NTM Module 2

Module2: Ultrasonic and Abrasive Jet machining
Introduction
What is Ultrasonic?
Ultrasonic refers to sound/vibratory waves that have a frequency higher than the upper
limit of human hearing, typically above 20 kHz.
What is Ultrasonic Machining?
Ultrasonic machining is a non-traditional machining process which utilizes high-frequency
of ultrasonic vibrations to remove material from a workpiece.
In USM Process material is removed by the repetitive impact of abrasive particles carried
by liquid medium on to the workpiece surface by shaped tool vibrating at ultrasonic frequency.
Principle of USM
 USM is based on the principle that, when a tool vibrating at a very high frequency is
brought closer to the workpiece with abrasive particles between them.
 These abrasive particles are pumped between the tool and workpiece.
 The vibrating energy of the tool can force the abrasive particles to strike the workpiece
with a great velocity.
 The impact of the abrasive particles fractures the hard work surface resulting in the removal
of material from the workpiece.
Need for USM

 Brittle materials such as glass, ceramics, carbides, precious stones, hardened steels etc., are
difficult to machine by conventional methods.
 USM is a Non-thermal, Non-chemical process which creates no change in the
microstructure, chemical or physical properties of the workpiece and offers virtually stress
free machined surface.
Prof. Krishna Prasad S, Assistant Professor Dept. of ME, MIT Mysore Page 1
 These features of the USM makes above mentioned materials to be machined economically
and efficiently compared to conventional methods.
USM Equipment and Operation
The USM consists of following components
 Signal Generator and Power amplifier
 Ultrasonic Transducer
 Transducer cone or Horn
 Tool Holder
 Tool
 Abrasive slurry
1. Signal Generator and power supply

 It is also called as high frequency generator. It converts low frequency (60Hz) electrical
signal to high frequency (20KHZ) electrical signal.
 This high frequency electrical signal is transmitted to the transducer.
2. Ultrasonic Transducer
 Ultrasonic transducer Convert high frequency electrical signal into and low amplitude
mechanical vibration. (5 microns).
 In USM, piezoelectric or Magneto-strictive transducers are used.
 piezo electric transducer works on piezoelectric. effect. i.e. when an electric current
is passed through piezoelectric crystal (quartz) it expands and when the current is
removed the crystal attains its original size. Such transducers are available up to 900
watts.
 Magneto-strictive transducer works on Magneto-strictive effect. According to this
effect, in the presence of the applied magnetic field, ferro-magnetic metals and alloys
Change the length such transducers are available up to 2000 watts.
 The transducer based on magneto-strictive effect is preferred in USM, due to high
efficiency, high reliability in the 15-30 KHz, low supply voltage and simple cooling
requirement.
3. Transducer/Tool cone or Horn
 The tool con e or concentrator (also called mechanical amplifiers), which amplify the
amplitude of vibration from 5 to 40-50 microns.
 The amplified Vibration is the transmitted to tool and commonly used tool materials
are Titanium.
 following figures shove the different shapes of tool cone
4. Tool Holder
 The high frequency of mechanical motion obtained from the transducer transmitted to
the tool via tool-holder.
 The tool holder as the name implies it helps to attach and hold tool to transducer.
 In addition, it also transmits the length of stroke or vibration of the tool by means of
wave guide.
5. Tool
 Tool is the mirror image of shape to be produced.
 During operation, tool is subjected to high frequency of vibration perpendicular to the
work surface to machined.
 vibrating tool drives the abrasive particles against the work piece and causes impact
action of abrasive particles on work piece.
 It is usually made up of ductile materials brass, steel, Mild steel to minimize the book
wear rate.
6. Abrasive slurry:
 Abrasive sherry is the working medium in USM.
 Abrasive slurry. Consists of Mixture of Liquid (water is most commonly used and oils
are also used) it is up to 30 % to 60% of abrasives.
 commonly used abrasives are Aluminum Oxide (Al2o3) Silicon Carbide (sic) and
Boron Carbide (B4C) and diamond dust.
Working of USM-
 In operation Electronic oscillator and power amplifier convert low frequency (60Hz)
electrical signal to high frequency (20kHz) electrical signal.
 This high frequency electrical-signal is transmitted to the ultrasonic transducer.
 This Ultrasonic transducer convert high frequency electrical signal into high frequency
low amplitude mechanical vibrations of about (5 micros).
 The tool come which amplify the amplitude of vibration Obtained from the transducer
from 5 to 40 microns The amplified vibration is then transmitted to the tool.
 The tool vibrates at very high frequency with desired amplitude.
 Abrasive slurry is pumped between to the vibrating tool and Work piece.
 The vibrating tool drives the abrasive particles against the workpiece and causes an
impact action of abrasive particles on the workpiece.
 Impact action of abrasive particle causes a brittle fracture and hence material is
removed.
 The removed material is carried by the abrasive slurry.
Process Parameters in USM

