Chapter 1 Measurements

M e asure me nt of Time
The duration for a particular event to take place is measured using: Stop clocks and s topwatche
s (both mechanical and digital).
Due to accuracy and ease in reading, the digital stopwatches are preferred. They measure to 0.01
second.

When using a stop watch/ clock, reset it to zero then start it immediately when the activity starts
and stop it when the activity is finished. Reset it again and repeat the experiment say three
times.

Units for measuring time

The SI unit for time is second (s).
NOTE:
• For repeated events, an average time can be found by measuring a number of repeats then dividing
the recorded time by the number of repeats/ cycles. This gives a more accurate value of time.
• The oscill ation of a simple pendulum is an example of a regularly repeating motion.
• The time for 1 complete oscillation is referred to as the period of the oscillation

Measurement of period of a simple pendulum

 displace the bob from its
rest position and then
released. It begins to
move to and fro
(oscillate) about its rest
position in a vertical
plane.
 Obtain time for 20
oscillations.
The period of oscillation T is obtained by dividing
this time by the number of oscillations.
Errors occur in measuring time
Human timing is not precise
and accurate because of
reaction times in starting
and stopping. To improve
accuracy one would opt to
use automatic timing gates
; e.g. time taken for a small
object to fall a short distance
is being measured by the
timer which starts
automatically when the ball
cuts one light beam and
stops when it cuts another.
 Measurement of length
Length is usually measured by meter rule or measuring tape.
Small distances/lengths are measured by vernier calipers and micrometer screw gauges
The SI unit o length is the metre (m).

The me te r rule
The Straight distances less
than a 1meter can easily
be measured using meter
rules. These are graduated
in millimeters (mm) where
each division on the scale
represents a unit of 1mm
as shown in figure below.
A meter rule is 100cm and
a half meter rule is 50cm
While taking measurements using a ruler the eye must be placed in line with the point where the
reading is to be taken.I.e position the eye perpendicularly at the mark on the scale to avoid parallax
errors. This has been clearly demonstrated in Figure 2,2 below.

Placing the eye in line with the point where the reading is being taken reduces the error due
to parallax.
Note:
 The meter rule can be used together with wooden blocks to measure the
diameter of a spherical or a cylindrical object.This can be illustrated as
shown in figure besides.
The diameter of the spherical or cylindrical object in this case is given by the
length between the two blocks ensuring that the line of sight when taking the
reading is vertically above the point where the reading is being taken as shown
above.
In certain circumstances, average lengths can be found by measuring a number of
distances together then dividing by the number of objects. E.g. a ream of papers,
spherical balls etc

What is the radius of only one ball bearing?

…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

In conclusion, while using a meter rule you;

Should be able to take a reading with an uncertainty of 0.5 mm.
Should be aware of 3 possible errors;

-End of the rule is worn out, giving an end error leading to something called a systematic error
-Calibration of the metre rule i.e. markings on the ruler may not be very accurate
-Parallax error

The tape me asure

To measure distances greater than one meter or even distances that are not straight like dimensions of a shirt,
a tape measure is more convenient. Tape measures are normally made of a flexible metal plate, a plastic
strip or piece of cloth. They exist in several types which depend on the nature of the length they are to
measure. For example a tailor’s tape measure is designed to measure the dimensions of a cloth while the
surveyor’s or engineers tape measure is designed to measure the length of say a track.
The figure below shows some types of common tape measures.

(a) Carpenter’s tape measure (b) Tailor’s tape measure (c) Surveyor’s tape measure
The ve rnie r calipe rs and microme te r scre w gauge
For small distances, the Vernier calipers or the engineers calipers is used. While for very small distances less
than a centimeter such as the diameter of copper wire, thickness of paper, the micrometer screw gauge
is used. Both the Vernier calipers and the micrometer screw gauge give readings with reasonable accuracy.

The Ve rnie r Calipe r

A Caliper is a mechanical device used to determine small lengths with reasonable accuracy.
Recall that the degree of accuracy is always limited by the instrument used and the conditions of
measurements. The figure shows how a mechanical vernier calipers is used to take measurements.

