App Lin

Module 1
APPLIED LINGUISTICS: AN OVERVIEW
Dr. Refnaldi, M.Litt.

IN TR O D U C TIO N
D ear students! Welcome to module 1 concerning an overview of applied

linguistics. This is the first of nine modules in Applied Linguistics. This
module mainly deals with the nature of applied linguistics. As matter of fact,
the materials and discussion on the nature of applied linguistics are too broad
to pack in one module. Thus the explanation in this module focuses on three
broad areas, namely the definition, topics in applied linguistics, and the
impact of applied linguistics.
After finishing this module, you are kindly expected to be able to:
1. mention and argumentatively criticize the available definitions of applied
linguistics;
2. formulate and state definition(s) of applied linguistics by using your own
words;
3. differentiate between linguistics and applied linguistics
4. differentiate between applied linguistics and linguistics applied
5. mention and argumentatively discuss the topics of applied linguistics;
6. mention, argue, and verbally state the impact of applied linguistics on
other fields.
To achieve the objectives academically, the presentation and explanation

of learning materials, including the exercises of this module are elaborated in
three units. Unit 1 is about the definitions of applied linguistics which is
highly aimed at achieving objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4. Unit 2 deals with the
topics of applied linguistics which leads you to successfully come to
objective 5. Then, Unit 3 is talking about the impact of applied linguistics to
other fields, such as like language teaching, forensic linguistics, translation
studies, which leads you to have knowledge and inspiration related to
objective 6. Please keep in your mind that the general objective of Module 1
1.2 Applied Linguistics 
is to serve you to be able to understand and have argumentations on the

overview of applied linguistics.
As this subject belongs to content subject in linguistics, reading activities and
academic discussion in groups or in pairs are highly suggested. Therefore, the
following activities are kindly suggested to do in order to learn this module
successfully.
1. Please read carefully the materials and explanation in each unit;
2. then, read further related references and information by means of
independent learning and reading;
3. do not forget to add relevant examples and have discussion in groups or
in pairs;
4. sometimes it is not easy to have better understanding on certain complex
and complicated concepts. If it is so, read the materials again and you
may have comparative discussion with your partners;
5. do all the exercises and compare your answers with those of your friends
before consulting the key answers provided!
All right students, do your best and good luck!

 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.3
Unit 1
THE NATURE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS
T he aim of this unit is to provide you with a broad and general outline of
applied linguistics as an academic subject area. In so doing, we hope to
answer some of the questions that new and prospective students of applied
linguistics most frequently ask about the subject. In particular, we will try to
provide clear answers to the following questions, which we are often asked
by prospective students:
- What is applied linguistics?
- What is the difference between linguistics and applied linguistics?
- What is applied about applied linguistics?
- What is the difference between applied linguistics and linguistics applied
The Definitions of Applied Linguistics

If you have searched for definitions of applied linguistics on the Internet
or in reference books, you may have been struck by how similar most of
them seem to be. First, Brock University website defines applied linguistics
as ‘the systematic study of language structure, the acquisition of first and
subsequent languages, the role of language in communication, and the status
of language as the product of particular cultures and other social groups’.
Second, Wikipedia.org defines applied linguistics as ‘an interdisciplinary
field of linguistics’ that covers ‘bilingualism and multilingualism, computer-
mediated communication (CMC), conversation analysis, contrastive
linguistics, sign linguistics, language assessment, literacies, discourse
analysis, language pedagogy, second language acquisition, lexicography,
language planning and policy, interlinguistics, stylistics, pragmatics, forensic
linguistics and translation’. A typical definition of applied linguistics can be
found on the website of the International Association for Applied Linguistics
(AILA), the leading professional organization in the field. According to
AILA:
Applied linguistics is ‘an interdisciplinary field of research and practice
dealing with practical problems of language and communication that can be
identified, analyzed or solved by applying available theories, methods or
results of Linguistics or by developing new theoretical and methodological
frameworks in linguistics to work on these problems.
The definition proposed by AILA is broad because it covers many different

areas like child language acquisition, language and communication disorders,
multilingualism, language testing, communication in the workplace, and so
on. This definition is also considered narrow due to the relation of applied
linguistics to linguistics proper.
Turning to printed sources, we find the definitions of applied linguistics in
the dictionary. First, Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied
Linguistics (Richards et al. 2002: 28) defines applied linguistics even more
concisely as ‘the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical
problems.’ Second, Oxford Advance Learner Dictionary defines applied
linguistics as ‘The branch of linguistics concerned with practical applications
of language studies, for example language teaching, translation, and speech
therapy.’ Next, Macmillian Dictionary.com defines applied linguistics as
‘the study of language for its practical uses, for example in teaching or
speech therapy’.
Many textbooks on applied linguistics also provide the definition of applied
linguistics. Corder (1973) in his phenomenal book entitles Introducing
Applied Linguistics states that “Applied linguistics is the utilization of the
knowledge about the nature of language achieved by linguistic research for
the improvement of the efficiency of some practical tasks in which language
is a central component”. Schmitt and Celce-Murcia offer the following
definition of Applied Linguistics: ‘Applied Linguistics is using what we
know about (a) language, (b) how it is learned, and (c) how it is used, in
order to achieve some purpose or solve some problem in the real world’
(Schmitt & Celce-Murcia, 2002: 1). They point out that traditionally, the
primary concerns of Applied Linguistics have been second language
acquisition theory, second language pedagogy and the interface between the
two. Grabe’s definition is not far away: “the focus of applied linguistics is on
trying to resolve language-based problems that people encounter in the real
world, whether they be learners, teachers, supervisors, academics, lawyers,
service providers, those who need social services, test takers, policy
developers, dictionary makers, translators, or a whole range of business
clients” (Grabe, 2002: 9).
Perhaps all of the above definitions are neatly encapsulated in the best-known
and most frequently-cited definition of all, originally formulated by the
eminent applied linguist Chris Brumfit. Brumfit (1995: 27) says that
‘[applied linguistics is] the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-
world problems in which language is a central issue’. Brumfit’s useful and

concise definition of applied linguistics is both widely accepted and widely
quoted. Cook and North (2010: 1) say that as the broad definition it has a
number of advantages. First, it makes applied linguistics different from other
branches of linguistics by focusing its orientation towards language-related
problems, and it implies that the work in applied linguistics can have some
impact upon those problems, potentially influencing how decisions are made
about them. Second, it is also general enough to encompass the many
disparate activities and areas of enquiry that call themselves applied
linguistics.
Several handbooks of applied linguistics also provide a wide variety of
definitions related to applied linguistics. Simpson, the editor of The
Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics, defines applied linguistics as
“the academic field which connects knowledge about language to decision
making in the real world . . . In this sense applied linguistics mediates
between theory and practice” (Simpson, 2011: 1). Kaplan, in The Oxford
Handbook of Applied Linguistics, says that “Applied linguistics is a difficult
notion to define.” He goes on to say that the Handbook does not talk about
the definitive definition of the field. Thus, these two very recent handbooks
provide a wealth of examples of work in applied linguistics, which help to
demonstrate the difficulty the editors faced in constructing a usefully precise
and inclusively accurate definition of the field.
Davies and Elder, editors of The Handbook of Applied Linguistics published
by Blackwell, present a definition in concrete terms through multiple
examples of the types of problems that applied linguists work on:
Applied linguistics is often said to be concerned with solving or at

least ameliorating social problems involving language. The problems
applied linguistics concerns itself with are likely to be: How can we
teach languages better? How can we improve the training of
translators and interpreters? How can we write a valid language
examination? How can we evaluate a school bilingual program? How
can we determine the literacy levels of a whole population? How can
we helpfully discuss the language of a text? What advice can we offer
a Ministry of Education on a proposal to introduce a new medium of
instruction?
How can we compare the acquisition of a European and an Asian

language? What advice should we give a defense lawyer on the
authenticity of a police transcript of an interview with a suspect?
(Davies & Elder, 2004: 1)
When we pay attention to the above examples of questions we begin to

