UNIVERSITE DE LOME /

UNIVERSITE DE KARA

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Course: APPLIED LINGUISTICS (Master)

By Prof. E.K. ESSIZEWA, PhD.

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APPLIED LINGUISTICS
(adapted from Mohammed Jasim Betti, 2021, and Pit Corder & Alan Davis 2001)

Objective of the Course:

The course is designed to provide students with an opportunity to reflect and further develop
their understanding of both theoretical and practical considerations in the field of language
learning and teaching. It encourages students to develop a broad theoretical base reflecting
current cutting edge research within Applied Linguistics and related disciplines. Additionally,
this course makes links between the different disciplines which contribute to our knowledge of
language learning and issues related to language pedagogy.

1. Linguistics
Theoretical Linguistics is a branch of linguistics that is focused on developing linguistic
knowledge in general (e.g. what are the linguistic levels of any language) and concrete models
in particular (e.g. how the phonemes are organized in a given language. Internal linguistics
which means the study of the parts of the language system (phonetics, phonology, morphology,
syntax and semantics, pragmatics and discourse can also be included). Linguistics is then a pure
science and its study is motivated by the desire to increase human knowledge (Spolsky & Hult,
2008: 2).

According to Nasr (1980: 2), the closely related levels of linguistic study are phonology which
is divided to segmentals and suprasegmentals; vocabulary which consists of words; and
grammar which consists of the means by which relationships between words are shown. Any
study is linguistic if it studies any one field of the above fields theoretically not practically. So,
the levels of linguistic analysis are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and
pragmatics.

Applied linguistics as an enterprise is therefore a research and development activity that sets
out to make use of theoretical insights and collect empirical data which can be of use in
dealing with institutional language problems. It is not primarily a form of social work with
immediate access to individuals in the happenstance of their ongoing social communication,
although its findings may of course be helpful to counsellors and teachers faced with these
particular problems.
The starting-point is typically to be presented with an institutional language problem. The
purpose of the activity is to provide relevant information which will help those involved
understand the issues better; in some cases, on the basis of the information it will be possible
to offer a solution to the problem. More likely is an explanation of what is involved, setting
out the choices available, along with their
implications.

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2. Symptoms of Applied Linguistics
a. Application of Linguistic Research
Applied linguistics is presented as an independent discipline that unifies practical experience
and theoretical understanding of language development and language in use. It is based on the
application of linguistic theories in some fields to solve problems like teaching, practical
contrastive linguistics, forensic linguistics, stylistics, discourse analysis, psycholinguistics,
sociolinguistics, etc.

Cook defines applied linguistics as ‘the academic discipline concerned with the relation of
knowledge about language to decision making in the real world’ (2003: 20). For him ‘the task
of applied linguistics is to mediate’ between linguistics and language use” (ibid).

If researchers regard themselves as linguists applying linguistics to validate a theory, this is

linguistics applied. If they see themselves as applied linguists seeking a practical answer to a
language problem, this is applied linguistics Applied linguistics exists to try to explain the
passions and suggest solutions to the problems. To some extent, the passions and the problems
are connected so that explanation of the passion is itself part solution of the problem.

What are some of these problems? There are problems of language use, the well-known ones
of what it means to be correct (and whether it matters), of whether some accents are better than
others, of the language disadvantages some children face at school because of their social class
or ethnicity, of understanding instructions on domestic appliances and on official documents
(such as tax forms). And then there are the lesser-known problems of institutionalised
misunderstandings such as police transcripts, doctor–patient communication, etc.
According to the Statutes of the International Association of Applied Linguistics (AILA):
The Association’s purpose is to promote research in the areas of applied linguistics, for
example language learning, language teaching, language use and language planning, to
publish the results of this research and to promote international and interdisciplinary
cooperation in these areas.
(Article 2 of the AILA Statutes 1964)
L’Association a pour but de promouvoir les recherches dans les domaines de la linguistique
appliquée, comme par exemple l’acquisition, l’enseignement, l’emploi et le traitement des
langues, d’en diffuser les résultats et de promouvoir la coordination et la coopération
interdisciplinaires et internationales dans ces
domaines.
(Article 2 of the AILA Statutes 1964)

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For the applied linguist the situation is both more difficult and easier: more difficult because
he/she may not have the linguistic theory at hand to apply; easier because for him/her both the
linguistic and the aphasic must be understood but neither has priority over the other. The
applied linguist therefore who gets involved in clinical linguistics is less likely than the
linguist to be dominated in his/her thinking by any linguistic theory: theory then becomes the
servant and not the master.
So if the linguist does make a linear approach to practice from theory, the applied linguist
surveys the field from the position of practice and then takes account of any
theory/description that has a bearing on language. This does not make applied linguistics non-
theoretical but it does mean that it is not mono theoretical.