Following are the critical parameters which affect the metal removal rate (MRR), surface finish
and accuracy of the machined surface.
1) Effect of Amplitude and frequency of Vibrating Tool
a) Effect of Amplitude of Vibrating tool
 Figure shows effect of amplitude of vibrating tool on Metal removal Rate (MRR).
 MRR increases with increasing the amplitude of vibration due to increase in kinetic energy
of the particle.
 Amplitude of vibration ranges from 25-100 µm.
b) Effect of Frequency of Vibrating tool

 Figure shows effect of frequency of vibrating tool on Metal removal Rate (MRR).
 MRR increases linearly with increase in frequency of vibration due to more number of
impact on work-piece.
 Frequency ranges from 20-30 KHz.
2) Effect of Abrasive Slurry concentration
 In USM process improved flow of slurry concentration increases MRR.
 The abrasive slurry usually about 30-60% are suspended in liquid medium.
 As shown in the figure MRR increases with increase in slurry concentration increases upto
30% beyond that MRR decreases with increase in slurry concentration.
3) Tool and work Material

Hardness ratio = Tool Hardness / Work-piece hardness
 Tool has to withstand vibration & it shouldn’t fail or wear out quickly.
 If harder the tool material faster the wear rate & leading to unfavorable MRR & Surface
finish on workpiece.
 Figure shows the effect of hardness ratio of tool & W/p on MRR.
 Higher the ratio lower will be the MRR, for this reason ductile material is not recommended
as cutting tools in USM. i.e., soft material such as copper, lead which absorbs energy by
deformation.
 Brittle materials (work-piece) can be cut at higher rate than ductile material.
4) Type of Abrasive
 Abrasive used should be harder than workpiece material to be machined or else life of the
abrasive shortened results in poor surface finish.
 Boron carbide used for Higher MRR for machining harder materials like Titanium carbide
(Tic), tool-steel & precious stones.
 Also abrasive used for machining is costlier.
 Silicon-carbide is best suited as abrasive and finds maximum applications.
5) Effect of Abrasive grain-size
 As the grain size increases MRR increases initially due to impact of more abrasives on
larger area of workpiece.
 As the abrasive grainsize increases beyond certain limit MRR decreases.
 Size of the abrasive particle usually ranges from 200-840grit size.
 Coarse-grits suits for higher MRR but poor Surface finish.
 Similarly fine-grits suits for lower MRR but high surface finish.
6) Effect of Tool-Shape
 MRR is inversely proportional to the cutting area of tool.
 Narrow rectangular tool give increase in MRR compared to square shape.
 Conical-tool produces twice MRR compared to cylindrical tool.
Process Characteristics (Capabilities) of USM
1. Metal Removal Rate (MRR)
Material MRR (mm3/min)
Glass 425
Mica 390
Ceramics 185
Steel 30
 From the above table it is clear that USM has High MRR for brittle materials like -
glass, Mica & Ceramics and Low MRR for ductile materials like Steel.
 USM process gives high MRR for Work-piece whose hardness greater than 50 HRC.
i.e., not suitable for workpiece whose hardness below 50HRC.
 Therefore, USM is best suitable for machining Hard & Brittle materials.
 Also, MRR also depends on
 Amplitude & frequency of vibrating tool
 Abrasive grain-size.
 Abrasive slurry concentration
 Work-piece material
 Applied static-load.
2. Tool-wear: is defined as the ratio of
Wear ratio = Volume of material removed from workpiece / volume of material removed
from tool.
 Tool-wear takes place due to cutting action of abrasive particle.