realize that applied linguists address begin to rein in the “theory of
everything.” In the questions one can see applied linguistics in terms of the
areas of research it can encompass. At the same time, however, such
questions because of their origin in everyday social practices may not reflect
the academic and scholarly dimension of applied linguistics. One can easily
find instances where someone offers an improvement for foreign language
teaching, translator training, language-test development, and so forth, having
no connection whatsoever to applied linguistics.
The definition of applied linguistics then needs to extend beyond the
questions posed because, as Bygate pointed out, “apparently simple questions
conceal matters of complexity and sensitivity, which on closer scrutiny raise
more general issues, which also characterize the broader field of applied
linguistics” (Bygate, 2004: 6). Bygate identified five main issues in the
broader field including (a) evaluating the appropriateness of the granularity
and perspective researchers use to specify a problem under investigation, (b)
establishing trustworthiness of data interpretation, (c) creating an appropriate
degree of collaboration between researcher and participants, (d)
communicating research results to participants in a manner that allows for
sufficient follow up, and (e) understanding the best relationship of theory and
data collection and interpretation.
These issues underlie the discussion of language-related problems that
readers find in the Encyclopedia. However, such issues stated generally can
be said to underlie any social science more generally. To characterize applied
linguistics, one needs to include explicitly the linguistic dimension of the
field. The authors of Mapping Applied Linguistics accomplish this by
defining applied linguistics as a mode of inquiry about language-related
problems requiring consideration of “both the social and cognitive nature of
language” (Hall, Smith, & Wicaksono, 2011: 19). Other ingredients of mode
of inquiry are taking into account the needs of clients such as learners, test-
score users, and businesses, being responsive to contextual factors affecting
research, and engaging in collaboration in the design and evaluation of
findings and recommendations. In short, Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono see

applied linguistics as a mode of inquiry engaged with real people and issues
arising in a political environment where academic perspectives and research
alone may or may not be important in conceptualizing problems and finding
solutions. In such an environment, problem solvers must genuinely engage
with local knowledge and practice in seeking solutions.
Based on all the definitions stated above, we can say that it is the belief that
linguistics can offer insights and ways forward in the resolution of problems
related to language in a wide variety of contexts that underlies the very
existence of the discipline usually called applied linguistics. Applied linguists
try to offer solutions to ‘real-world problems in which language is a central
issue’ (Brumfit 1991:46), however tentative or ‘implied’ those solutions may
be. What, then, might fall within the domain of typical applied linguistic
problems? A list of such problems will certainly be wide-ranging and
potentially endless, but might include the following:
1. A speech therapist sets out to investigate why a four-year-old child has
failed to develop normal linguistics skills for a child of that age.
2. A teacher of English as a foreign language wonders why groups of
learners sharing the same first language regularly make a particular
grammatical mistake that learners from other language backgrounds do
not.
3. An expert witness in a criminal case tries to solve the problem of who
exactly instigated a crime, working only with statements made to the
police.
4. An advertising copy writer searches for what would be the most effective
use of language to target a particular social group in order to sell a
product.
5. A mother-tongue teacher needs to know what potential employers
consider important in terms of a school-leaver’s ability to write reports
or other business documents.
6. A historian wishes to understand the meanings of place-names in a
particular geographical area and how they have changed over time.
7. A person constructing a language test for non-native speakers for entry
into further education needs to know what the key linguistic or
psycholinguistic indicators are of reading ability in a second or foreign
language.
8. A literary scholar suspects that an anonymous work was in fact written

by a very famous writer and looks for methods of investigating the
hypothesis.
9. A dictionary writer ponders over possible alternatives to an
alphabetically organized dictionary.
10. A computer programmer wrestles with the goal of trying to get a
computer to process human speech or to get it to translate from one
language into another.
11. A group of civil servants are tasked with standardizing language usage in
their country, or deciding major aspects of language planning policy that
will affect millions of people.
12. A body is set up to produce an international, agreed language for use by
air-traffic controllers and pilots, or by marine pilots and ships’ captains.
13. A zoologist investigates the question whether monkeys have language
similar to or quite distinct from human language and how it works.
14. A medical sociologist sets out to understand better the changes that occur
in people’s use of language as they move into old age.
(Cited form McCarthy, 2001: 1-2)
Look at the problem no. 2 in the above list. The problem is “A teacher of
English as a foreign language wonders why groups of learners sharing the
same first language regularly make a particular grammatical mistake that
learners from other language backgrounds do not.” In this case the teacher
tries to understand why learners from the same language background are
having difficulties with a particular grammatical structure in English.
McCarthy (2001: 8) states that the teacher’s potential recourse to linguistics
is likely to involve different areas depending on what questions are asked.
The following figure shows some questions asked by the teacher.
Figure 1.1: linguistic questions for the solution of a grammatical problem
If we consider another of the problems, that of the dictionary writer looking

for alternatives to the alphabetical dictionary, McCarthy (2001: 8) says that
the different set of questions that might be asked by the lexicographers is
shown in the following figure.
Figure 1.2: Linguistic questions for the solution of a lexicographic problem
The dictionary writer, like the language teacher, confronts the same basic
questions: Can linguistics offer an approach or a solution to the problem at
hand? If so, which branch(es) of linguistic study, and by what method(s)?
How reliable is the information offered by linguists? How tenable are their
theories and models of the language? How willing and ready are linguists to
contribute to this kind of practical undertaking? The title of a paper by

McCawley (1986), ‘What linguists might contribute to dictionary making if
they could get their act together’, strikes a slightly pessimistic tone in this
regard. If there is conflicting information to be had from the findings of
linguists, how does one best evaluate which approach is likely to be most
useful? Can the non-linguist take on such a task, or is this a job for highly
trained specialists?
Cook (2003: 5) provides some concrete examples of the kind of problems is
language implicated and how they might be investigated. Here are a number
of imaginary but representative situations in which decisions about language
need to be taken.
- The head teacher of a London school is thinking of offering another
foreign language in addition to French. The options are Chinese (the
world’s largest first language), Spanish (one of the world’s largest and
most widely distributed languages), or the Indian language Gujarati (the
largest second language in the school and local community, and one
which has approximately forty-three millions speakers worldwide).
Which of these languages should be taught, and why?
- A business executive wants to learn Japanese in preparation for taking up
a post in Tokyo. There are three courses available. Course One has a
strong emphasis on learning to write. Course Two focuses on the spoken
language, claiming that learning to write too early is demotivating. It
does, however, explain the rules of Japanese grammar in English and use
translation. Course Three’s approach is ‘natural’, with no translation or
explanation of rules, but only a series of communicative classroom
activities and tasks. Which course is the best choice, and why?
(Cook, 2003: 5-6)
Furthermore, Cook (2003: 6) also says that in order to respond the above
language related problem, we can do several things. First, we can use our
common sense and experience to evaluate the choice. However, if we
recommend a particular course of action, we can obtain the benefit from
more information derived from using the systematic approach, like doing
needs analysis. Second, we can study what other people say on similar
matters. It is also possible for us to make our own investigation by
interviewing the parents and children in the school, do the observation, and
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.11
consult experts in language teaching. Thus, this process constitutes applied

linguistics as an academic discipline.
Linguistics and Applied Linguistics

The role and relationship of the field of linguistics within applied
linguistics has been variously interpreted in large part due to the ambiguity of
the term applied linguistics. What is applied? Is it only linguistics? What is it
applied to? Who is (not) an applied linguist? Is a degree in linguistics
assumed? Or is it enough to be working with language-related issues?
We should perhaps first clarify that general linguistics is different from
‘applied linguistics’. Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 41-42) say that
General linguistics describes and theorizes about language and languages,
and is an umbrella term for a number of sub-disciplines. General linguistics
analyses the sound systems, grammars, vocabularies and discourse-
organizing principles and practices of different languages, classifying various
features, and identifying universal patterns as well as distinctive localized
phenomena (this is the province of mainstream descriptive or theoretical
linguistics). General linguistics also explores how these systems vary in time
and space and context of use, and tries to describe and explain their
acquisition and cognitive functioning.
Moreover, Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 32) say that
Sociolinguistic research explores variation, by collecting and analyzing data
from different groups of users and in different situations, including bi- and
multilinguals. Psycholinguistic experiments try to tap into mind-internal
processes of learning, memory and use of one or more languages. General
linguists use a range of methods, including speakers’ intuitions, language
data collected from informants, non-linguistic data which correlates with
language use (e.g. brain scans or translation times) and the analysis of
massive computerized samples of language expression in writing and speech
(corpus linguistics).
What is the relation between linguistics and applied linguistics? When
we look at the term applied linguistics literally, we simply say that applied
linguistics is the application of linguistic theories. This opinion is supported
by Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 32) who state that many people might
think that a definition of applied linguistics would follow on quite naturally
as another sub-discipline of general linguistics, presumably like applied
physics follows from pure physics, where, for example, the latter can be used
in seismology and engineering for the very practical purposes of earthquake