b. Restriction to Language Teaching

According to its birthplace, applied linguistics is associated with language teaching. According
to Corder (1973), applied linguistics as related to practical tasks connected with language
teaching (applied linguistics) has implied restriction.
Some people including Corder himself disagree with this restriction because there are other
tasks other than language teaching to which linguistic knowledge is relevant (1973: 7).

c. Nonrestriction
Applied linguistics is a multi-disciplinary approach to the solution of language-related problems
(Strevens, 1989: 9). It is not a theoretical study. It makes use of the findings of theoretical
studies. While applied linguistics and language teaching may be closely associated, they are not
one and the same activity (Corder, 1973: 10). So, linguistics is concerned with theory and
applied linguistics with data.

d. The crucial difference?

Is it then the case that the linguist moves from theory to description and then to
application? Not of course in all cases, for individual linguists themselves take up
different positions in their professional work along the line. The applied linguist,
on the other hand, starts from the problem which requires practice of some kind
and then in order to attack the problem moves back towards theory, taking in
description and clinical methodology (including instrumental methodologies such
as assessment procedures) along the way. Is this the crucial linguist–applied linguist
distinction?

3. Areas of Applied Linguistics

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field. Major branches of applied linguistics
include bilingualism and multilingualism, conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, sign
linguistics, language assessment, literacies, discourse analysis, language pedagogy, second
language acquisition, language planning and policy, interlinguistics, stylistics, language
teacher education, pragmatics, forensic linguistics and translation.

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Interdisciplinarity or interdisciplinary studies involves the combining of two or
more academic disciplines into one activity (e.g., a research project). It draws knowledge from
several other fields like sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics etc. It is about creating
something by thinking across boundaries. It is related to an interdiscipline or
an interdisciplinary field, which is an organizational unit that crosses traditional boundaries
between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions emerge.

The term interdisciplinary is applied within education and training pedagogies to describe
studies that use methods and insights of several established disciplines or traditional fields of
study. Interdisciplinarity involves researchers, students, and teachers in the goals of connecting
and integrating several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies—along with
their specific perspectives—in the pursuit of a common task.
The epidemiology of HIV/AIDS or global warming requires understanding of diverse
disciplines to solve complex problems. Interdisciplinary may be applied where the subject is
felt to have been neglected or even misrepresented in the traditional disciplinary structure of
research institutions, for example, women's studies or ethnic area studies. Interdisciplinarity
can likewise be applied to complex subjects that can only be understood by combining the
perspectives of two or more fields.
Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a
group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in
the world's population. More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language
other than their mother tongue; but many read and write in one language. Always useful to
traders, multilingualism is advantageous for people wanting to participate in globalization and
cultural openness.[3] Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet,
individuals' exposure to multiple languages is becoming increasingly possible. People who
speak several languages are also called polyglots.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood,
the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother
tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms about which scholars
disagree.[5] Children acquiring two languages natively from these early years are
called simultaneous bilinguals. It is common for young simultaneous bilinguals to be more
proficient in one language than the other.[6]
People who know more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language
learning compared to monolinguals.

Language pedagogy may take place as a general school subject, in a specialized language
school, or out of school with a rich selection of proprietary methods online and in books, CDs
and DVDs. There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have fallen into relative
obscurity and others are widely used; still others have a small following, but offer useful
insights.
There are three principal views:

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 1. The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code
meaning (e.g. grammar).
2. The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain
function, such as requesting something.
3. The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of
social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found
in conversational exchanges. This view has been fairly dominant since the 1980s.

Second-language acquisition (SLA), second-language learning, or L2 (language

2) acquisition, is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language
acquisition is also the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. The field of second-
language acquisition is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, but also receives research
attention from a variety of other disciplines, such as psychology and education.
Sign languages (also known as signed languages) are languages that use the visual-manual
modality to convey meaning. Sign languages are expressed through manual articulations in
combination with non-manual elements. Sign languages are full-fledged natural languages with
their own grammar and lexicon.[1] Sign languages are not universal and they are not mutually
intelligible with each other,[2] although there are also striking similarities among sign
languages.
Language planning (also known as language engineering) is a deliberate effort to influence
the function, structure or acquisition of languages or language varieties within a speech
community. Robert L. Cooper (1989) defines language planning as "the activity of preparing a
normative orthography, grammar, and dictionary for the guidance of writers and speakers in a
non-homogeneous speech community” (p. 8)