 In USM tools are made from ductile materials like brass, steel and titanium alloy.
 Usually titanium alloy shows lowest tool-wear.
Following table shows wear ratio of different tool-materials for machining glass.
Tool-Material Wear ratio for glass workpiece
Steel 100:1
Carbon-steel 100:1
Brass 40:1
3. Surface Finish
 Surface finish produced by USM depends on Type of abrasive and size of the abrasive at
major level.
 Type of work-piece material, Amplitude of vibrating tool & Abrasive slurry concentration
in minor level.
 Fine grainsize of (0.2-0.8 µm) gives better surface finish but Low MRR and Coarse grain
size gives poor surface finish but High MRR.
 From the figure it is clear that as the abrasive grain size increases surface finish decreases.
4. Accuracy
 In USM accuracy of the machined surface depends on the
 Size of the abrasive particle
 Tool wear-rate
 Tool vibration
For example, accuracy occur in the form of Taper while drilling is discussed below:
Reasons for inaccuracy are:

 Coarse grain size of abrasive particle
 Tool-wear is high
 Improper tool-vibration
Remedy to obtain good accuracy are:
 use fine grain size of abrasive particle
 change abrasive slurry frequently
 tool must be change frequently
Accuracy with tolerance for drilling is listed here:
 Diameter ------ ± 0.03 mm
 Depth ----------± 0.06 mm
 Corner radius ----- ± 0.10 mm
Advantages
 It is suitable for machining hard & Brittle materials like glass, Ceramics and Mica.
 Ability to machine non-conducting materials like glass & ceramics.
 It is non-thermal, non-chemical process hence there is no change in Microstructure,
physical & chemical properties of materials.
 USM is Burless & Distortion less process.
 Local stresses are minimum.
 Comparatively good accuracy and surface finish.
Disadvantages
 Not suitable for machining soft/Ductile materials like Copper and Lead.
 Low MRR.
 Tool-wear is more.
 Abrasive slurry should be replaced periodically for efficient machining.
 Depth of holes & cavities produced are small.
 Process becomes costlier for complex shapes & hard materials
Applications
 Drilling / machining of cavities/holes in Non-conducting materials like glass/ceramics can

be done.
 Cutting of semi-conductor materials like silicon for Electronic applications.
 Used for machining Hard & Brittle materials
 Cutting threads in glass & ceramics.
 Used for machining Industrial diamonds & precious stones like Ruby.
 Used for manufacturing of wire drawing/Punching & Blanking in sheet metal.
Abrasive Jet Machining

Introduction
Abrasive: it is a small irregular shaped particle having sharp cutting edges.
Abrasive Jet: It is a mixture of gas (air) and abrasive particle.
Abrasive Jet Machining: it is a mechanical type non-traditional machining process in which
excess material is removed by high velocity of abrasive jet.
Principle of AJM
 AJM principle involves use of high velocity abrasive particle carried in a gas medium
through nozzle.
 Mixture of abrasive particle & while passing through the nozzle pressure energy is
converted into kinetic energy.
 High velocity of abrasive jet from the nozzle is then directed on to the work-surface.
 The impact of the abrasive particle on the worksurface causes brittle fracture and hence
material is removed.
 Excess material is then carried by gas stream resulting in smooth & fine surface finish.
Mechanism of metal removal in AJM