detection and damage limitation. Hence, applied physics could be defined as
‘physics applied for practical use’. By analogy, then, the term ‘applied
linguistics’ should refer to the application of general linguistics to practical
use in additional language teaching, translation, speech therapy, etc. And
indeed the findings, descriptions and theoretical models of general linguistics
were originally so applied (almost exclusively to language learning and
teaching). But that’s not what a good many present-day applied linguists
believe their discipline is about, or what they themselves actually do.
Actually there are many opinions about the relationship between
linguistics and applied linguistics. Bearns and Matsuda (2006: 4) say that
there three positions to explain their relationship. First, applied linguistics,
because linguistics is part of its name, is linked to linguistics, which is
sometimes referred to as the ‘parent’ discipline. The literal interpretation of
applied linguistics as ‘linguistics applied’ reinforces this view. From this
perspective, linguistics is the authoritative source for all that is needed to
meet the aims of applied linguistics. The description of language and the
concepts and terms offered by linguistic inquiry apply directly and
unilaterally. The process or activity of applied linguistics is carried out by
taking the known research and theory of linguistics and applying a linguistic
analysis to specific contexts outside linguistics proper (e.g., language
teaching, interpreting and translating, or lexicography).
The second view is known as ‘autonomous applied linguistics.’
Autonomous applied linguistics sees applied linguistics as at least
semiautonomous, if not completely autonomous, from linguistics or any
source discipline and allows that anyone can be an applied linguist. While
acknowledging that linguistics may be part of applied linguistics,
practitioners do not rely exclusively on linguistics.
A third view is known as the ‘applied linguistics’ position, so called
because applied linguists are linguists engaged in application. It is
distinguished from other views in its recognition that the knowledge and
skills of a linguist are inadequate to the task of solving problems related to
the uses and users of language. To address this inadequacy, the applied
linguist calls upon the skills and knowledge of other professionals both inside
and outside the academic world. Holders of this view more or less agree on
what the field is, but the question of who can claim to be an applied linguist
remains open.
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.13
For many, applied linguistics is a sister (rather than a sub-) discipline of

general linguistics. It is ‘applied’ in the ‘applied physics’ sense in that it deals
with ‘practical use’, but it is not limited to applying the findings of general
linguistics. Widdowson (2000) has called early conceptualizations of the field
‘linguistics applied’, placing the emphasis on (general) linguistics. For the
moment, let’s use the term ‘autonomous applied linguistics’ for the
contrasting conceptualization of applied linguistics as a sister discipline to
general linguistics. We should point out, though, that despite the impression
given by the many pages dedicated to the relationship in applied linguistics
books and journals, not all teachers and researchers in the area have been
preoccupied with the field’s legacy of association with general linguistics:
indeed, many have no association with that field, don’t see a sharp division
between them and/or don’t think it matters much. Brumfit (1995: 27) takes
the focus of linguistics in his definition of the field as ‘the theoretical and
empirical investigation of real-world problems in which language is a central
issue’, and we think that’s a sensible move.
Autonomous applied linguistics is a discipline concerned with the role
language and languages play in perceived problems of communication, social
identity, education, health, economics, politics and justice, and in the
development of ways to remediate or resolve these problems. Scholars in
autonomous applied linguistics address an increasingly broad range of
language-related issues. Here’s a random sample of four topics to illustrate
the scope of the subject:
- the assessment of language proficiency and consequent social processes
(e.g. identity construction) in sign language learners;
- the analysis of the social, professional and economic impact of IT
resources for translators;
- the study of treatment and educational options for those minority
language children who also happen to have language deficits;
- the development of literacy norms for use in dictionaries as part of
actions to maintain endangered languages.
Because of this broad scope, autonomous applied linguistics draws on

theory, findings and method from many other scholarly fields aside from
general linguistics, including education, anthropology, sociology, public
policy, health sciences, information technology and others. ‘Autonomous
applied linguistics’ thus differs from ‘linguistics applied’ largely in terms of
the scope of its objectives, methods and inputs. The following figure shows
the differences between these two terms.
(Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011:16)

Figure 1.3: Views of the relationship between linguistics and applied
linguistics
It may be that a helpful way of distinguishing between what linguistics

and applied linguistics are concerned with is to distinguish between theory
and data. Kaplan proposed that applied linguistics is simply not in the
business of developing new theories. Its concern is with new data. Looking
forward, Kaplan suggests that applied linguists “are likely to move toward
the analysis of new data, rather than continue to argue new theory” (Kaplan,
2002: 514). As such, the linguistics that will be of most use to the upcoming
applied linguistics will be descriptive linguistics.
Davies and Elder (2004) distinguish linguistics and applied linguistics in
terms of difference of orientation. While linguistics is primarily concerned
with language in itself and with language problems in so far as they provide
evidence for better language description or for teaching a linguistic theory,
applied linguistics is interested in language problems for what they reveal
about the role of language in people’s daily lives and whether intervention is
either possible or desirable. What this means is that applied linguistics is as
much concerned with context as with language and will therefore be likely to
draw on disciplines other than linguistics, for example, anthropology,
education, psychology. It also means that the language problems with which
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.15
applied linguistics concerns itself are often concerned with institutions, for
example the school, the work-place, the law-court, the clinic.
What is ‘Applied’ about Applied Linguistics?

According to Groom and Littlemore (2011: 5), there are two contrasting
types of applied subjects in higher education. The first type of applied
subjects focuses very clearly on the practical applications of a single branch
of academic knowledge. Applied mathematics, for example, studies how
mathematical theories, concepts and processes can be used to solve practical
problems in fields as diverse as engineering, computer science and
economics. Similarly, applied geology investigates how academic knowledge
produced in the ‘pure’ scientific field of geology can be exploited in practical
areas such as mineral exploration, natural resource management and the
construction industry.
The second type is the applied subjects that have no ‘pure’ or
‘theoretical’ equivalents, and focus instead on a single (although often very
broad) practical domain (Groom and Littlemore, 2011: 6). An example of the
type is civil engineering. Civil engineering focuses on problems, questions
and issues related to the built environment. The second example is education.
It focuses on problems, questions and issues related to teaching and learning.
Everybody knows that there is no ‘pure civil engineering’ or ‘theoretical
education’ against which civil engineering or education as applied subjects
can be contrasted. Thus, subjects such as civil engineering and education are
not branches of any single academic discipline at all, but are entirely
interdisciplinary in nature. Civil engineering draws on mathematics, physics,
materials science, geography, geology, ecology and business management,
among many other fields, without being reducible to any one of them.
Likewise, education draws on research in disciplines as diverse as
psychology, sociology, philosophy, economics and politics, but still
maintains its own distinct identity as an academic subject area, and its own
distinctive set of goals.
Now we come the question ‘what kind of applied subject is applied
linguistics?’ if we look at the name, we might say that applied linguistics
belong to the first type of applied subject. However, applied linguistics is not
the same as applied mathematics. Groom and Littlemore (2011: 6) say that
although the name ‘applied linguistics’ suggests that it is an applied subject
in the same way that applied mathematics and applied geology are applied
subjects, applied linguistics is in reality closer in spirit to the second type of

applied subjects like civil engineering or education. While it is certainly true
that many if not most applied linguists see the academic discipline of
linguistics as their nearest neighbor and most important source of intellectual
inspiration, it is also the case that many applied linguists look to other fields
for relevant insights into real-world language problems as well – to biology,
cultural studies, economics, education, philosophy, politics, psychology and
sociology, among others. There are even applied linguists who do not draw
on linguistics at all. Researchers working in ‘critical’ applied linguistics, for
instance, base their work almost entirely on theoretical concepts and
frameworks derived from postmodernist critical theory, and regard academic
knowledge in linguistics as ‘fairly irrelevant’ to their concerns (Pennycook
2004: 801).
In summary, although applied linguistics enjoys a strong and productive
working relationship with linguistics (as we hope to demonstrate throughout
this book), our answer to the question ‘what is the difference between
linguistics and applied linguistics?’ is this: applied linguistics is not a branch
of linguistics, or of any other academic discipline, for that matter. It is an
academic subject area in its own right, with its own set of concerns, its own
academic journals, its own professional associations, its own academic
qualifications, and its own professional pathways.
Applied Linguistics and Linguistics Applied.

