INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY MODULE

CHAPTER 3
Theories of Crime

Objectives:
• Develop understanding the Theories of Crimes
• What is Crime?

As a result of the development of the school of thoughts, different theories were

developed and introduced to explain the causes of crime. The following are the different

theories of crime:

1. Social structure theories

Social disorganization (neighborhoods)

Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry Mckay and

Clifford R. Shaw of the Chicago school. Social disorganization theory postulates

that neighborhoods plagued with poverty and economic deprivation tend to

experience high rates of population heterogeneity. With high turnover, informal

social structure often fails to develop, which in turn makes it difficult to maintain

social order in a community.

2. Social ecology

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Since the 1970s, social ecology studies have built on the social

disorganization theories Many studies have found that crime rates are associated

with poverty, disorder, high numbers of abandoned buildings, and other signs of

community deterioration. As working and middle-class people leave deteriorating

neighborhoods, the most disadvantaged portions of the population may remain.

William Julius Wilson suggested a poverty concentration effect" which may cause

neighborhoods to be isolated from the mainstream of society and become prone

to violence.

3. Strain theory (Social class)

Strain theory, (also known as Mertonian Anomie), advanced by American

sociologist Robert Merton, suggests that mainstream culture especially in the

United States, is saturated with dreams of opportunity freedom and prosperity, as

Merton put it the American Dream. Most people buy into this dream and it becomes

a powerful cultural and psychological motivation. Merton also used the term

anomie, but it meant something slightly different for him that it did for Durkheim

Merton saw the term as meaning a dichotomy between what society expected of

its citizens, and what those citizens could actually achieve. Therefore, if the social

structure of opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realizing the

dream, some of them will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it.

Others will retreat or drop out into deviant subcultures (gang members, "hobos":

urban homeless drunks and drug abusers).

4. Subcultural theory

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Following on from the Chicago School and Strain Theory, and also drawing

on Edwin H. Sutherland's idea of differential association subcultural theorists

focused on small cultural groups fragmenting away from the mainstream to form

their own values and meanings about life.

Albert Cohen tied anomie theory with Freud's reaction formation Idea,

suggesting that delinquency among lower class youths is a reaction against the

social norms of the middle class. Some youth, especially from poorer areas where

opportunities are scarce, might adopt social norms specific to those places which

may include "toughness and disrespect for authority. Criminal acts may result

when youths conform to norms of the deviant subculture.

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin suggested that delinquency can result

from differential opportunity for lower class youth. Such youths may be tempted to

take up criminal activities, choosing an illegitimate path that provides them more

lucrative economic benefits than conventional, over legal options such as minimum

wage-paying jobs available to them.

British subculturals theorists focused more heavily on the issue of class,

where some criminal activities were seen as 'imaginary solutions to the problem of

belonging to a subordinate class. A further study by the Chicago school looked at

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gangs and the influenced of the interaction of gang leaders under the observation

of adults.

5. Individual theories

Trait theories

Biosocial and psychological trait theories have emerged in modern

criminology, as scientific knowledge of genetics, biochemistry, and neurology has

grown. Biosocial theorists believe in equipotentiality and that genetics significantly

influence human behavior. They believe that biological factors, together with

environmental and social factors influence a person's propensity for crime.

Research into biosocial theories has looked at vitamin deficiency and antisocial

behavior, the link between high consumption of sugar and aggressive behavior,

and possible influence of hormones. Environmental contamination, particularly

lead levels, and links to aggressive behavior is another research focus of biosocial

theorists.

At the other side of spectrum, criminologist Lonnie Athens developed a

theory about how process of brutalization by parents or peers that usually occurs

in childhood results in violent crimes in adulthood. Richard Rhodes' Why They Kill

describes Athens' observations about domestic and societal violence in the

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criminals' backgrounds. Both Athens and Rhodes reject the genetic inheritance

theories.

6. Control theories

Another approach is made by the social bond or social control theory

Instead of looking for factors that make people become criminal, those Theories

try to explain why people do not become criminal. Travis Hirschi dentified four main

characteristics: "attachment to others", "belief in moral validity of rules"

"commitment to achievement and involvement in conventional activities". The

more person features those characteristics, the less are the chances that he or

she becomes deviant (or criminal). On the other hand, if those factors are not

present in a person, it is more likely that he or she might become criminal Hirschi

expanded on this theory, with the idea that a person with low self control is more

likely to become criminal. A simple example someone wants to have a big yacht,

but does not have the means to buy one. If the person cannot exert self-control,

he or she might try to get the yacht (or the means for it) in an illegal way, whereas

someone with high self control will (more likely) either wait or deny themselves that

need. Social bonds, through peers, parents, and others, can have a countering

effect on one's low self-control. For families of low socio-economic status, a factor

that distinguishes families with delinquent children from those who are not

delinquent is the control exerted by parents or chaperonage.