 Workpiece material is removed by abrasive/ mechanical erosion of abrasive particle.
 When the high velocity abrasive particle hits the workpiece surface, brittle fracture takes
place & hence workpiece material is removed.
 The removed workpiece material is then carried way by gas stream.
Equipment of AJM and operation
Or
1. Filter
 It filters the air/gas from oil/moisture & other contaminants before entering nozzle and
mixing chamber.
2. Compressor
 It pressurizes the gas to the required level.
 Commonly used gas is air/Nitrogen/Carbon-dioxide.
3. Pressure gauge and flow regulator
 It is used to regulate & control the pressure & flowrate of compressed air.
4. Mixing Chamber
 It is used to mix the gas and abrasive particle.
 The mixing chamber is made to vibrate at about 50 Hz for proper mixing of abrasive
particle with gas.
5. Hopper
 It is used for feeding the abrasive particle to the mixing chamber through metallic sieve.
 Metallic sieves are constantly subjected to mechanical vibration.
 Mass flowrate of abrasive entering the chamber depends on amplitude & frequency of
vibrating sieve.
6. Vibrator
 It is provided below the mixing chamber.
 It vibrates the mixing chamber for proper mixing of abrasive particle with a gas.
7. Nozzle
 It is used to accelerate the abrasive particle on the worksurface.
 Since the abrasive particle leave the nozzle at high velocity subjected to abrasive wear.
 Therefore, nozzle is made of hard materials like Titanium carbide, synthetic sapphire which
has high resistance to wear.
8. Abrasive jet
 It is a mixture of abrasive particle & compressed air.
 Aluminum oxide (Al2o3), Silicon carbide (Sic) particle is used as abrasive particle.
 The size of the abrasive particle ranges from 10-50 µm.
 Small size of particles are preferred for polishing & cleaning, large size of abrasives are
preferred for cutting.
9. carrier gas
 Air, nitrogen, carbon-dioxide are used as abrasive particles.
 It must be filtered to remove moisture, oil & other contaminants.
 Here high pressure of carrier gas leads to nozzle wear & low pressure leads to low MRR
therefore, gas pressure needs to adjust accordingly.
Working
 Initially, dry air or gas is filtered and compressed by passing it through the compressor.
 In operation, the filtered gas is supplied under pressure into the mixing chamber containing
abrasive particle.
 The mixing chamber is made to be vibrated at about 50Hz for proper mixing of abrasive
particle with the gas.
 The stream of mixture emerging from the nozzle at a high velocity is directed onto the
worksurface to be machined.
 The impact of the abrasive particle on the worksurface produces sufficient force to cut a
hole or slot, deburring, trimming or removing oxides and other surface films from the
workpiece.
 The removed work material is carried away by gas stream, i.e. carrier gas.
Process parameters (variables) of Abrasive Jet Machining

1. Carrier gas
 Carrier gas is used to propel the abrasive particle.
 Commonly used abrasive particles are Nitrogen, carbon-dioxide and Air.
 Carrier gas should be non-toxic, cheap and easily available.
 It is capable of clean, dry without any difficulty.
2. Type of Abrasive
 Aluminum oxide (Al2o3), Silicon carbide (Sic), Sodium-bicarbonate (Na2co3), Glass
beads used for cleaning, deburring & polishing which is generally used as abrasive in
AJM.
 Abrasive particles have sharp & irregular shape for good cutting.
 Reuse of abrasive particles not recommended for because cutting capacity decreases
after first application.
3. Size of Abrasive grains
 Size of the abrasives decides the MRR.
 Fine grains produce low MRR and coarse grains produces high MRR.
4. Velocity of the abrasive particle
 When the velocity increases i.e., speed at which abrasive particle hits the workpiece
increased. i.e., MRR increases with increase in velocity of abrasive particle.
 For erosion of the workpiece surface minimum velocity of abrasive particle found to
be 150m/s.
5. Nozzle Design
 Since the abrasive particle leave the nozzle at high velocity it is subjected to abrasive
wear.
 To avoid the nozzle wear its made from tungsten carbide (Tic) & Sapphire material
both having a property of high resistance to wear.
 Nozzle may be either circular or rectangular cross-section and life of the sapphire
material nozzle is 10 times more than the Tungsten carbide nozzle.
 Nozzle should be designed in such a way that loss due to bend/friction is minimum.
6. Nozzle tip distance (NTD) or Stand off distance (SOD)

 NTD or SOD refers to the distance between tip of the nozzle & worksurface.
 Figure a shows effect of SOD on MRR, i.e.. MRR initially increases with increase in
the distance of the nozzle (i.e. NTD) due to acceleration of abrasive particle leaving the
nozzle.
 MRR increases upto a distance of 8mm beyond this range MRR decreases due to
 Increasing machine area for same amount of abrasive particle.
 Decrease in velocity of abrasive particle due to drag.
 NTD not only affects MRR but also the size and shape of the cavity produced.
 Figure b shows NTD on machining accuracy of the workpiece material.
 A larger NTD results in flaring up the jet takes place.

