HIO3), metaperiodic acid (H2IO6).

Oxygen and compounds of oxygen :-

:- Oxygen :-

a) Preparation :-
i) Laboratory methods :
• By heating oxygen containing salts such as chlorates, nitrates and permanganates.
2KClO3(s) , → MnO2 → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

• By thermal decomposition of oxides of metals.

2 Ag2O(s) → Δ→ 4 Ag(s) + O2(g)
• By decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in presence of catalyst such as finely divided metals
and
manganese dioxide.
2H2O2(aq) Δ , → MnO2 → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
ii) Electrolysis : By electrolysis of water, when hydrogen is liberated at cathode and oxygen at
anode.
2H2O →Electrolysis → 2H2 + O2
iii) Industrial method : Dioxygen is obtained from air, by removing first carbon dioxide and water
vapour.
Then the remaining gases are liquified subsequently. Oxygen and nitrogen gases can be
obtained separately by fractional distillation method.

b) Physical properties :
• Dioxygen is colourless and odourless gas. It liquifies at 90 K and freezes at 55 K.
• Dioxygen is sparingly soluble in water. A small amount of dissolved dioxygen is sufficient to
sustain marine and aquatic life.
• Oxygen has three stable isotopes 16O, 17O and 18O.
• Molecular oxygen, O2 exhibits paramagnetism.

c) Chemcial Properties :
i) Reaction with metals : Dioxygen directly reacts with almost all metals except Au, Pt to form
their oxides.
2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO
4 Al + 3O2 → 2 Al2O3

ii) Reaction with nonmetals : Dioxygen reacts with nonmetals (except noble gases) to form their
oxides.
C + O2 → CO2
P4 + 5O2 → P4O10
iii) Reaction with some compounds :
2 ZnS + 3O2 → Δ→ 2 ZnO + 2 SO2
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

2 SO2 + O2 → V2O5 → 2 SO3

D) Uses :-
• Dioxygen is important for respiration to sustain animal and aquatic life.
• It is used in the manufacture of steel.

• It is used in oxyacetylene flame for welding and cutting of metals.

• Oxygen cylinders are widely used in hospitals, high altitude flying and
mountaineering.
• It is used in combustion of fuels

( Example : Hydrazine in liquid oxygen provides tremendous energy in rockets)

Simple Oxides :
A binary compound of oxygen with another element is called an oxide.
Oxides can be classified into
a) Acidic oxides, b) Basic oxides, c) Amphoteric oxides, d) Neutral oxides.

a. Acidic oxides :
An oxide which dissolves in water to give an acid or reacts with a base to give a salt is called
acidic
oxide. Oxides of non-metal are acidic oxides. Example:- SO2, SO3, CO2, N2O5, Cl2O7 etc.

SO2 + H2O→ H2SO3

b. Basic oxides :
An oxide which dissolves in water to give a base or reacts with an acid to give salt is called
basic oxide. Oxides of metals are basic oxides . Example:-Na2O, CaO, BaO etc.
CaO + H2O→ Ca(OH)2

c. Amphoteric oxides :

The oxide which reacts with a base as well as with an acid to give salt is called an amphoteric
oxide. Example:- Al2O3

Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2Al3+ + 6Cl– + 3H2O

d. Neutral oxides :
The oxides which are neither acidic nor basic, are called as neutral oxides. Example,
CO,NO,N2O.
Ozone :-

Ozone (O3) is an allotrope of oxygen. Oxygen in the upper atmosphere absorbs energy i
the form of ultra-violet light and changes to atomic oxygen which combines with molecular
oxygen to form O3.
O2 →U.V. light→ O + O , O2 + O → O3.
The layer of ozone protects the earth’s surface from harmful ultraviolet (U.V) radiations.
Hence, it is called as 'ozone umbrella'.
a. Preparation of Ozone :
Ozone is prepared in the laboratory by passing silent electric discharge through pure and dry
oxygen. As the conversion of oxygen to ozone is only 10%, the product is known as
ozonised oxygen. It is an endothermic process.
3O2(g) ----→ 2O3, ΔH = +142 kJ/mol

b. Physical properties of ozone :