Somewhere in the previous section we have introduce the two related
terms; Applied Linguistics (AL) and Linguistics Applied (LA). In this section
we are going to discuss in details these two terms. Widdowson presents the
question in terms of linguistics applied and applied linguistics:
The differences between these modes of intervention is that in the
case of linguistics applied the assumption is that the problem can be
reformulated by the direct and unilateral application of concepts and
terms deriving from linguistic enquiry itself. That is to say, language
problems are amenable to linguistics solutions. In the case of
applied linguistics, intervention is crucially a matter of mediation . .
applied linguistics . . . has to relate and reconcile different
representations of reality, including that of linguistics without
excluding others.
(Widdowson, 2000: 5)
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.17
Davies and Elder (2004: 9) state that the “linguistics applied” view
seems to derive from the coming together of two traditions, the European
philological tradition which was exported to the USA through scholars such
as Roman Jakobson and the North American tradition of linguistic-
anthropological field-work which required the intensive use of non-literate
informants and the linguistic description of indigenous languages for the
purposes of cultural analysis. The social value of applications of linguistics
was widely canvassed. Bloomfield (1933: 509) hoped that “The methods and
results of linguistics. . . [and] the study of language may help us toward the
understanding and control of human affairs.” In the 1970s R. H. Robins,
representing the European tradition, was eager to encourage the use of
linguistic ideas and methods: “The teacher who understands and can make
use of the methods of scientific linguistics will find the task of presenting a
language to his pupils very much lightened and facilitated” (1971/1980: 308).
Fifty years after Bloomfield, Douglas Brown (1987) was still making a
similar claim: “Applied linguistics has been considered a subset of linguistics
for several decades, and it has been interpreted to mean the applications of
linguistics principles to certain more or less practical matters”.
What of the applied-linguistics tradition? Davies and Elder (2004: 10)
say that the two traditions overlap in the work of Henry Sweet. Howatt
claims that “Sweet’s work established an applied tradition in language
teaching which has continued uninterruptedly to the present day” (Howatt,
1984: 189). Howatt also refers to the influence of J. R. Firth, holder of the
first Chair of General Linguistics in the UK, who had first-hand experience
of language learning and teaching in India, and who with the anthropologist
Bronislaw Malinowski and their pupil Michael Halliday promoted the notion
of the context of situation. No doubt because of Firth’s lead, the identity of
the context of situation school is still that of linguistics-applied in spite of its
strong social orientation. John Trim records his view of the origin of the
British Association of Applied Linguistics in an address which represents the
view of the linguist looking at society’s problem. Actually, the real push to a
coherent conception of the activity, an applied linguistics view, came from
Corder who, while insisting on the centrality of linguistics, accepted the need
for other inputs. It came even more strongly from Strevens who was eclectic
in what he saw as a growing discipline. His account of the founding of the
British Association for Applied Linguistics emphasizes the sociological and
institutional reasons for forming a new professional group.
Davies and Elder (2004: 11) see the distinction between applied
linguistics and linguistics applied that Applied Linguistics (AL) looks
outward, beyond language in an attempt to explain, perhaps even ameliorate
social problems, while Linguistics Applied (LA) looks inward, concerned not
to solve language problems “in the real world” but to explicate and test
theories about language itself. So LA uses language data to develop our
linguistic knowledge about language, while AL studies a language problem
with a view to correcting it.
Furthermore, Davies and Elder (2004: 12) says that Applied Linguistics
is a coherent activity which theorizes through speculative and empirical
investigations real-world problems in which language is a central issue. They
intend to offer a coherent account of applied linguistics as an independent
and coherent discipline, which, like similar vocational activities (for example
general medicine, business studies, applied psychology, legal studies) seeks
to marry practical experience and theoretical understanding of language
development and language in use.
The difference between Linguistics Applied and Applied Linguistics is
sustainable only at the extremes. For example, the topics on language
attrition or language description may be regarded as largely Linguistics
Applied (LA), while the concerns of second language learning or of computer
assisted language learning are mainly to do with Applied Linguistics (AL).
But in between the distinction is hard to make. It is probably easiest for those
topics in AL which deal with issues of language learning and language
teaching because they have to do with the “real world,” that locution we all
refer to when we think of how language is used rather than how it is studied.
However, even in the area of language learning and language teaching the
distinction falters and changes. Thus the topics of contrastive analysis and
error analysis, which were both central to applied linguistics in its concern
with language learning and language teaching, have evolved into the highly
theoretical concern of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Research which
is now less involved with language learning and language teaching and more
concerned with linguistic and cognitive theorizing.
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.19
EXER CI SE 1
1) After reading several definitions of applied linguistics you find that most
of them are similar. What do you think most of them are similar?
2) State your own definition of applied linguistics!
3) Many people tend to agree with the inclusive or broad definition of
applied linguistics. What are the advantages of using the broad
definition?
4) McCarthy (2001) proposes a list of real problems that need to solved in
the field of applied linguistics. One of them is: A person constructing a
language test for non-native speakers for entry into further education
needs to know what the key linguistic or psycholinguistic indicators are
of reading ability in a second or foreign language . List at least five
questions a language teacher asks to solve this problem!
5) What is the relationship between linguistics and applied linguisitcs?
6) What is the main difference between Applied Linguistics and Linguistics
Applied?
S UM MAR Y
We have learned many difinitions of applied linguistics. These

definitions actually can be classified into inclusive definition (broad
definition) and exclusive definition (narrow definition). Despite the
differences among the definitions provided, all definitions of applied
linguistics deals with real world problems related to language. In
addition to the discussion of the definitons, this unit also discusses the
different relationship between linguistics and applied linguistics. Some
people say that applied linguistics is a branch of linguistics because it
applies linguistic theories in solving real world problems related to
language, others say that it will be better to view applied linguistics as a
sister rather that the sub-discipline of linguistics because the linguistics
knowledge itself is not enough to solve the real problems related to
language. Applied linguistics requires knowledge from other fields like
education, psychology, sociology, cognitive science, and computer
science. Finally, it is also important to differentiate between applied
linguistics and linguistics applied. Applied Linguistics (AL) looks
outward, beyond language in an attempt to explain social problems,
while Linguistics Applied (LA) looks inward, concerned not to solve
language problems “in the real world” but to explicate and test theories
about language itself. So LA uses language data to develop our linguistic
knowledge about language, while AL studies a language problem with a
view to correcting it.
FOR M AT IV E TE S T 1
1) Study the following definitions of applied linguistics carefully and

explain the similarities and the differences among these three definitions!
‘Applied linguistics’ (AL) is one of several academic disciplines

focusing on how language is acquired and used in the modern world. It is
a somewhat eclectic field that accommodates diverse theoretical
approaches, and its interdisciplinary scope includes linguistic,
psychological and educational topics. Although the field’s original focus
was the study of foreign/second languages, this has been extended to
cover first language issues, and nowadays many scholars would consider
sociolinguistics and pragmatics to be part of the AL rubric. Recently, AL
conferences and journals have reflected the growing influence of
psychology-based approaches, which in turn is a reflection of the
increasing prevalence of cognitive (neuro)science in the study of human
mental functions. (Zoltán Dörnyei:Professor of Psycholinguistics,
University of Nottingham)
Applied linguistics is a discipline which explores the relations
between theory and practice in language with particular reference to
issues of language use. It embraces contexts in which people use and
learn languages and is a platform for systematically addressing problems
involving the use of language and communication in real-world
situations. Applied linguistics draws on a range of disciplines, including
linguistics. In consequence, applied linguistics has applications in
several areas of language study, including language learning and
teaching, the psychology of language processing, discourse analysis,
stylistics, corpus analysis, literacy studies and language planning and
policies. (Dawn Knight Research Associate, University of Nottingham)
Applied linguistics is a broadly interdisciplinary field concerned
with promoting our understanding of the role language plays in human
life. At its centre are theoretical and empirical investigations of real-
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.21
world issues in which language plays a leading role. Applied linguistics

focuses on the relationship between theory and practice, using the
insights gained from the theory-practice interface for solving language-
related problems in a principled way. (Juliane House: Professor of
Foreign Language Teaching, Universität Hamburg)
2) De Bot (2015) classifies the definitions of applied linguistics in inclusive

and exclusive definitions. The inclusive definition is the open one in line
with the range of topics at the conferences of the Association
Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée (AILA), avoiding any risk that
someone would not feel welcome. The exclusive definitions is the
restricted definitions, usually proposed by an individual based on his/her
area of expertise. Find two examples of inclusive definitions and two
examples of exclusive definitions and provide the reasons for choosing
the examples.
the field of applied linguistics. One of them is: “A teacher of English as a
foreign language wonders why groups of learners sharing the same first
language regularly make a particular grammatical mistake that learners
from other language backgrounds do not”. List at least five questions a
language teacher asks to solve this problem!
4) Study the following language problem carefully and then provide some
questions that should be answered to solve the problem.
Many teachers of English as a second or foreign language will be

familiar with errors such as the following in their students’ written
work:
A teacher has set an essay entitled ‘Traffic in Jakarta’. A student writes
the title at the top of the page:
Traffic in Jakarta
And then begins the first paragraph of the essay:
It is a very big problem nowadays and many cities in the world
suffer from it. . . . etc.
The teacher crosses out the first it and puts traffic instead.
Traffic
Another student writes:

