STRUCTURED ANALYSIS

 It is a set of techniques & graphical

tools that allow the analyst to develop a
new kind of a system that is
understandable to the user.
 Computer systems analysts design
and develop new systems, including
hardware and software.
The major steps involved in the
structured analysis process are:
 Studying the current business environment
 Modeling the old logical system
 Modeling a new logical system
 Modeling a new physical environment
 Evaluating alternatives
 Selecting the best design
 Creating structured specifications.
Advantages of (SA)
 Structured system analysis is carried out in a very linear
method so left a little room for mistake.

 It use different tools that can be used to carry out the

system analysis i.e. Data flow diagram(DFD) , Data
dictionary , Decision tree etc.

 Analysis performed from different angles

 It provides step-by-step understanding so probability

of error reduces during development.
Disadvantages of (SA)
 A change in new system requirements
means re-analyzing the system again.

 It takes lots of time & money to analyze a

system.
 Tools Of Structured
Analysis

1 • Data Flow Diagram (DFD)

2 • Data Dictionary

3 • Decision Tree

4 • Structured English

5 • Decision Table
Why Do We Use These Tools ?
 Use graphics whenever possible to help
communicate better with the user.
 Differentiate between logical and
physical system
 Build a logical system model to
familiarize the user with system
characteristics and interrelationships
before implementation
DATA FLOW DIAGRAM (DFD)
 Data flow diagram is a graphical tool for
structured analysis that maps out the logic flow of
data in the system.
 DFD developed by Larry Constantine.
 DFD also called Bubble Chart.
External entity Proces
s

Data store

Process
Proces
s

Data store Process

External entity
DFD Symbols
 DFD contains four basic symbols :-
Constructing a DFD
 Each process must contain at least one input and
an output.
 Each data store must have at least one data in flow
and one data out flow.
 Each data stored in a system must go through a
process.
 All processes in a DFD must go to another process
or a data store.
Rules To Construct DFD
 Processes should be named and numbered for easy
reference.
 The data flow from top to bottom and from left to
right.
 The names of data stores , sources , destinations
are written in capital letters.
Context Diagram
 A context diagram is a data flow diagram that only
shows the top level, otherwise known as Level 0. At
this level, there is only one visible process node that
represents the functions of a complete system in
regards to how it interacts with external entities. Some
of the benefits of a Context Diagram are:
 Shows the overview of the boundaries of a system
 No technical knowledge is required to understand
with the simple notation
 Simple to draw, amend and elaborate as its limited
notation
The Food Ordering System Example
 It contains a process (shape) that represents the system to model, in this case, the "Food Ordering
System". It also shows the participants who will interact with the system, called the external entities.
In this example, the Supplier, Kitchen, Manager, and Customer are the entities who will interact with
the system. In between the process and the external entities, there is data flow (connectors) that
indicate the existence of information exchange between the entities and the system.
 Context DFD is the entrance of a data flow model. It contains one and only one process and does not
show any data store.
Level 1 DFD
 The figure below shows the level 1 DFD, which is the decomposition
(i.e. break down) of the Food Ordering System process shown in the
context DFD. Read through the diagram and then we will introduce
some of the key concepts based on this diagram.
Explanation of example
 The Food Order System Data Flow Diagram example contains
three processes, four external entities, and two data stores.
 Based on the diagram, we know that a Customer can place
an Order. The Order Food process receives the Order, forwards it
to the Kitchen, store it in the Order data store, and store the
updated Inventory details in the Inventory data store. The
process also delivers a Bill to the Customer.
 The Manager can receive Reports through the Generate
Reports process, which takes Inventory details and Orders as
input from the Inventory and Order data store respectively.
 The Manager can also initiate the Order Inventory process by
providing Inventory order. The process forwards the Inventory
order to the Supplier and stores the updated Inventory details in
the Inventory data store.
Process Modeling with Logical
Data Flow Diagram
 A data flow diagram can dive into progressively more detail by using levels and layers, zeroing
in on a particular piece. DFD levels are numbered 0, 1 or 2, and occasionally go to even Level 3
or beyond.
 DFD Level 0 is also called a Context Diagram. It‟s a basic overview of the whole system or
process being analyzed or modeled. It‟s designed to be an at-a-glance view, showing the system
as a single high-level process, with its relationship to external entities. It should be easily
understood by a wide audience, including stakeholders, business analysts, data analysts and
developers.
 DFD Level 1 provides a more detailed breakout of pieces of the Context Level Diagram. You will
highlight the main functions carried out by the system, as you break down the high-level
process of the Context Diagram into its sub processes.
 DFD Level 2 then goes one step deeper into parts of Level 1. It may require more text to reach
the necessary level of detail about the system‟s functioning.
 Progression to Levels 3, 4 and beyond is possible, but going beyond Level 3 is uncommon.
Doing so can create complexity that makes it difficult to communicate, compare or model
effectively.
 Using DFD layers, the cascading levels can be nested directly in the diagram, providing a
cleaner look with easy access to the deeper dive.
 By becoming sufficiently detailed in the DFD, developers and designers can use it to write
pseudocode, which is a combination of English and the coding language. Pseudocode
facilitates the development of the actual code.
Advantages Of DFD
 It aids in describing the boundaries of the system.
 It is beneficial for communicating existing system
knowledge to the users.
 DFDs can provide a detailed representation of
system components.
 DFDs are easier to understand by technical &
nontechnical audiences.
Disadvantages Of DFD
 Physical consideration are left out.