i. Pure Ozone is a pale - blue gas, dark blue liquid and violet - black solid.
ii. Ozone has a characteristic smell. When inhaled it causes nausea and headache.
iii. It is diamagnetic in nature.
Chemical Properties :-
1. Oxidising property :-
Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent, it decomposes nascent oxygen ( O3→ O2 + O)
i) Ozone oxidises lead sulfide to lead sulfate.
PbS(s) + 4O3 (g) --→ PbSO4(s) + 4O2(g)
ii) Ozone oxidises iodide to iodine.
2KI(aq) + H2O(l) + O3(g) --→ 2KOH(aq) + I2(g) + O2(g)
iii) Ozone oxidises nitrogen oxide to nitrogen dioxide.
NO(g) + O3(g) --→ NO2(g) + O2(g)
Nitrogen dioxide emmited from supersonic jet aeroplanes causes deplection of ozone layer
in upper atmosphere.
2. Bleaching property:-
Ozone acts as bleaching agent which bleaches in absence of moisture known as dry
bleach.
Coloured matter + O --→ Colourless
3. Reducing property :-
Ozone reduces peroxides to oxides.
H2O2 + O3 --→ H2O + 2O2.
4. Structure of Ozone :- Ozone (O3) is an angular molecule. The two O - O bond lengths
is128 pm and the O-O-O bond angle is 117°. It is a resonance hybrid of two canonical forms.

d) Uses of ozone : Ozone is used

• for air purification at crowded places like cinema halls, tunnels, railways, etc
.• In sterilizing drinking water by oxidising all germs and bacteria.
• For bleaching ivory, oils, starch, wax and delicate fabrics such as silk.
• In the manufacture of synthetic camphor, potassium permanganate, etc.
Compounds of Sulfur :-
:- Sulfur dioxide :-
a) Preparation :-
i) From Sulfur : By burning Sulfur , sulfur dioxide gas is prepared.
S(s) + O2 (g)--→ SO2(g).
ii) From Sulfite : In laboratory, Sulfur dioxide is prepared by treating sodium sulfite with dil.
Sulphuric acid.
Na2SO3 + H2SO4 (aq)--→ Na2SO4 + H2O (l) + SO2 (g)
iii) From Sulfides :Sulphur dioxide can be prepared by roasting zinc sulfide and iron pyrites.
2 ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) --→ 2 ZnO(s) + 2 SO2(s)
b) Physical properties :- It is a colourless gas with a pungent smell. It is poisonous in nature.
It is highly soluble in water to form sulfurous acid. It boils at 263K.

c) Chemical properties :-
• Reaction with Chlorine :-
Sulfur dioxide reacts with chlorine in the presence of charcoal to form sulfuryl chloride.
SO2(g) + Cl2(g)--- charcoal→ SO2Cl2(l).
• Reaction with Oxygen :-
Sulfur dioxide is oxidised by dioxygen in presence of vanadium pentaoxide to sulfur trioxide.
SO2(g) + O2(g) -→ V2O5 SO3(l).
• Reaction with NaOH :-
Sulfur dioxide readily reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium sulfite.
2NaOH + SO2(g) ---→ Na2SO3 + H2O.
• Reaction with Na2SO3 :-
Sulfur dioxide reacts with sodium sulfite solution to form sodium hydrogen sulfite.
Na2SO3 + H2O(l) + SO2 --→ 2NaHSO3

• Reducing property :
Sulfur dioxide acts as a reducing agent in the presence of moisture.
Moist sulfur dioxide reduces ferric salts into ferrous salts.
2Fe3+ + SO2 + 2H2O --→ 2Fe2+ + SO42− + 4H+
Moist sulfur dioxide decolourises acidified potassium permangnate (VII) solution.
2KMnO4 + 5SO2 + 2H2O ---→ K2SO4 +2MnSO4 + 2H2SO4
Moist sulfur dioxide reduces halogens to halogen acids.
I2 + SO2 + 2H2O --→ H2SO4 + 2HI

• Structure of SO2 :

i) Sulfur dioxide is angular with O-S-O bondangle of 119.5°.

ii) The S=O double bond arises from dπ –pπ bonding.
iii) It is a resonance hybrid of two canonical forms.

d) Uses :
Sulfur dioxide is used
• In refining of petroleum and sugar.
• In bleaching wool and silk.
• As an anti-chlor, disinfectant.
• As a preservative.
• In the manufacture of H2SO4, NaHSO3.
• Liquid SO2 is used as a solvent to dissolve a number of organic and inorganic
Chemicals