Jakarta is the big city. It is a problem in Jakarta and many big
cities…etc
The teacher crosses out it and puts traffic instead.
Traffic
cities…etc
5) Why do many people view applied linguistics as a sister (rather than a

sub-) discipline of general linguistics?
Feedback and Follow up
Evaluate your learning progress from your scores of the formative test by
applying the following formula
Number of correct answer

X 100%
Number of total items
Now decide which of the categories your scores fall into. Learn the meaning
of the category and do the follow-up activities.
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.23
Category Percentage Meaning and Follow-up

Category 1 90% - 100% Very good
This means that you have mastered the
materials. You can go on to the next unit.
Category 2 70% - 89% Good
However, you are suggested to learn once
again the materials that you haven’t
mastered before you continue to the next
unit.
Category 3 < 70% You have not mastered the materials.
Learn all the materials once again before
you go on to the next unit
Remember your mastery of the next learning is based on your mastery of

these materials. So, be sure that you have mastered them all before you
continue to the next part.
Unit 2
TOPICS IN APLLIED LINGUISTICS
Introduction
In this unit we discuss in some of the most important and enduring topics
and themes that applied linguistics has addressed since its inception. Our aim
is not to provide comprehensive coverage here. Instead, what we want to do
is give you a sense of the range, variety and vitality of the topics that applied
linguistics encompasses, and introduce you to some of the issues that you
may come across at some point in your own studies.
Applied linguistics has undergone a process of rapid and dramatic
expansion in recent decades. Where once the subject was focused very
narrowly on second language teaching and learning, it is now increasingly
regarded as covering a much wider range of theoretical and practical
concerns. This is not to say that applied linguistics is now moving away from
foreign language teaching and learning, however. On the contrary, second
language pedagogy remains by far the largest area of research activity in
contemporary applied linguistics, and this is likely to remain the case for the
foreseeable future. Accordingly, we will begin by looking at some of the
main subfields within this key area of applied linguistic research, before
moving on to survey some of the newer and less pedagogically-focused
developments that have come to the fore in recent years. Our aim in this part
is to provide a broad outline of the sorts of topics that applied linguists often
focus on.
Davies and Elder (2004) include a wide range of topics in their book
entitles The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. They classify the topics into
two broad categories, Linguistics-Applied (L-A) and Applied Linguistics (A-
L). Some topics that are classified into Linguistics-Applied are (a) language
descriptions, (b) lexicography, (c) second language acquisition, (d) language
corpora, (e) discourse analysis, (f) assessing language attitude, (g) language
attrition, (h) language, thought and culture, (i) conversation analysis, (j)
language and law, (k) language and gender, (l) language and politics, and (m)
stylistics. Some topics that are classified in Applied-Linguistics (A-L) are (a)
native speaker in applied linguistics, (b) language minorities, (c) second
language learning, (d) literacy studies, (e) fashions in language teaching
methodology, (f) Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL), (g)
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.25
language for specific purposes, (h) bilingual education, (i) language

maintenance, (j) language planning, (k) language testing, and (l) critical
applied linguistics.
Schmitt and Celce-Murcia (2010: 1) state that there are 16 topic areas
illustrated by the call for papers for the American Association of Applied
Linguistics (AAAL) 2010 conference. Those topic areas include:
- Analysis of discourse and interaction
- Assessment and evaluation
- Bilingual, immersion, heritage and language minority education
- Language and ideology
- language and learner characteristics
- language and technology
- language cognition and brain research
- language, culture, socialization and pragmatics
- language maintenance and revitalization
- language planning and policy
- reading, writing and literacy
- second and foreign language pedagogy
- second language acquisition, language acquisition and attrition
- sociolinguistics
- text analysis (written discourse)
- translation and interpretation.
An applied linguistics textbook entitles Mapping Applied Linguistics: A

guide for students and practitioners written by Hall, Smith and Wicaksono
(2011) classify topics in applied linguistics into three parts. The first one is
language and everyday use. This part includes (a) language variation, (b) key
population, discourse analysis, and (c) language policy and planning. The
second part is language, learning and education. This part discusses (a)
literacy, (b) language and education, (c) bilingual and multilingual education,
and (d) additional language education. The last part is language and expert
uses. This part includes (a) translation, (b) lexicography, (c) forensic
linguistics, (d) language pathology, and (e) prospects and perspectives.
Groom and Littlemore (2011) in chapter 2 of their book entitles Doing
Applied Linguistics: A Guide for Students explain some of the most
important topics in applied linguistics. These topics include (a) language
teaching methodology, (b) syllabus and materials design, (c) language
testing, (d) language for specific purposes, (e) second language acquisition,
(f) language policy and planning, (g) forensic linguistics, (h) sociolinguistics
and critical discourse analysis, (i) translation studies, and (j) lexicography.
Simpson (2011) includes a wide range of topics from a variety of
perspectives in her handbook entitles The Routledge Handbook of Applied
Linguistics. She classifies these topics into five sections, namely (a) applied
linguistics in action, (b) language learning, language education, (c) language,
culture and identity, (d) perspectives on language in use, and (e) description
of language for applied linguistics.
The next sections in this unit discuss some important topics in applied
linguistics that are commonly discussed in applied linguistics textbooks.
They are language teaching methodology, syllabus and materials design,
language testing, languages for specific purposes, second language
acquisition, bilingual education, language policy and planning, forensic
linguistics, sociolinguistics and critical discourse analysis, translation studies,
and lexicography.
Language Teaching Methodology

Language teaching methodology is one of the areas in applied linguistics
that are commonly discussed and becomes one of the most important topics
in applied linguistics. Nunan (1991: 1) says that overcoming the pendulum
effect in language teaching is an important task of applied linguists and
teachers concerned with second language teaching and foreign language
teaching. This effect can be seen clearly in the area of language teaching
methodology. In this area, for example, theories of grammar come and go
with monotonous regularity. There is ongoing debate about the role of
explicit grammar teaching in the language classroom, and this has been a
fruitful area for a great deal of applied linguistic research. Although there
remain a number of different positions on this question, the general
consensus is that language learners do benefit from having their attention
drawn to target language structures and patterns, but that the teaching of rigid
‘grammar rules’ can sometimes do more harm than good as they do not
accurately describe the way the language actually works.
Groom and Littlemore (2011: 15) say that the relative effectiveness of
different ways of teaching reading, writing, listening and speaking in a
second or foreign language has become the traditional focus in the area of
language teaching methodology. Research findings and theoretical
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.27
developments in this area have led to some radical changes in the way
languages are taught. Up until the 1950s, the most common approach to
language teaching was through the study of grammar rules, followed by
exercises involving translation. Since then, there has been a general move
towards the use of methods that attempt to create a more genuine need for
communication in the language classroom, thus (in theory, at least) making
the learning process more natural. Many of these types of methods come
under the umbrella heading of the Communicative Approach to language
teaching.
Language teaching methodology itself is a broad area in applied
linguistics. There is a wide range of small topics in language teaching
methodology. These small topics can be found in chapters or sub-chapters of
textbooks on language teaching methodology. For example, Nunan (1991), in
his textbook entitles Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for
Teachers discusses the issues on teaching listening comprehension, speaking
in second language, reading: a discourse perspective, developing writing
skills, mastering the sounds of the language, teaching vocabulary, focus on
form: the role of grammar, focus on the learner, focus on the teacher, and
material development. Larsen-Freeman (2000), in her textbook entitles
Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, talks about some
approaches/methods that are commonly used in language teaching. She talks
in details about The Grammar-Translation Method, The direct Approach, The
Audio-Lingual Method, The Silent Way, Desuggestopedia, Community
Language Learning, Total Physical Response, Communicative Language
Teaching, and Content-Based, Task-Based and Participatory Approaches.
She also provides the answers to the following questions in each
approach/method she discusses:
- What are the goals of teachers who use this method?
- What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
- What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
- What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of
student-student interaction?
- How are the feeling of the students dealt with?
- How is the language viewed? How is the culture viewed?
- What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are

emphasized?
- What is the role of students’ native language?
(Larsen-Freeman, 2000: 7)
Moreover, Richards and Rodgers (2014), in their 3rd edition of

Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, also focus their discussion
on some methods in language teaching. The methods that they discuss are
Audiolingual Method, Communicative Language Teaching, Content-Based
Instruction and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), Whole
Language, Competency Based Language Teaching, Task-Based Language
Teaching, Text-Based Instruction, The Lexical Approach, Multiple
Intelligences, Cooperative Language Learning, The Natural Approach, Total
Physical Response, The Silent Way, Community Language Learning, and
Suggestopedia. Richards and Rodgers provide detail explanation of the
approach used in each method. The discussion of approach covers theory of
language and theory of learning. They also discuss the design of each method
by providing the explanation about the objectives of the method, the syllabus,
types of learning and teaching activities, learner roles, teacher roles, and the
role of instructional materials. Finally, they talk about the procedure use in
each method through focusing on the way a method handles the presentation,
practice, and feedback phases of teaching.
Regarding the research in language teaching methodology, much of the
work in the area involves classroom research. Groom and Littlemore (2011)
say that research in language teaching methodology can be classified into two
broad traditions. Action research, which is usually qualitative and carried out
by researchers who are also practising teachers, involves examining specific
aspects of a particular teaching/learning situation in a single period of time,
generally with the intent of making modifications to the teaching/learning
process that (it is hoped) will lead to discernible improvements in educational
outcomes. Experimental research, which is usually quantitative, often
involves looking at linguistic features or teaching/learning practices that are
recordable or observable, and aims to make general statements about how
particular linguistic skills or abilities might best be taught.
In both of these traditions a range of instruments is used to examine and
measure factors which influence language learning success, learners’
attitudes and beliefs and interaction in the language classroom. An interesting
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.29
finding from this research area is that, contrary to expectations, language

learners do not always learn from corrective feedback in the way one might
expect them to. In other words, if a learner makes a mistake and the teacher
repeats what they said using the correct form, the learner may not take this
information on board immediately, and may well go on to make the same
mistake in future. This is due to the fact that language teaching and learning
involves much more than straightforward knowledge transfer.
In order to understand the language learning process more deeply, it is
important to consider what is already in the learner’s mind when they come
to class. By gaining insights into the ways in which learners process
incoming information, researchers aim to identify ways in which language
teaching can be improved. Researchers conduct and draw on relevant
research into learner autonomy, language learning styles and strategies, the
role of memory and mental schemas, embodied cognition, affective factors,
cultural frameworks and differences between the students’ mother tongue and
the language they are learning in order to make concrete proposals as to how
language teachers can use their knowledge of learner cognition to make their
teaching more effective.
Syllabus and Materials Design

Another important topic in applied linguistics is syllabus and materials
design. Researchers into syllabus and materials design are interested in the
order, and the way, in which learning material should be presented to the
learner. Researchers’ and teachers’ views with respect to this issue usually
reflect their own understanding of how languages are learned and how they
are structured, and in many cases their views are shaped by the way they
themselves were taught. Four widely-used syllabus types are:
• the grammatical/structural syllabus;
• the notional/functional syllabus;
• the lexical syllabus; and
• content-based instruction and the task-based syllabus.
The most popular of these four syllabus types is the grammatical/

structural syllabus, where the focus is on the ordering of grammatical
structures from the simplest to the most complex. Vocabulary and grammar
tend to be treated as separate phenomena and the language presented tends to
be somewhat artificial, in order to allow for the systematic introduction of

grammar ‘rules’.
Functional/notional syllabi are those which are ordered according to lists
of functions and notions which the syllabus designer deems relevant to
learners at a particular level. Functions are the ‘communicative purposes’ for
which language is used and include things such as ‘advising’ or ‘persuading’,
and notions are the contexts in which these functional communicative acts
take place.
Lexical syllabi have vocabulary rather than grammar as their organizing
principle, and are heavily influenced by research on computerized language
corpora.
Unlike the other three syllabus types, the task-based syllabus emphasizes
the successful completion, through interaction and communication between
learners, of a variety of tasks which are preselected by the teacher or syllabus
designer for their suitability in promoting the process of acquisition, or for
their relevance to learners’ needs, rather than the learning of pre-selected
linguistic content. Research in this area has had an increasingly strong
influence in recent years on the design of published textbooks and on the
content of language teacher training programs.
Language testing
Groom and Littlemore (2011) say that like syllabus and materials design,
work in the area of language testing is an important aspect of research into
how languages are taught and learned. The focus is on how a learner’s
language ability can be assessed. A distinction is generally drawn here
between achievement testing (which sets out to establish whether learners
have met a set of pre-determined linguistic skills which they were
specifically taught in class) and proficiency testing (which sets out to
establish whether learners have reached an independent ‘level’ of the target
language, at which they can be expected to perform in a variety of situations).
In specific, based on the purposes of the test itself, Brown and
Abeywickrama (2010: 9-10) classify test into achievement test, proficiency
test, diagnostic test, placement test, and aptitude test.
Researchers into language testing are interested in answering questions
such as: is language learning ability related to general intelligence or is it
something different? Is there a subset of skills that combine to create an
underlying ‘gift for language learning’, for which the more technical term is
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.31
language aptitude? How do different types of tests (such as dictations, gap-

fill tests and oral examinations) measure different types of language ability?
And to what extent are these different tests reliable indicators of language
ability?
McNamara (2004: 763) says that language testing has undergone a rapid
evolution in the past 50 years, mirroring the development of applied
linguistics more broadly. The replacement in the immediate post-war period
of traditional assessment techniques, such as the translation and the
composition by “scientific” tests based on linguistics (structuralism) and
psychology (behaviorism), paralleled the advent of audiolingualism within
language teaching. Similarly, the introduction of communicative methods in
the 1970s and 1980s was matched by a greater emphasis on performance tests
within language testing, where candidates were required to display practical
control of language knowledge under realtime processing conditions, and
within specified contexts of use. Language testing received a great impetus
from the development of specific purpose language teaching associated with
the explosion of English language courses for students and professionals
operating within an international context in the 1970s. Most recently,
language tests are under somewhat of a challenge, as they respond to
critiques of individualistic notions of performance and are increasingly being
scrutinized for their social accountability, in line with the critical turn in
applied linguistics generally.
The importance of language tests is a function of the social and political
roles they play. Language tests have marked social relevance in the
contemporary world, as they play a role in socially very significant
institutional and political processes. The idea of formal tests of knowledge or
ability emerged in traditional China, where they were used for the selection
of individuals who would go on to be trained to be the ruling elite. Tests thus
played a crucial role in constructing the fundamental character of Chinese
cultural and political life over many centuries.
McNamara (2004: 763) also says that in the modern world, language
tests control access to international education by students studying through
the medium of a second language (especially, but not exclusively, English),
they play an important role in the management of the language education of
the children of immigrants, they have been used as a weapon in intergroup
conflicts, they act as controls in the mobility of professionals and other
workers. They are used for certification of achievement in education, and in
many countries control the transition between school and higher education.
Given this social significance, language testing faces an ethical challenge:
language testers need to make their language tests as fair as possible, and
need to be aware of their social responsibilities in their work.
Language for Specific Purposes

Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) is generally used to refer to the
teaching and research of language in relation to the communicative needs of
speakers of a second language in facing a particular workplace, academic, or
professional context. In such contexts language is used for a limited range of
communicative events. For example, in a university context, spoken language
is typically used by students in events such as participating in seminars and
tutorials, presenting papers, and asking and answering questions in class.
Analysis of language in such events generally reveals that language is used in
constrained and fairly predictable ways. Thus, the analysis of questions in
university lectures reveals the frequent use of a four-part routine (asking for
clarification, interpretation check, digression, and challenge).
Groom and Littlemore (2011: 18) state that the main focus of Languages
for Specific Purposes (LSP) is at the features of different types of language
with a view to teaching learners who are going to have to use these specific
types of language in their everyday lives. The groups of people who use
specific types of language for a common purpose are sometimes referred to
as discourse communities, and the aim of researchers in the area of LSP is to
investigate how teachers can best help students to enter these communities.
According to Basturkmen and Elder (2004) LSP courses usually focus
on the specific language needs of fairly homogeneous groups of learners in
regard to one particular context referred to as the target situation. For
example, LSP courses may involve a group of language learners who all
intend to study at university, work as engineers, or aim to work as nurses in
the future. The aim of such courses is to help the learners deal with the
linguistic demands of their academic, workplace, or professional target
situations.
LSP courses can be “pre-experience” or “post-experience” (Robinson,
1991). The former refers to courses designed for learners aspiring to enter
particular workplace, academic, or profession situations. In these cases the
courses aim to teach the learners the language skills and knowledge they will
need in order to gain entrance. The latter refers to courses designed for
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.33
learners already involved in the target situation. In these cases the courses
aim to help the learners become better equipped linguistically to cope with
the communicative demands they face in their work or study situations.
Major divisions in LSP are Language for Academic Purposes, and Language
for Occupational Purposes, the latter comprising Language for Professional
Purposes and for Vocational Purposes (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998). LSP
courses can be highly specific or more general, referred to as narrow and
wide angled respectively. For example, teaching Language for Academic
Purposes may involve one of two options: Language for General Academic
Purposes or Language for Specific Academic Purposes (Jordan, 1997;
Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998). In the former, students from a range of
disciplines are grouped together and instruction focuses on their common
academic needs and skills, such as note taking skills, lecture comprehension,
seminar skills, the structure of an argumentative essay, and so forth. In the
latter, students are grouped according to their disciplines and instruction
focuses on features of language use and the language skills critical for
successful communication in them. So, for example, instruction for law
students might focus on specific genres significant in legal studies, such as
the legal problem answer.
A major sub-branch of LSP is English for Academic Purposes (EAP),
whose main aim is to help prepare international students for study at English-
speaking universities. According to Groom and Littlemore (2011: 18),
researchers in this area study the types of language that are used in lectures,
seminars and written papers across the range of disciplines that are offered at
universities where English is the medium of instruction. They are also
interested in studying how the types of language used vary across different
disciplines, and across the different spoken and written genres of higher
education (e.g. lectures, seminars, research articles, textbooks, argumentative
essays, laboratory reports, etc.). They also investigate the effectiveness of
different modes of delivery, including for example team teaching with
subject lecturers. Related to this is the field of academic literacy. The focus
here is more on native speakers of the language who for one reason or
another may not be familiar with the linguistic conventions that are common
in academic discourse. Again the focus is on describing and teaching or
critiquing these conventions in order to enhance student learning levels in
higher education.
Another major branch of ESP, Business English, endeavors to describe the

major business genres (business correspondence, meetings, negotiations) as
well as dealing with the topic of intercultural communication, which is of
central importance in the business world. Work in this area feeds into the
development of Business English textbooks and business training courses.
ESP research also overlaps with the subfield of workplace communication.
Among other things, research in this area has led to the production of training
materials for healthcare professionals who work in linguistically diverse
communities.
Second Language Acquisition

Researchers in the area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) are
interested in questions such as: is there a natural order of acquisition that
remains constant across all language learning situations? To what extent does
the acquisition of a second language resemble that of a first language? How
is language organized in the mind of a person who speaks more than one
language? How does exposure to the target language translate into intake and
learning? Traditionally, researchers working in this area have tended to
distinguish between learning, which is a conscious process that usually takes
place in a classroom, and acquisition, which is a less conscious process that
normally takes place outside the classroom (for example when immigrants
learn the language of their destination country simply by living there).
However the distinction between these two processes quickly becomes
problematic as soon as we start to look at authentic language learning
situations, which usually involve a combination of conscious and
unconscious learning mechanisms. Indeed, recent research suggests that such
simple dichotomies do not accurately reflect the process of second language
acquisition at all, and that it may be better to conceptualize this process as a
‘complex system’, drawing on theoretical notions of complexity that are now
increasingly commonplace in many other academic fields.
Within the field of Second Language Acquisition researchers who look
at bilingualism (or even multilingualism) are interested in the ways in which
children born into multilingual families or communities develop an ability to
speak more than one language. Given that the majority of the world’s
population is at least bilingual, this is no small endeavor. They are interested
in the ways in which the different languages interact in the brain, how
bilingual people switch between their different languages in different
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.35
situations, and how bilingualism is best fostered. An interesting observation

that has been made by researchers working in this area is that people who can
already speak more than one language well tend to have some cognitive
advantages (for instance greater cognitive flexibility) compared to people
who only speak one language, and they find it much easier to learn
subsequent languages.
As SLA researchers are interested in studying what goes on in the minds
of people who are using and/or learning second languages, they often draw
on research in the area of psycholinguistics, which explores the relationship
between language and the mind. Psycholinguists look at how language is
stored and accessed and at how we derive meaning from the language to
which we are exposed. A sub-branch of psycholinguistics called
neurolinguistics focuses on the brain itself and looks at the neurological
processes underlying the use of language. Psycholinguists are also interested
in language impairments and the development of language ability in children.
Psycholinguistic research seeks to explain why it is that during spoken and
written communication people tend to hear and read what they expected to
hear and read, rather than what was actually said or written. It also seeks to
explain why slips of the tongue occur and why people tend to find it much
harder to learn languages as they get older.
Bilingual Education
Baker (2010: 243) says that the term bilingual education has multiple
meanings, with varying positive and negative associations, and a varied
history. First, bilingual education is loosely used to refer to schools attended
by bilingual children (e.g., Latinos and Latvians in U.S. schools, Greek and
Gujarati children in U.K. schools). However, bilingualism is not fostered in
such schools. Rather, the aim is to shift the child rapidly from the home,
minority language to the dominant, majority language. Second, the term
refers to children who are allowed to use their home language in the
classroom for only a short period (e.g., one or two years) until they switch to
the majority language (called transitional bilingual education). Third,
bilingual education appears a more appropriate label for schools in which
students learn through two languages in the classroom. For example, there
are dual language schools in the United States that teach students through
Spanish for one day and the next day through English. In Europe, there are
elite bilingual programs (e.g., Luxembourg, Switzerland) in which children
both learn, and learn through two or more prestigious languages (e.g.,
German, French, English).
Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 178) state that the purposes of
bilingual and multilingual education programs are similarly diverse, ranging
from development of advanced levels of proficiency and academic
achievement in both target languages to the promotion of academic skills in a
dominant language but not in the pupils’ home language. Similarly, some
programs aim to help learners develop knowledge about a particular cultural
group in addition to their own, while others have as their primary orientation
and mission the promotion of assimilation and acculturation of linguistically
diverse learners into a mainstream or dominant culture. We note increasing
interest in programs seeking to develop ‘multilingual, culturally adept
citizens who can prosper and contribute to our increasingly global society’
Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 178) present a three-part framework for
understanding how education in multiple languages is commonly organized.
They distinguish between frames that are (1) language-based, (2) content-
based and (3) context based. These ways of looking at programs are not
mutually exclusive, of course. To some extent, all programs must take into
account the language and subject matter learning needs of their students, as
well as the contextual features and constraints of the larger context in which
they are based. We argue that much more can be learned about particular
schools and programs by examining them from all three frames.
Figure 1.4: Three frameworks for understanding bilingual and multilingual

education
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.37
One key way of looking at bilingual and multilingual programs is in

terms of language use and language outcomes. A clear example of a focus on
use is the distinction between ‘strong’ forms – in which two or more
languages are used systematically for academic purposes, including reading
and writing in subject areas such as Maths, science and history – and ‘weak’
forms, where the non-dominant languages are used sparingly, typically to
clarify instructions or for interpersonal communication only (Baker, 2006).
Despite its apparent simplicity, the strong– weak dichotomy reminds us to
pay close attention to the manner in which and the extent to which bilingual
and multilingual programs actually use each of the target languages.
Asymmetry in the use of the dominant and non-dominant languages is
problematic for many programs, and human, material and technological
resources tend to be concentrated in the dominant language unless special
steps are taken to address this imbalance. This is especially true for
combinations that include a language of wider communication, such as
English, French or Mandarin, with less prestigious or less widely spoken
languages.
Language policy and planning