After checking for the zero error,the movable jaw is adjusted until it grips the object to be measured and
then the reading is taken as described below.
For the mechanical vernier, the reading is taken in three steps:

Step I Read and record the main scale reading at the zero mark of the vernier scale to an
accuracy of one millimeter.E.g. 2.1 cm.
Step II Read and record the vernier scale reading at the position on the vernier where a mark
on it is coincident (i.e. coincides) with a mark (division) on the main scale in t ent hs of
millimeters.
Eg. let the 6th vernier division coincide with a mark on the main scale.
6 becomes = 0.6 mm = 0.06 cm.
Step III Get the sum of the two readings (i.e. add the main scale reading and the vernier scale
reading to get the total reading).
 Main scale reading = 2.10 cm
Vernier scale reading = + 0.06 cm
Total reading = 2.16 cm

Example 1
The S.1 students of Nu-Vision high school measured the thickness of a desk top during a physics lesson
and found the main scale reading before the zero mark of the vernier scale to be 4.4 cm. Find the
thickness of the desk top if the 4th vernier mark coincides with one of the marks on the main scale.
Solution Main scale reading = 4.40 cm
Vernier scale reading 4th 4
= 0.04 cm
= 100
Total reading = 4.44 cm

Example 2
Find the readings of the verniers shown figures 2.7 (i) and (ii) below.
5 6 1 2

Fig. 2.7 (i) Fig.

2.47(ii)
Solution:
(i)Main scale reading = 5.20 cm (ii) Main scale reading = 0.80 cm
Vernier scale reading 4th 4 8
= + 0.04 Vernier scale reading 8th
= = + 0.08 cm
= 100
cm
100
Total reading = 5.24 Total reading = 0.88 cm
cm
.

Note: To ensure more accuracy when taking measurements

using vernier calipers, scientists have designed digital calipers
digital ve rnie r calipe r
 The M icrome te r scre w gauge
The Micrometer screw gauge is an instrument used to measure very small distances.I.e. Distances less than one
centimeter. E.g. diameter of fine wires, thickness of paper etc.
The Micrometer screw gauge is calibrated in mm on the sleeve scale and some small divisions on the
thimble scale. There are two types of thimble readings:
(i) One with 50 divisions on the thimble scale and
(ii) The other with 100 divisions on the thimble scale.
However, the two types give the same reading when used to measure the same
distance. The diagram of the micrometer screw gauge is shown in the figure
below.

How to use the Micrometer screw gauge

- Place the object whose thickness is to be measured in
between the jaws (the anvil and the spindle) of the
micrometer as shown in figure.
- Rotate the ratchet clockwise until you hear a sound (click).
- Take the reading in three steps as shown below.
Step I: Read and record the reading on the sleeve scale at the edge of the thimble in millimeters
and half millimeters e.g. 4.0 mm or 4.5mm
Step II: Read and record the reading on the thimble scale opposite to the center-line on the
sleeve scale (i.e. where a division on the thimble scale coincides with the center-line
on the sleeve scale) in hundredths of millimeters.
E.g. Let the 33rd division coincide with the center-line.
33
In hundredths of millimeters, 33 becomes 100 = 0.33 mm
Step III Get the sum of the two readings i.e. sleeve scale reading and the thimble scale reading.
Sleeve scale reading = 4.00 mm
 Thimble scale reading = + 0.33 mm
Total reading = 4.33 mm

Example 1
Find the reading on the micrometer screw gauge shown in the diagram below.

Example 2

S
=

Precautions when using a

micrometer
1. Never tighten thimble too much
2. Clean the ends of the anvil and spindle before making a measurement
– Any dirt on either of surfaces could affect the reading
3. Check for zero error by closing the micrometer when there is nothing between the anvil and spindle
– The reading should be zero, but it is common to find asmall zero error
–Correct zero error by adjusting the final measurement. I.e subtracting the error from the final reading.

SELF-CHECK
1. (a) Find the thickness of a text book measured using a vernier caliper if the main scale reading is 2.4 cm and
the 8th vernier mark coincides with one of the marks on the main scale.

(b) Find the readings on the verniers shown in figures below .

(i) (ii)
 (iii) (iv)

2. Find the reading on the micrometer screw gauge shown in the figures below.

(i)

(ii) (iii)
 M e asure me nt of volume
The amount of space that an object occupies is its volume.
The SI unit of volume is metre cubed, (m3).
Other units are: mm3, cm3 , dm3 and litres
1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3
1 litre = 1 dm3
1 litre = 1 000 cm3
(i) Regular Solids
The volume of regular solids is determined by measuring the dimensions and then applying an appropriate
formula as shown in table below.
 (ii) Irregular Solids
The volume of irregular solids is determined by using displacement method. In this method, the solid is
fully or wholly immersed in a liquid and the volume of the liquid displaced is measured. This method
operates on the principle that “A body fully or wholly immersed in a fluid (liquid) displaces its own volume”.
Apparatus/requirements used to measure the volume of irregular solid are:
(a) Measuring cylinder, water and a piece of thin silk thread. Or
(b) Measuring cylinder, overflow (displacement) can, water and a piece of silk thread.