 As the jest spreads over wide area, its intensity decreases there by decreases the
accuracy of the machined surface.
7. Work-material
 Brittle material such as glass, ceramics & refractory materials easily machined by AJM.
These materials regain its strength at high temperature example Sic & Zirconium.
 Ductile and soft materials are practically difficult to machine by AJM because abrasive
particles can penetrate & embedded with soft materials.
Process Characteristics
1. Mixing ratio
It is defined as the ratio of mass flowrate of abrasive to the mass flow rate of fluid or gas.
Mixing ratio (MR) = Mass flowrate of abrasive / Mass flowrate of fluid/gas.
 Larger volume of the mixing ratio leads to Higher MRR. i.e., large abrasive flowrate
adversely influence on jet velocity.
 Figure shows as the mixing ratio increases with MRR also increases due to more number
of abrasive particle available for cutting.
2. Abrasive Flowrate
 It is nothing but, amount of abrasive enters to mixing per unit time.
 Figure a shows effect of abrasive flowrate on MRR.
Fig(a) Fig (b)

 As the amount of abrasive flowrate increases, MRR also increases due to more number of
abrasive particle available for cutting.
 Further, increase in abrasive flowrate metal removal rate decreases.
 Therefore, maximum MRR achieves at optimum abrasive flowrate at (14gm/min) i.e.,
when flowrate exceeds 14gm/min abrasive velocity decreases and MRR also decreases.
 Figure b shows MRR increases with increase of abrasive flowrate when mixing ratio is
constant.
3. Surface Finish
 Surface finish produced by AJM depends on size of the abrasive, type of abrasive & work
material being machined.
 Fine grainsize results in low MRR but better surface finish.
 Coarse grainsize results in High MRR but rough surface finish.
 Size of the abrasive ranges from 0.2 to 1.2 µm. i.e., as the size of abrasive increases surface
finish decreases.
4. Accuracy
 In Abrasive jet machining tolerance upt o ± 0.05mm can be achieved.
 Precision tolerance (repetitive tolerance) up to 0.1 mm can be obtain for normal production
work.
 Corner radius up to 0.2 mm can be achieved.
5. Metal Removal Rate
 Abrasive jet machining process has low Metal removal Rate.

Example: a typical MRR for glass is 16 mm3/min
i.e., minimum width of about 0.1mm can be cut using a rectangular nozzle of 0.075 *
1.5 mm by placing at a stand of distance of 0.08 mm from worksurface.
6. Gas Pressure
 As shown in the figure Metal removal rate increases with increase in gas pressure.
 i.e. Higher gas pressure produces a strong stream for cutting operation.
Advantages
 Initial Investment is low due to low capital cost and low power consumption.
 Abrasive jet equipment’s are easy to operate and maintain.
 Ability to cut intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials and heat sensitive materials.
 Good accuracy and surface finish can be obtained.
 Heat generation is low.
 It is used for cutting, drilling, polishing and cleaning of materials.
Disadvantages
 Low metal removal rate.
 Abrasive particles are cannot be reused.
 Not suitable for soft and ductile materials because high velocity of abrasive particles
embedded in the workpiece itself.
 Nozzle life is limited.
 Taper is present in the finished workpiece while drilling a square hole.
Applications
 Used for machining of brittle and heat sensitive materials like ceramic, glass and quartz.
 Used for machining of semiconductor materials like silicon and germanium.
 Used to cut intricate shapes in the workpiece.
 Used for drilling holes, boring, polishing, cutting slots, cleaning, marking or engraving.
 Used to engrave register numbers on toughened glass.

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Module2: Ultrasonic and Abrasive Jet machining

Need for USM

1. Signal Generator and power supply

Process Parameters in USM

b) Effect of Frequency of Vibrating tool

3) Tool and work Material

 Tool-wear takes place due to cutting action of abrasive particle.

Reasons for inaccuracy are:

 Drilling / machining of cavities/holes in Non-conducting materials like glass/ceramics can

Abrasive Jet Machining

Mechanism of metal removal in AJM

Equipment of AJM and operation

Process parameters (variables) of Abrasive Jet Machining

6. Nozzle tip distance (NTD) or Stand off distance (SOD)

 A larger NTD results in flaring up the jet takes place.

Fig(a) Fig (b)

 Abrasive jet machining process has low Metal removal Rate.

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