Contrastive analysis, which means comparing two or more languages, is another field of
applied linguistics. Within contrastive linguistics, there are two types which are theoretical and
applied contrastive linguistics. The first makes contrastive studies within general linguistics
while the second compares or contrasts languages for pedagogical objectives, like second or
foreign language learning, translation, etc., (Aziz, 1989: 7).
Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying
their structural differences and similarities between the first language and the target language
based on the assumptions that: the similarities facilitate learning while differences cause
problems. Via contrastive analysis, problems can be predicted and considered in the
curriculum.
NB: Give an example of contrastive studies of your own

Stylistics is the linguistic study of literary texts. It examines the frequency of the grammatical
categories used in six prose texts. This aspect is studied through the variables of prose text type
and writer's sex.

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The study proves that the text type and the writer's sex, in addition to the text theme determine
the grammatical category used.

Psycholinguistics is the study of the mental processes underlying the planning, production,
perception and comprehension of speech (Finch, 2000: 196). In this regard, Betti and Igaab
(2019: 229) is a case study which describes the speech of three pre-school Nasiriya Iraqi Arabic
children. The data of this study are collected through tape-recording them. Through the analysis,
it is concluded that the phonetic processes which exist in the informants’ speech include
assimilation, elision, gemination and nasalization and the main ones are sound shift and
metathesis. It has been noted that the study informants pronounce some consonants which are
difficult to be pronounced by other children living in the same city; those consonants are either
regularly shifted to in the production of other consonants or as part of ordinary words containing
such sounds.

Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in

which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory,
conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior
in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology. Unlike semantics, which examines
meaning that is conventional or "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the
transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge
(grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and listener but also on the context of the utterance, any
pre-existing knowledge about those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other
factors. In that respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome
apparent ambiguity since meaning relies on the manner, place, time, etc. of an utterance.

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of

an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction
(which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text)
and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under
this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language
community.

Discourse Analysis is the analysis of discourse (Fromkin et al. 2003: 581). It focuses on the
structure of naturally occurring spoken language as found in such discourses as conversations,
interviews, commentaries, and speeches. Text linguistics focuses on the structure of the written
language as found in such texts as essays, notices, road signs, and chapters (Crystal, 2007: 260).
Discourse Analysis is the analysis of discourse (Fromkin et al. 2003: 581). It focuses on the
structure of naturally occurring spoken language as found in such discourses as conversations,
interviews, commentaries, and speeches.
Betti and Al-Jubouri (2009: 7) investigates themes and rhemes in English structurally and
intonationally. The study hypothesizes that the advanced EFL learners in Iraq face difficulties
in producing and recognizing themes and rhemes in English. To verify the hypothesis, two tests

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are designed and examined by a certain jury for their validity, easiness/difficulty and time of
responding. The tests measure the subjects' productive and recognitive abilities of themes,
rhemes and their tones. The study concludes that our advanced EFL learners face difficulties
on the recognition and production sides. Nevertheless, the females prove to be more competent
than the males on both types of skills, and fourth year subjects prove to be also competent. The
weakness that our learners face is sometimes due to inter and at other times to intra causes.

Forensic Linguistics refers to the use of linguistic techniques to investigate crimes in which
language data forms part of the evidence (Crystal, 1992: 141; and 2003: 184). Forensic
linguistics is used to determine the authenticity of oral and written texts for both defence and
prosecution purposes.

Clinical Linguistics
The ultimate goal of clinical linguistics is to formulate hypotheses for the remediation of
abnormal linguistic behaviour … clinical linguistics can help clinicians to make an informed
judgment about ‘what to teach next’ and to monitor the outcome of an intervention,
hypothesis, as treatment proceeds.
The terms ‘remediation’ and ‘teaching’ suggest that clinical linguistics is very definitely
applied work since it sets out to diagnose what problems there are in an individual’s
communication system and then attempts to provide appropriate remedies. The best-known
practitioner is the speech therapist (or pathologist) who works with childhood speech defects
(caused for example by a cleft palate) and with
adult aphasias (caused by strokes and by road and other accidents). But there is more
to it.
Communicative competence is based on the notion of appropriacy, an attempt to build a
model for ‘the rules of language use without which grammar would be useless’ (Pride and
Holmes 1972: 278). Hymes’s powerful insight combined with the trenchancy of his portrayal
made possible major development and research in applied linguistics, akin to the Restricted
and Elaborated Codes proposed by Basil Bernstein (1971) and the interlanguage hypothesis
by Corder in the 1980s (Corder 1981). In sociolinguistics, in second-language acquisition, in
curriculum design, in language assessment, the construct of communicative competence has
been of major importance. Whether it has enabled us to do better (teach more effectively, for
example) is another matter. But as an explanatory device, illuminating what is done and at the
same time examining what it means, communicative competence is a good example of
applied linguistics as explanation and as inspiration.
The skills the two professional groups call on in these areas are not all that dis -similar; it would
be surprising if they were since (as we have seen before) the linguist may also work at the
applied end and the applied linguist may research the area of some aspect of gender in language
although, as we have seen, always with some ameliorative outcome in view. But at the poles
the skills and techniques are different: the linguist will analyse, survey and interview. The
applied linguist will test, observe and, above all, evaluate. But more than anything the applied