 The biggest drawback is that it takes long time to

create.
 DATA DICTIONARY
 DFD only provides the information regarding the
flow of data , name of different elements i.e.
processes and data stores but it does not provide
any descriptive information regarding the data and
processes.
 Data Dictionary is also referenced as meta-
data(data about data) .
 Its basically the centralized collection of
information about data.
 Major symbols used in data dictionary are:
 1). = Equivalent to
 2). + And
 3).[] Either/Or
 4). () Optional Entry
 5). {} Iteration
Construction Of Data Dictionary
 Definition must be readily accessible by name.
 There is no unnecessary definition in data
definition.
 The procedure for writing definition should be
straight forward but specific .
 There should only one way of defining word.
 Consistency check should be performed.
Rules to construct Data Dictionary
 One word can have only one definition.

 One word cannot be used for two separate data

items.
Data Items:
 There are three classes of data items –

a.) Data Element - It is the smallest unit of data which

cannot be meaningfully decomposed further.
For Ex: Employee code, unit of measurement
b.) Data Structure –A group of data elements forms a
data structure.
For Ex: Data Structure of employee consist of a group
of data elements such employee code, name, age,
experience, phone no., address etc.

c.) Data Flow & Data stores – Data flows are data
structures in motion whereas Data stores are data
structure at rest. Data stores may be files, database
etc.
 DATA ELEMENT

DATA STRUCTURE

DATA FLOW DATA STORE

Examples of Data dictionary –

 Name = Courtesy-Title + First-Name + (Middle-Name)

+ Last-Name
 Courtesy-Title = [ Mr. | Miss | Mrs. | Ms. | Dr. | Prof. ]
 First-Name = { Legal-Character }
 Last-Name = { Legal-Character }
 Legal-Character = [ A-Z | a-z |0-9| ' | - | | ]
Advantages Of Data Dictionary
 It is a valuable in any organization because it provides
documentation.
 It improves the communication between the user and
analyst by establishing consistent definition of various
items , terms and procedure.
 It is a good tool for manage operators and or other
members of the development team to understand
requirements and design.
 It is just like store to all the elements information that
can link all phases.
Disadvantages Of Data Dictionary
 It does not provide functional details.

 It is not acceptable to many nontechnical users.

 Decision Tree
 A decision tree is a graphical representation of possible
solutions to a decision based on certain conditions.
 It’s a clear graphical representation of the logic i.e. in
the form of tree.
 It is a flowchart like structure.
 Decision trees depict the relationship of each condition
and their permissible actions.
 A square node indicates an action and a circle indicates a
condition. It forces analysts to consider the sequence of
decisions and identifies the actual decision that must be
made.
Structure
Example
Advantages Of Decision Tree
 They are simple to understand and interpret even with
a brief explanation.
 They are helpful even when very little data available.
 They are scalable and flexible . so it is easy to add or
remove options.
 The can be combined with any other decision making
tool.
Disadvantages Of Decision Tree
 A major drawback of a decision tree is the lack of
information in its format to tell what other
combinations of conditions are best.

 A decision tree for a very complex system with many

sequences of steps and combinations of conditions will
be unmanageable .
Decision Tables
 Decision tables are a method of describing the complex
logical relationship in a precise manner which is easily
understandable.
 It is useful in situations where the resulting actions depend
on the occurrence of one or several combinations of
independent conditions.
 It is a matrix containing row or columns for defining a
problem and the actions.
 It is used to define a problem and the actions to be taken.
 It is a single representation of the relationships between
conditions and actions.
Components of a Decision Table
 Condition Stub − It is in the upper left quadrant which lists all the
condition to be checked.
 Action Stub − It is in the lower left quadrant which outlines all the
action to be carried out to meet such condition.
 Condition Entry − It is in upper right quadrant which provides answers
to questions asked in condition stub quadrant.
  Action Entry − It is in lower right quadrant which indicates the
appropriate action resulting from the answers to the conditions in the
condition entry quadrant.
 The entries in decision table are given by Decision Rules which define the
relationships between combinations of conditions and courses of action. In
rules section,
 Y shows the existence of a condition.
 N represents the condition, which is not satisfied.
 A blank - against action states it is to be ignored.
 X (or a check mark will do) against action states it is to be carried out.
Example
Advantages of decision table
 A decision table helps in understanding a particular
path easily and clearly.
 Decision rules are clearly structured.
 They are scalable and flexible. So, it is easy to add or
remove options.
 They help in calculating values for different scenarios.
 The structure of a decision table is complete and
consistent representation of problem definition.
Disadvantages of decision table
 Decision table can not express the complete sequence
of operations to solve a problem, It may be difficult for
a programmer to translate a decision table directly into
a computer program.
 When there are two many alternatives, decision table
cannot list them all.
 Increase complexity level of table with increase of
number of entries.
 It does not express logical flow of the system.
Structured English
 Structure English is derived from structured programming
language which gives more understandable and precise
description of process. It is based on procedural logic that
uses construction and imperative sentences designed to
perform operation for action.
 It is best used when sequences and loops in a program
must be considered and the problem needs sequences of
actions with decisions.
 It does not have strict syntax rule. It expresses all logic in
terms of sequential decision structures and iterations.
Example
Advantages of Structured English
 Easy to design and simple to understand.
 Human readable form
 Easy conversion in program.
 Helps in determining worst, best and expected values
for different scenarios.
 Can be combined with decision making tool.
Disadvantages
 Structured English can be hard for a person to learn if
English is their second language.
 There are also so many rules to learn, it can be
confusing for anyone.
Context Diagram Hospital
Management System
level1
Context diagram of mess management