Sulfuric acid :-
a) Preparation : Sulfuric acid is manufactured by Contact process, which involves three
steps
i) Sulfur or sulfide ore (iron pyrites) on burning or roasting in air produces sulfur dioxide.
S(s) + O2(g) --Δ→ SO2(g)
4FeS2(s) + 11O2(g) – Δ→ 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
ii) Sulfur dioxide is oxidised by dioxygen in presence of vanadium pentaoxide to sulfur
trioxide.
SO2(g) + O2(g)-- V2O5, 720K, 2 bar→ SO3(g).
iii) Sulfur trioxide gas is absorbed in conc. H2SO4 to produce oleum. Dilution of
oleum with water gives sulfuric acid.
SO3(g) + H2SO4--→ H2S2O7 (oleum)
H2S2O7 + H2O --→2H2SO4
The sulfuric acid obtained by contact process is 96-98% pure.

Sulfuric acid :
b) Physical properties :-
i) Sulfuric acid is a colourless, dense, oily liquid.
ii) It has a density (specific gravity) of 1.84g/cm3 at 298 K.
iii) It freezes at 283 K and boils at 611 K.
iv) It is highly corrosive and produces severe burns on the skin.

c) Chemical properties :-
i) Acidic property :-
Sulfuric acid ionises in aqueous solution in two steps. The greater value of Ka (Ka >10)
means that H2SO4 is a strong acid.
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) --→ H3O+(aq) + HSO4 (aq) Ka > 10
HSO4(aq) + H2O(l) --→ H3O+(aq) + SO4−2 (aq) Ka = 1.2 × 10−2
ii) Reaction with metals and non-metals :-
Cu + H2SO4 (conc.) CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
C+ 2H2SO4 (conc.) CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O
iii) Dehydrating property :
Concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent. Sulfuric acid removes
water from sugar and carbohydrates. Carbon left behind is called sugar charcoal and the
process is called charring.
C12H22O11-- conc H2SO4→ 12C + 11H2O.
iv) Reaction with salts :
Concentrated sulfuric acid decomposes the salts of more volatile acids to the
corresponding acid
NaCl + H2SO4 --→ NaHSO4 + HCl
CaF2 + H2SO4--→ CaSO4 + 2HF
d) Uses :
It is used
• In the manufacture of fertilizers. For example, ammonium sulfate,
superphosphate, etc.
• In the manufacture of pigments, paints and dyestuff intermediates &
petroleum refining.
• In detergent industry, In storage batteries and as a laboratory reagent
• In metallurgy, for cleaning of metals electroplating and galvanising.
• In the manufacture of nitrocellulose products.
Chlorine and compounds of chlorine :-
Chlorine :
a) Preparation :
1. Chlorine can be prepared by the oxidation of hydrochloric acid with oxidising agents.
i. Manganese dioxide : MnO2 + 4HCl --→ MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
ii. Potassium permanganate : 2KMnO4 + 16HCl --→ 2KCl + 2MnCl2 +8H2O + 5Cl2
2. Chlorine can also be prepared by the action of concentrated sulfuric acid on a mixture of
sodium chloride (common salt) and manganese dioxide. The reaction takes place in two
steps.
4NaCl + 4H2SO4 --→ 4NaHSO4 + 4HCl
MnO2 + 4HCl --→ MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
4NaCl + MnO2 + 4H2SO4 → 4NaHSO4 +MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
b) Manufacture of chlorine :
i. Deacon’s process :
Chlorine is manufactured by the oxidation of hydrogen chloride gas by atmospheric
oxygen in the presence of CuCl2 as catalyst at 723 K.
4HCl + O2 -- CuCl2→ 2Cl2 + 2H2O

ii. Electrolytic process :

By the electrolysis of brine (conc. NaCl solution), chlorine is liberated at the anode.
NaCl --→ Na+ + Cl−
Cathode: 2H2O + 2e−--→ H2 + 2OH−
Na+ + OH− --→ NaOH
Anode : Cl --→ Cl + e−
Cl + Cl --→Cl2
c) Physical Properties of Chlorine :
i) Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas having pungent and suffocating odour.
ii) It is poisonous in nature.
iii) It can be easily liquified into a greenish yellow liquid, boils at 293 K.
iv) It dissolves in water to give chlorine water.