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linguist, unlike the linguist, will examine the language in gender situation in context and
consider any proposed remedy in terms of the history of the area and of the effects on the stake
-holders’ interest in the language of that situation. We might propose that the linguist operates
deductively and the applied linguist inductively; while reminding ourselves that deduction and
induction cannot stand alone; each requires the other.

Educational linguistics includes those parts of linguistics directly relevant to educational

matters as well as those parts of education concerned with language (Spolsky & Hult, 2008: 2).
In the Teaching discipline, it investigates the various ways for the selection, gradation and
presentation of vocabulary to EFL learners. In it a survey is made of the selection of the criteria
for the selection of lexical items: frequency, range, availability, coverage and teachability. It
also traces the lexical items through various types of syllabuses: grammatical, situational,
topical and notional-functional.

4. Research in Applied Linguistics

1) A paper is linguistic when it has no application. The only two ways to make a linguistic study
is to validate a linguistic theory in one of the levels mentioned previously and when two or
more languages are studied to show or to arrive at the universal features among languages.

2) A paper is in applied linguistics when there is an application. If there is no application, it is

not an applied linguistic study. So, when a theory is chosen as a model in pragmatics to analyze
discourse or text, or when a test is made to measure an achievement of students, or when the
effect of a mother tongue is seen, or when a theory is chosen to analyze a legal text, or when a
theory in pragmatics, or in semantics or in grammar is chosen to analyze a literary text, etc., we
are within applied linguistics. All the previous examples refer to applied linguistic studies not
linguistic ones.

3) No study in linguistics is done with one of the above applications and it is regarded
as linguistic not applied linguistic.

4) Some MA and Ph.D. courses in theoretical linguistics or in general linguistics are

opened in Iraq with applications in their theses and dissertations, they are not
linguistic but applied linguistic ones. Hence, there are supposed to be some modifications.

5) Carrying out theses and dissertations in applied linguistics or in ELT without

application is neither in applied linguistics nor in linguistics.

6) ELT, as part of applied linguistics, is part of applied linguistics and there should be
some application.

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Applied linguistics and language teaching
Theories about the nature of human language are, of use to other people besides the language
teacher. It would be a mistake to associate applied linguistics exclusively with language
teaching. There are other people who are engaged in practical activities which involve language
in a central role for whom a knowledge of its nature could be of use in dealing with problems
which arise in their work: the speech therapist, the literary critic, the communications engineer,
for example. We do not uniquely associate applied linguistics with any single one of the
activities. Whilst applied linguistics and language teaching may be closely associated, they are
not one and the same activity.

The application of linguistic knowledge to some object – or applied linguistics, as its name
implies – is an activity, it is not a theoretical study. It makes use of the findings of theoretical
studies. If we use the term ‘theory’ as it is used in science, then there is no such thing as a
‘theory of language teaching’ or a ‘theory of speech therapy’ or a ‘theory of literary criticism’.
Language teaching is also an activity, but teaching languages is not the same activity as applied
linguistics. However, if we interpret language teaching in the very broadest sense, to include all
the planning and decision-making which takes place outside the classroom, then there may be
an element of applied linguistics in all language teaching. Just as may be an element of applied
linguistics in all speech therapy or all literary criticism.

This, then, is a book applied linguistics in language teaching; about those parts of the total
language teaching operation in which decisions are made in the light of a knowledge of the
nature human language, how it is learned and its role in society. It deals with those parts of the
operation which are potentially susceptible to some sort of systematization based upon
scientifically acquired knowledge.

In spite of many hundreds of years through which language has been studied in our civilization,
we still know about many of its aspects. The pace of investigation has quickened in recent years
and the methods of investigation have increasingly been made more rigorous, to the point that
we can now, with some justification and within certain defined boundaries, claim that linguistic
studies are scientific.