Using a measuring cylinder

- Fill a measuring cylinder with water.
- Read and record the initial reading.
- Tie the irregular object with a piece of thin silk thread and lower it carefully into the
water in the cylinder until it is fully immersed.
- Shake it gently to remove any air bubbles.
- Read and record the final reading.

The volume is calculated from the formula:

Volume of irregular object = Final reading - Initial reading

Using an Overflow can and measuring cylinder

- Fill an overflow can with water until water flows out through the spout and wait until the water ceases
dripping and then place a dry measuring cylinder below the spout.
- Tie the irregular object with a piece of thin silk thread and lower it carefully into the water in the
overflow can until it is fully immersed.
- Shake it gently to remove any air bubbles.
- Wait until the water ceases/stops dripping into the measuring cylinder.
- Read and record the volume of the displaced water in the cylinder.
 Volume of the object = Volume of displaced
water
The displacement method has drawbacks/limitations as well. It doesn't yield good results for things that are
full of holes and passages where air could be trapped, and of course you can't use it for things that are soluble
in water. An error due to parallax may be obtained when reading the scale on the measuring cylinder.
To reduce the errors, avoid splashing of water when immersing the object, wait for water to stop dripping
before taking the reading, ensure that the cylinder is placed on a horizontal flat surface. place the eye in line
with the lower me niscus to avoid parallax.

(iii) Measurement of volume of Liquids

The volume of a given liquid is determined by using a measuring cylinder.
The liquid is carefully poured into the measuring cylinder and the volume is read off by placing the eye
level in line with the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid surface in order to avoid error due to parallax.

Note:
Specified volumes of liquids
are accurately measured by
using specific instruments
such as: - Burette,
- Pipette and
- Syringe.
De nsity
Density tells us how compact the mass is in a material.
Definition: Density is defined as mass per unit volume of a substance.
Mathematically, it is expressed as: Density Mass
; in symbols ρ =
= m
Volume
v

S.I Unit
The SI unit of density is kg m-3. It is a derived unit. I.e. a unit derived from the units of the quantities
in the formula of density.

De rivation of the unit

Density m kg
= Conveniently expressed as kg m3 or kg/m3
(kg)
= m3
3
v (m
)
The smaller unit of density is g cm-3

To find the de nsity of a Re gular Solid

- Measure the dimensions of the solid object i.e. length, width, height or diameter, using an
appropriate instrument i.e ruler, micrometer screw gauge, vernier calliper etc
- Calculate the volume of the object from the appropriate formula.
Say volume of object = V m3
- Weigh the object on a beam balance to determine its mass. Say mass = M kg.
- Calculate the density from the formula
Density = mass
volume

To find the de nsity of an Irre gular Solid e g a stone

- Pour water in a measuring cylinder and record the first reading of the water level, say x cm3
- Tie the irregular solid with a piece of thin silk thread and carefully immerse it into the water in
the measuring cylinder.
- Read and record the second reading of the water level, say y cm3.
- Find the volume of the irregular solid from the formula:
Volume of object = (Second reading – First reading) = (y – x) cm3
- Determine the mass of the solid by weighing it on a beam balance, say mass = z g.
- Determine the density from the formula;
 Note: The volume can also be obtained by the displacement can method.

Example:

When a piece of irregular stone of mass 164.5 g was immersed in 300 cm3 of water in a measuring cylinder, the level
of water rose to 370 cm3. Calculate the density of the stone.
Solution:Data: Density of stone,  = ?
Mass of stone in air = 164.5 g
Initial reading of water = 300 cm3
Final reading = 370 cm3
Volume of stone = Final reading – Initial reading
= 370 – 300
= 70 cm3
Density = m 164.5
v = 70
 = 2.35 gcm-3

(b) To find the de nsity of liquid e .g.