d) Chemical properties of chlorine :

i) Reaction with metals and non-metals :-
Chlorine reacts with metals and non-metals to form their chlorides.
2Al + 3Cl2--→ 2AlCl3.
P4 + 6Cl2 --→ 4PCl3.
ii) Affinity for hydrogen:- Chlorine reacts with hydrogen to form HCl.
H2 + Cl2 --→ 2 HCl
iii) Reaction with Ammonia :-
Chlorine reacts with excess of ammonia to form ammonium chloride and N2.
8NH3 + 3Cl2 --→ 6NH4Cl + N2
When excess of chlorine reacts with ammonia to form NCl3.
NH3 + 3Cl2 --→ NCl3 + 3HCl
iv) Reaction with alkali :-
Chlorine reacts with cold and dil. alkali produces chloride and hypochlorite.
2NaOH + Cl2 --→ 2NaCl + NaOCl + H2O.
Chlorine reacts with hot and conc. Alkali produces chloride and chlorates.
6NaOH + 3Cl2 --→ 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O.
v) Reaction with hydrocarbons :-
Chlorine reacts with saturated hydrocarbon gives substitution products.
CH4 + Cl2 --→ CH3Cl + HCl.
Chlorine reacts with unsaturated hydrocarbon gives additional products.
CH2=CH2 + Cl2 --→ Cl-CH2-CH2-Cl
vi) Oxidising property :-
Chlorine oxidises ferrous salt to ferric salt.
2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + Cl2 --→ Fe2(SO4)3 + 2HCl.
Chlorince oxidises sulfite to sulfates.
Na2SO3 + Cl2 + H2O --→ Na2SO4 + 2HCl.
vii) Bleaching property :-
Inpresence of moisture chlorine liberates nascent oxygen which is used for bleaching.

Cl2 + H2O --→ HCl + HOCl

HOCl --→ HCl + (O) nascent oxyen
Coloured matter + (O) --→ Colourless matter.
e) Uses :
Chlorine is used
• For purification (sterilizing) of drinking water.
• For bleaching wood pulp required for manufacture of paper and rayon, bleaching
cotton and textiles.
• For extraction of metals like gold and platinum.
• In the manufacture of dyes, drugs and organic compounds such as CCl4, CHCl3,
DDT, refrigerants, etc.
• In the preparation of poisonous gases such as phosgene (COCl2), tear gas (CCl3NO2),
mustard gas [Cl - (CH2)2 - S – (CH2)2 -Cl].
Hydrogen Chloride :-
a) Preparation :
In the laboratory, hydrogen chloride is prepared by heating sodium chloride
(common salt) with concentrated sulfuric acid.
NaCl + H2SO4 -- 420 K→ NaHSO4 + HCl
NaHSO4 + NaCl-- 420 K→ Na2SO4 + HCl
HCl gas can be dried by passing it through concentrated sulfuric acid.
b) Physical properties :-
• i) Hydrogen chloride is a colourless and pungent smelling gas.
ii) It can be easily liquified to a colourless liquid (b.p. 189 K) which freezes to a white
crystalline solid (m.p. 159 K)
iii) It is highly soluble in water.
Chemical properties :
i) Acidic property : Hydrogen chloride is highly soluble in water and ionises as follows
HCl (g) + H2O (l)--→ H3O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) Ka = 107

The aqueous solution of HCl gas is called hydrochloric acid.

ii) Reaction with NH3 :

Hydrochloric acid reacts with ammonia and gives white fumes of ammonium chloride.
NH3 + HCl --→ NH4Cl
iii) Reaction with noble metals :
Noble metals like gold, platinum get dissolved in aqua regia
( Aqua regia : 3 Parts of HCl & 1 part of HNO3).
Au + 4 H+ + NO3− + 4Cl− --→ AuCl4− + NO+ 2H2O
3Pt + 16 H+ + 4NO3− + 18Cl− --→ 3PtCl62− +4NO + 8H2O
. Interhalogen compounds :-
An interhalogen compound is a compound formed by combination of atoms of different
halogens. Due to this difference in electronegativity two or more halogen atoms combine to
form
interhalogen compound. Example :- CIF, BrF3.
a) Classification :
Depending on their composition,
interhalogen compounds are classified into
four types. In the general formula XX'n
(i.e XX',XX3',XX5 ',XX7').
X is the halogen having larger size which is more electropositive.
X' is the halogen having smaller size which is more electronegative.