Applied linguistics has to do with the devising of syllabuses and materials for carrying out the
intentions of education authorities whether local or national. Syllabuses relate to specific
languages to be taught to more or less specific groups of learners for more or less specific
limitations time and money. Textbooks and teaching materials of all sorts are the concrete
realizations of the syllabus plan.

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5. Language teaching
Hierarchy of planning functions in the total language teaching operation

Level 1 Political Government Whether, what language,

whom to teach
Level 2 Linguistic, Sociolinguistic Applied linguist What to teach, when to
teach, how much to teach
Level 3 Psycholinguistic, Pedagogic Classroom teacher How to teach

Success in language teaching

The applied linguist is a contributor to the whole language-teaching operation. He does not
control it, nor does the classroom teacher, nor for that matter, does the headmaster or the
Minister of Education. It is a cooperative venture. The better each contributor’s understanding
of the principles upon which decisions are made at all levels, the better chances the whole
operation has of being successful. But we must expect that all along the line compromises will
have to be made. For example, psycholinguistic knowledge might suggest that there is some
optimum age for beginning the study of foreign languages.

Political and economic considerations might indicate that it was undesirable on a cost-benefit
analysis to devote the necessary funds to providing qualified teachers at that level. The two
principles would be in conflict. The final plan would represent a compromise. All the
contributors to a total teaching operation are involved in its success: society, as represented by
the education authorities, the applied linguist and the classroom teacher. But, as in all
educational operations, the difficulty is to define what is meant by success.

Society might define success in terms of social integration, commercial pay-off, or some
concept of the ‘educated man’; the teacher might define it in terms of academic achievement,
or the ‘fulfilment of the individual’; the applied linguist in terms of the attainment of some
measurable performance skills in the language. But it is individuals who learn language and
they do so for many different reasons: because they enjoy it, because it is useful in their
academic advancement or in their future careers, or because it opens for them opportunities for
social and cultural contact and enrichment. They do not all necessarily seek, or need, the same
level of performance ability or even the same set of linguistic skills. What is success for one
may be failure for another. The individual learner is very much concerned with success in his
own terms.

For any measurement of success, one needs a yardstick or a measuring instrument. No one has
yet a means of measuring success in language learning in society’s terms-cultural, social or
commercial. But to the extent that the teacher’s, the learner’s and the applied linguist’s aims
can be specified in linguistic terms as the attainment of specific skills and knowledge, a way of
measuring these can be devised. What we can describe we can, in general, measure.
Linguistics gives us a framework for describing what we mean by skill in, and knowledge of, a
language and consequently makes it possible in principle to show that one way of teaching or
one set of teaching materials in more effective than another for achieving a particular aim with

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a particular aim with a particular group of learners. There can be no systematic improvement in
language teaching without reference to the knowledge about language which linguistics gives
us.

THE APPLIED LINGUISTICS DILEMMA

What is the professional or scholarly duty of applied linguists? Surely it is to
investigate, analyse, offer recommendations for amelioration and then report on the
language problems they engage with. That seems undisputed. The argument to
which I referred earlier in this chapter (the fault-line) is whether their responsibility
continues into taking remedial/political action themselves as applied linguists rather
than as individuals. Again there is little dispute that in their reporting they should,
where appropriate, indicate remedies and interventions. But should they go further?
As individuals, surely yes if they so wish. But as professionals, as scholars? To do so is
to agree with one interpretation of the Marx quote with which I began this chapter:
‘Philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways, but now it is a matter
Of changing it.’

The weak interpretation of this doctrine is that applied linguists should suggest
ways of changing so as to overcome the language problem they have investigated; the
strong interpretation is that applied linguists should themselves be directly involved
in the changes they recommend. The weak view is that of advice, the strong view’s
that of action. The question for applied linguistics is whether the role of adviser is
commensurate with the role of activist. Should we agree with the poet W. H. Auden,
who wrote in ‘Spain, 1937’:
Yesterday the classic l

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References
AILA Statutes (1964), Statutes, Nancy: Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée.
Allen, J. Patrick B. and S. Pit Corder (eds) (1973–5), The Edinburgh Course in Applied
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Techniques in Applied Linguistics; vol. 3 (1975), Papers in Applied Linguistics, London:
Oxford University Press.
Allen, J. Patrick B. and Alan Davies (eds) (1977), The Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics,
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Aziz, Yowell (1989). A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic. Mosul:
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BAAL (1994), Draft Recommendations on Good Practice in Applied Linguistics, Lancaster,
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