Paraffin Procedure
- Weigh an empty measuring cylinder on a beam balance, say x grams.
- Pour a known volume, v, of the liquid in the measuring cylinder.
- Weigh the measuring cylinder containing the liquid . Let the total mass be y grams.
- Calculate the density as below:
Results:
Mass of empty measuring cylinder = x grams
Mass of measuring cylinder with liquid = y grams
Mass of liquid only = (y – x) grams
Volume of liquid = v cm3
(y
Density = mass = gcm3
volume  x
)v
An empty beaker weighs 120 g in air and weighs 180 g when filled with 75 cm3 of methylated spirit.
Find the density of the methylated spirit.
Solution: Mass of empty beaker = 120 g

Mass of beaker + Paraffin = 180 g

Mass of paraffin only = (180 – 120) g Volume of
paraffin = 75 cm3
Density = m 60
v = 75
Density of methylated spirit = 0.8 gcm-3
 Selfcheck
1. To calculate the density of an object, which one of the following must be known?
i) Height ii) Volume iii) Area iv) Mass v) Weight
A. i) and ii) B. ii) and v) C. iii) and iv) D. ii) and iv)

2. A block of wood 10m x 5m x 4m has a mass of 80 000 kg. What is the density of this wood? A. 2000kgm-3
B. 4000 kgm-3 C. 200 kgm-3 D. 400 kgm-3
3. The density of gold is 19.3gcm . What is the mass of 10cm3 gold? A. 19.3g B.
-3

0.193g C. 1.93g D. 193g

4. What is the mass of the copper cube having each side 2cm? ( take dcopper = 9 gcm-3) A. 0.18g
B. 72g C. 180g D. 36g
5. What is the volume of 60g wood? ( d wood = 0. 6 gcm-3 )
A. 10cm3 B. 36cm3 C. 100cm3 D. 360cm3
6. Explain why an ice berg floats yet a steel ball sinks in water.
7. Study the table below and use it to spot the correct answer.
Material Density (gcm-3) Mass (g)
K 3 60
L 9 180
M 6 360
N 5 200

From the values shown in the table which material has the biggest volume?
 A. K B. L C. M D. N
8. What is the volume and mass of the block which measures 2m, by 3m by 5m if its density is 1500 kgm-
3? A. 50m3; 75 000 kg B. 100 m3; 75 000 kg
3
C. 30m ; 75 000 kg D. 30 m3; 75 000 kg
9. Two litres of corn oil has a mass of 1. 85kg. what is the density of the
oil? A. 1850 kgm-3 B. 925 kgm-3 C. 185 kgm-3 D. 92.5 kgm-3
10. If an object of volume 0.02m weighs 500 N in a liquid of density 2000 kgm-3, what is the weight in
3

air? A. 900 N B. 1000 N C. 400 N D. 600 N

11. Which one of the following is the SI unit of density?
A. kgm3 B. Kgm-3 C. gcm-3 D. kgm-3
3
12. If 10g water and 10cm alcohol are mixed what will be the mass of the
mixture? ( d alcohol = 0.80 gcm-3 )
A. 18g B. 20g C. 16g D. 19g

13. A tin containing 5 litres of paint has a mass of 8.5kg. The mass of the empty tin is 2.0kg, the density of
the paint is
A. 1.3kgm-3 B. 1.3x103kgm-3 C. 1.7x103kgm-3 D. 2.1x103kgm-3
14. A rectangular block of tin is 0.5m long and 0.01m thick. Find the width of the block if its mass and
density are 0.45kg and 9000 kgm-3 respectively.
A. 0.45
0.005x0.45x9000m B. 9000x0.005 m
0.005
C. m 0.45x0.005
0.45x9000 D. 9000 m
15. A box of dimensions 0.2m by 0.3m by 0.5m is full of a gas of density 200kgm-3. The mass of the
gas is A. 3x10-2kg B. 6.0x100kg C. 2x102kg D. 6.7x103kg
16. A piece of material of mass 200g has a density of 25kgm-3. Calculate its volume in m3.
200 200 1000x25 1000x200
A. B. C. D.
25 1000x25 200 25
17. Two solid cubes have the same mass but their edges are in the ratio 4:1. What is the ratio of their
densities? A. 1:4 B. 1:8 C. 1:16 D. 1: 64
-3 3
18. A tin containing 6x10 m of paint has a mass of 8kg. If the mass of the empty tin with the lid is
0.5kg, calculate the density of the paint in kgm-3
6 6
8x0.5 8 x10 8.5 x10
A. 6x10 3 7.5 C. D.
B. 6x10 3 6x10 3 6x10 3
19 A tank 2 m tall base area of 2.5 m2 is filled to the brim with a liquid which exerts a force of 40000N at
the bottom. Calculate the density of the liquid.
4000 3 40000 3 40000 3 40000
A. 25x2x10 kgm B. 2.5x2x10 kgm C. 25x2x10 kgm D. 2.5x2 kgm
3