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7. Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism draws on the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl

and George Herbert Mead, as well as subcultural theory and conflict theory. This

school of thought focused on the relationship between the powerful state, media

and conservative ruling elite on the one hand, and the less powerful groups on the

other. The powerful groups had the ability to become the significant other in the

less powerful groups' processes of generating meaning. The former could to some

extent impose their meanings on the latter, and therefore they were able to label

minor delinquent youngsters as criminal. These youngsters would often take on

board the label, indulge in crime more readily and become actors in the 'self-

fulfilling prophecy of the powerful groups. Later developments in this set of theories

were by Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert, in the mid 20th century Stanley Cohen

who developed the concept of "moral panic (describing societal reaction to

spectacular, alarming social phenomena such as post-World War Two youth

cultures (eg the Mods and Rockers in the UK in 1964), AIDS and football

hooliganism.)

8. Deterrence

Rational choice theory

Rational choice theory is based on the utilitarian, classical school

philosophies of Cesare Beccaria, which were popularized by Jeremy Bentham.

They argued that punishment, if certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, was

a deterrent for crime, with risks outweighing possible benefits to the offender In

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Dei delitti e delle pene (On Crime and Punishment, 1763 1764). Becarria

advocated a rational penology. Becaria conceived of punishment as the necessary

application of the law for a crime: thus, judge was simply to conform his sentence

to the law. Becarria also distinguished between crime and sin, and advocated

against the death penalty, as well as torture and inhumane treatments, as he did

not consider themselves rational deterrents.

This philosophy was replaced by the Positivist and Chicago Schools, and

not revived until the 1970s with the wrings of James Q. Wilson, Gary Becker's 1965

article titled Crime and Punishment and George Stigler's 1970 article The Optimum

Enforcement of Laws." Rational choice theory argues that criminals, like other

people, weigh costs/risks and benefits when deciding whether or not to commit

crime and think in economic terms. They will also try to minimize risks of crime by

considering the time, place, and other situational factors.

Gary Becker, for example, acknowledged that many people operate under

a high moral and ethical constraint, but considered that criminals rationally see that

the benefits of their crime outweigh the cost such as the probability of

apprehension, conviction, punishment, as well as their current set of opportunities.

From the public policy perspective, since the cost of increasing the fine is marginal

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to that of the cost of increasing surveillance, one can conclude that the best policy

is to maximize the fine and minimize surveillance.

With this perspective, crime prevention or reduction measures can be

devised that increase effort required to commit the crime, such as target hardening

Rational choice theories also suggest that increasing risk of offending and likehood

of being caught, through added surveillance, police or secunty guard presence,

added street lighting, and other measures, are effective in reducing crime.

One of the main differences between this theory and Jeremy Bentham's

rational choice theory, which had been abandoned in criminology is that if Bentham

considered it possible to completely annihilate crime (through the panopticon),

Becker's theory acknowledged that a society could not eradicate crime beneath a

certain level. For example, if 25% of a supermarkets product were stolen, it would

be very easy to reduce this rate to 15% quite easy to reduce it until 5%, difficult to

reduce it under 3% and nearly impossible to reduce it to zero (a feat which would

cost the supermarket so much in surveillance, etc, that it would cutweight the

benefits) Such rational choice theories, linked to neoliberalism, have been at the

basics of crime prevention through environmental design

9. Routine activity theory

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Routine activity theory, developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen

drew upon control theories and explained crime in terms of crime opportunities that

occur in everyday life. A crime opportunity requires that elements converge in time

and place including (a) a motivated offender (b) suitable target or victim (c) jack of

a capable guardian A guardian at a place, such as a street could include security

guards or even ordinary pedestrians who would witness the criminal act and

possibly intervene or report it to police Routine activity theory was expanded by

John Eck, who added a fourth element of place manager such as rental property

managers who can take nuisance abatement measures.

Types and definitions of crime

Both the Positivist and Classical Schools take a consensus view of prime that a

crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society Those values and

beliefs are manifested as laws that society aggress upon- However, there are two types

of laws Natural laws are footed in core values shared by many cultures. Natural laws

protect against harm to persons (e.g. murderrape, assaull) or property (theft, larceny,

robbery, and form the basis of common law systems. Statutes are enacted by legislatures

and reflect current cultural mores, albeit that some laws may be controversial, e.g. laws

that prohibit marijuana use and gambling Marxist Criminology, Conflict Criminology and

Critical Criminology claim that most relationships between State, citizen are non

consensual and, as such criminal law is not necessarily namon apresentative of public

beliefs and wishes: it is exercised in the interest of the ruling or dominant class The more

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right wing criminologies tend to post that there is a consensual social contract between

State and citizen.

Therefore defiilions. ofictimes will vary from place to place in accordance to the

cultural norms and mores, but may be broadly classified as blue-collar crime, corporate

grime, organized crime, political crime, public order crime, state crime, state-corporate

crime, and white-collar crime.

In the Philippines where there are many licensed criminologists, it is ironic to note

that these graduates do not contribute to the prevention and control of crime. It is

Saddening that our government lacks the necessary programs to combat crime, or even

worse, we have wrong priorities in fighting crime.

In conclusion criminology should be a partner in designing a model of an ideal

society. It should recommend to the government the efficient and effective ways of

modern crime fighting in a total pro-active crime program for the country.

TOPIC LINK FOR VIDEO

What is Crime? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TY86umyYRXE

What is SOCIAL
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TqhF7RLnoKM
DISORGANIZATION THEORY?

General strain theory, crime and

References:
Handbook on Introduction to Criminology and Psychology of Crimes.

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