1. XX- type : ClF, BrF, BrCl, ICl, IBr,

2. XX3-type: ClF3, BrF3, (ICl3)2,
3. XX5-type: ClF5, BrF5, IF5,
4. XX7-type: IF7.
5.
General characteristics of interhalogen compounds :
1. The compound is considered as the halide of X. For example: ClF. Here the halogen
having
larger size is chlorine, it is more electropositive than F and hence the interhalogen
compound
is named as chlorine monofluoride.
(n) is the number of atoms of X' attached to X. As the ratio [radius of X : radius of X’]
increases the value of n also increases.
2. Interhalogen compounds have even number of atoms 2, 4, 6, 8. For example: ClF3 has 4
atoms.
3. The properties of interhalogen compounds are generally intermediate between those of
the
halogens.
4. The central halogen exhibits different oxidation states in different interhalogen
compounds.
5. Number of X' atoms in the compounds is always odd.
6. They are all diamagnetic .
Compounds of Xenon :-
: Xenon fluorides :
a) Preparation : Xenon fluorides are prepared in different rations and conditions.
Xe + F2 -- sealed Ni tube, 4000C→ XeF2
Xe + F2 Ni tube, 4000C,5-6 atm.→ XeF4
Xe + 2F2 electric discharge, -800C →XeF4
Xe + 3F2 electric discharge, low temp. →XeF6
b) Chemical Properties :-
i) Hydrolysis :- XeF2 undergoes hydrolysis to form HF.
XeF2 + 2H2O --→ 4HF + 2Xe + O2.
ii) Reaction with PF5 :- XeF2 forms adduct with PF5
XeF2 + PF5 --→ XeF2 .PF5
Xenon trioxide:-
a) Preparation of Xenon trioxide (XeO3) :
Fluorides of Xenon react with water to form XeO
3XeF4 + 6H2O 2Xe + XeO3 + 12 HF + 1 ½ O2
XeF6 + 3H2O --→ XeO3 + 6HF

Oxyfluorides of Xenon :- (XeOF2, XeO2F2, XeO3F2, XeO2F4)

a) Preparation :
i) Partial hydrolysis of Xenon fluorides yields different oxyfluorides.

XeF4 + H2O 800C →XeOF2 + 2HF

XeF6 + H2O --→ XeOF4 + 2HF
ii) Reaction of Xenon oxyfluoride with SiO2 or hydrolysis yields xenon dioxydifluoride.
2XeOF4 + SiO2 --→ 2XeO2F2 + SiF4
XeOF4 + H2O--→ XeO2F2 + 2HF
(1) Uses of helium (He) :

 A mixture of helium (85%) and oxygen (15%) is used for filling balloons.
 A mixture of helium and oxygen is also used for respiration by sea divers instead of air
because helium is less soluble in blood than nitrogen under high pressure. It is also used
for treatment of asthma.
 Helium is used in producing inert atmosphere in metallurgical operations and welding of
metals.
 Liquid helium is used in producing low temperature required for research.
 Helium is also used in producing lasers in low temperature gas thermometry.
 It is used in magnetic resonance imaging.
 It is used as a shielding gas for arc welding, (viii) It is used in supersonic wind tunnels.
 Helium nucleus is used as a bombarding particle for disintegration of atoms.


(2) Uses of neon (Ne) :

 Neon is used in the production of neon discharge lamps and signs by filling Ne in glass
discharge tubes.
 Neon signs are visible from a long distance and also have high penetrating power in mist
or fog.
 A mixture of neon and helium is used in voltage stabilizers and current rectifiers.
 Neon is also used in the production of lasers and fluorescent tubes.

(3) Uses of argon (Ar) :

 Argon is used to fill fluorescent tubes and radio valves.

 It is used to provide inert atmosphere for welding and production of steel.
 It is used along with neon in neon sign lamps to obtain different colours.
 A mixture of 85% Ar and 15% N2 is used in electric bulbs to enhance the life of the
filament.