20. The following reading were recorded when measuring the density of a stone; Mass of the stone =
ଶ5 ଷ5 ଶ5
25g, volume of water = 25 cm3, volume of water and stone = 35cm3 .What is the density of the stone?
-3
A. gcm B. gcm-3 C. 10 gcm-3 D. gcm-3
ଵ଴ ଷ଴ ଷ5
21. A student does an experiment toestimate the density of an irregular shaped stone. Which items o
equipments are needed
A. a balance and a measuring cylinder containing water.
B. a balance and a ruler.
C. a ruler and a measuring cylinder containing water.
D. only a measuring cylinder containing water.
22. Ten identical steel balls, each of mass 27g, are immersed in a measuring cylinder containing
3
20cm of water. The reading of the water level rises to 50cm3.What is the density o the steel in g/cm3
A. 13.5 B. 8.1 C. 0.90 D. 9.0
Mass and we ight
(a) M ass ; The mass of an object is a measure of the amount/quantity of matter in it
 It is constant everywhere. I.e. does not vary from place to place.
 All matter has a built in opposition to being moved if it is at rest or, if it is moving, to having
its motion changed. This property of matter is called ine rtia (from the Latin word for laziness).
Note that the greater the mass of a body the greater is its inertia i.e. the more difficult it is to move it
when at rest and to stop it when in motion. Because of this we best define
mass of a body as the me asure of its ine rtia.
 Hence mass is a property that resists change in motion.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
1kg = 1000g thus 1g = 0.001kg
(b) We ight (W). Weight is another name for the earth’s gravitational force on an object.
Weight is the grav itational pull on a body by the earth. Or Weight is a measure of the pull of grav ity on a body.
A gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction.
 The direction of the weight of a body is always towards the centre of the earth.
The nearer the body is to the centre of the earth the more the earth attracts it.
 Weight is a kind of force; therefore its SI unit is newton (N)
Definition of newton:1 newton is the force required to give a mass of 1kilogram an acceleration of 1m/s 2
Weight is calculated from the formula:
Weight = Mass x Acceleration due to gravity
In symbols, W = mg
The weight of a body varies from place to place.
Explanation
From the formula W = mg, the weight of a body is directly proportional to the acceleration
due to gravity/gravitational field strength. And since the g varies from place to place due to the
variation in the distance from the centre of the earth, so does the weight of a body.
Points to note
 On the moon, your weight(in newtons) would be less than on earth, because the moon’s gravitational
field is weaker
 Even on earth, your weight can vary slightly from place to place, because the earth’s gravitational
field strength varies. Moving away from the Earth, your weight decreases. If you could go deep
into space, and be free of any gravitational pull, your weight would be zero.

Comparing masses

The above beam balance balances when we add an object to one pan and more objects of known
mass to the other pan. The balance actually compares the weights i.e. gravitational force on both the
pans. Since the pans balance when both weights are equal, the masses should also be equal.
So both mass and weight can be compared at the same time using the beam balance.
(c) The Difference between Weight and Mass
Mass Weight
(i) Is a measure of body’s inertia. Or - Is a measure of the pull of gravity on
a property that resists change in a body or the gravitational force on a body.
motion
(ii) mass is constant everywhere - weight varies from place to place
(iii) SI unit is kilogram (kg) - SI unit Newton (N)
(iv) mass is a scalar quantity (has only - weight is vector quantity(has both
,magnitude) magnitude and direction)
(v) mass is best measured using - weight is best measured using spring
beam balance balance
 Self-Check
1. What is the mass of a man on the earth if his mass on the moon 60kg.
A. 6kg B. 10kg C. 60kg D. 360kg

2. Assume that you are taking measurements with a spring balance (dynamometer), where can you get
the greatest reading for the same object?
A. At the centre of the earth B. On the moon
C. At the equator D. At the poles.

3. What is the name of any push or pull exerted?

A. Mass B. Force C. Friction D. Tension
4. What do we call the pull of gravity on an object?
A. Mass B. Weight C. Moment D. Tension

6. Which one of the following is the unit of weight?

A. Newton B. Kilogram C. Meter D. Ton

7. A mass of 60kg weighs 600N on the earth and 100N on the moon. What is the mass and weight of
an object on the earth if it weighs 50N on the moon?
A. 60kg mass, 600N weight B. 10kg mass, 60N weight
C. 30kg mass, 300N weight D. 5 kg, mass, 100N weight

8. Which one of the following is a force?

A. Energy B. Mass C. Weight D. Speed

9. Which one of the following statements is not correct?

A. Force can change the speed of an object.
B. Force can change the shape of an object.
C. Force can change the direction of motion.
D. Force can change the mass of an object.

10. Which one of the following are SI units of mass and weight?
A. g and n respectively B. N and kg respectively
C. kg and g respectively D. kg and N

respectively