According to Groom and Littlemore (2011: 20) language policy and
planning is a subfield of applied linguistics looks at the way language is
controlled at international, national and local levels. At the international level
it looks at the spread of English around the world and analyses the
socioeconomic and political causes and consequences of this. At the national
level it looks at the role of official languages in maintaining national identity
and explores the relationship between official and minority languages.
Researchers are interested in issues such as whether immigrants should be
forced to speak the same language as the indigenous population, and whether
schools should deliver lessons in more than one language. The fact that
countries such as Canada or Switzerland are bilingual or even multilingual is
in part due to language policy and planning. In other countries minority
languages are more likely to be suppressed because of the language policies
of the ruling party. At a more local level, the focus might be on the ways in
which power relations are established and maintained within an organisation
through the use of language. A key concept to emerge from this research is
that of linguistic human rights. Some applied linguists have become powerful
advocates of the linguistic human rights of minority language speakers in
many countries, and have been increasingly successful in raising public

awareness of these issues at local, national and international levels.
Language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the function,
structure, or acquisition of a language or language variety within a speech
community. Language planning is often associated with government
planning, but it is also used by a variety of non-governmental organizations.
The goal of language planning differ depending on the nation or organization,
but generally include making planning decisions and possibly changes for the
benefit of communication. Planning or improving effective communication
can also lead to other social changes, such as language shift or assimilation,
thus providing another motivation to plan the structure, function and
acquisition of language.
There are three different types of planning. The first one is status
planning. Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or
variety to functional domain within a society, thus affecting the status, or
standing, of a language. The second one is corpus planning. Corpus planning
refers to the prescriptive intervention in the forms of a language, whereby
planning decisions are made to engineer changes in the structure of the
language. Three groups of corpus planning are graphisation, standardization,
and modernization. The third one is acquisition planning. Acquisition
planning is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local
government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language
status, distribution and literacy through education
Forensic linguistics
Forensic linguistic is one of the important current topics in applied
linguistics. It is perhaps surprising that forensic linguistics is a relative
newcomer in the area of centrality of language to life in general and the law
in particular when we compare to fingerprint identification and shoeprint
analysis. In general, forensic linguistics is defined as the application of
linguistics to legal questions and issues. However, the word application is not
necessarily being used in the same sense as in the phrases applied
mathematics or applied statistics. It is the application of linguistic knowledge
to a particular social setting, namely the legal forum (Olsson, 2008: 3). So,
the forensic linguists apply linguistic knowledge and techniques to the
language implicated in legal case or proceeding, or privilate disputes between
parties which may at a later stage result in legal action.
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.39
Groom and Littlemore (2011: 21) state that forensic linguistics studies
the relationship between language and the law. Forensic linguists look at how
language is used in the legal process, focusing on the discourse of the police,
lawyers, judges and legal documents, and courtroom interaction. Under its
narrower definition, forensic linguistics refers to the examination of linguistic
evidence in court. It is used in cases of disputed authorship of written texts
(such as police statements) and where there are issues of plagiarism. Forensic
linguists provide information that helps jurors decide whether a particular
person is likely to have been the author of a particular text. They also study
cases where inaccurate translations of statements made by nonnative speakers
have led to miscarriages of justice, and are therefore able to advise on the
treatment of people (such as children, non-native speakers or people with
learning difficulties) who may have difficulties with – and thus potentially be
disadvantaged by – the language of the legal system.
The major areas of study, according to Gibbons and Turell (2008: 1),
covers the written language of the law, particularly the language of
legislation, spoken legal discourse, particularly the language of court
proceeding and police questioning, the social justice issues that emerge from
the written and spoken language of the law, the provision of linguistic
evidence, which can be divided into evidence on identity/authorship, and
evidence on communication, the teaching and learning of spoken and written
legal language, and legal translation and interpretation.
Sociolinguistics and critical discourse analysis

Sociolinguistics looks at the relationship between language and society.
The focus is on variation in the way people use language as well as on
language change. Researchers in this area are interested in how people use
language to create and maintain social structures and hierarchies. They also
look at the role of language in creating and maintaining a person’s identity.
The language one speaks, the accent one has, the ways in which people
change their accent (or even their language) when speaking to different
people in different social situations all come under the microscope of the
sociolinguist.
One of the key findings to emerge from research in sociolinguistics is
that variables such as accent, dialect and gender are intimately bound up with
social inequalities and injustices of various kinds. For example, sociolinguists
have shown that speakers who have certain regional accents are less likely to
be successful at job interviews than are speakers of more prestigious dialectal

variants. Similarly, research on gender and language has shown how girls and
boys are socialized from a very early age into talking in ways that are deemed
‘correct’ for their gender identity, and sanctioned in various ways if they
transgress these implicit linguistic boundaries. Taking such observations as
its starting point, critical discourse analysis (CDA) has developed into a
distinct branch of applied linguistic research that adopts an explicitly political
stance towards the analysis of the relationship between language and society.
For practitioners of CDA, it is not enough simply to describe or diagnose the
linguistic determinants of social inequality; rather, the CDA agenda is one
that aims to ameliorate social inequality and promote social justice. This is
usually done by combining linguistic analysis with theoretical insights drawn
from sociology and cultural studies in order to identify and critique the
ideologies that, it is argued, lie behind individual texts. Much of the focus in
CDA since its inception has been on the mass media; researchers working in
this area have sought to uncover the underlying rhetorical objectives and
ideological positions reflected in news coverage of public events, thereby
showing how powerful groups in society attempt to manipulate public
opinion. More recent work has broadened this perspective somewhat, to
include analyses of everyday language that – often unwittingly – promotes
discrimination against minority groups in society.
Translation studies
The term ‘translation’ has several meanings. First, it may refer to the
general field introducing in linguistics department. Second, it may refer to the
product, that is the text that has been translated. Third, it may refer to the
process, that is the act of producing the translation, also known as translating.
The process of translation between two different written languages involves
the translator changing an original written text, known as source text, in the
original verbal language, known as source language, into a written text, the
target text, in a different verbal language, known as target language.
Translation studies is an academic research area that has expanded
explosively in recent years. Translation was formerly studied as a language-
learning methodology or as a part of comparative literature, translation
‘workshops’ and contrastive linguistics course. Today the name and the
nature of translation studies proposed both a name and a structure for the
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.41
field. Translation study is the discipline that concerns itself with the theory
and practice of translation (Hatim, 2013: 3).
Researchers in translation studies study the choices that people make when
translating from one language to another. There is often a trade-off between
achieving loyalty to the original text and achieving naturalness in the target
language, and translators will make choices depending on the target audience
of the translated document, as well as for their own personal or ideological
reasons (Groom and Littlemore, 2011: 22). For example, in an English text, a
writer might refer to someone as their ‘right hand man’. If this expression
does not exist in the language that the text is being translated into, the
translator may find an alternative corresponding expression, or they may try
to retain authenticity by translating it directly, or if they have strong feminist
sentiments, they may opt to change the wording to ‘person’. Translation
studies researchers look at these types of choices in an attempt to access the
thought processes that take place in the mind of the translator while he or she
is translating.
Translation studies scholars are also interested in studying the impact
that translations or collections of translations have had in the sociocultural
situation of the languages involved. They attempt to use existing theories of
translation to predict what the process of translation is likely to involve for
particular pairs of languages and types of text. This work has applications in
translator training, the preparation of translation aids, such as dictionaries,
grammars, term banks and in recent years, automatic translators, the
establishment of translation policy (which involves giving advice on the role
of the translator in a given socio-cultural context, deciding on the economic
position of the translator, deciding which texts need to be translated, or
deciding what role translation should play in the teaching of foreign
languages), and translation criticism, which concerns itself with the
development of criteria for the evaluation of the quality or effectiveness of
the translation product.
Lexicography
Another specialist field that enjoys a ‘semi-autonomous’ relationship
with applied linguistics is lexicography. Lexicography is the practice of
compiling dictionaries, and lexicographers are the specialist authors who
carry out the process of dictionary compilation. In applied linguistics,
however, the field of lexicography is also understood as including
investigations of the decisions that lexicographers make when compiling

dictionaries, and on the look-up strategies that dictionary users deploy when
consulting them. Recent debates in this field have focused on the relative
merits of traditional and full-sentence definition styles, and on how the
different senses of polysemous words (i.e. words with multiple meanings)
should be ordered in learners’ dictionaries. For example, some lexicographers
argue that the word ‘back’ should be presented as an adverb (as in go back,
lean back, or back home) before it is presented as a noun describing a part of
the human body, on the grounds that the adverbial usage is much more
frequent in native speaker usage. Other lexicographers argue for the opposite
policy, on the grounds that the literal meaning expressed by the noun is the
basic or ‘prototypical’ meaning from which all the non-literal adverbial
meanings of ‘back’ are derived.
Kirkness (2004) says that lexicography is almost as old as writing. From
its beginnings several thousand years ago it has served primarily the real-life
needs of written communication between members of human communities
using different languages or different varieties of one language. Those needs
change just as all living languages constantly change. In many literate
societies lexicography has a centuries-old tradition with word lists and word
books in scripts based on hieroglyphs, logograms, or letters and in media
from clay tablets to the computer. Since print culture replaced scribal culture
some five centuries ago and ushered in the modern period in European
lexicography, the printed book has predominated. Worldwide, no book on a
language or on languages has been and is more widely used in education
systems and in communities at large than the dictionary. It has long been and
still is an essential source, if not indeed the principal source, of information
on language for all members of literate societies who might have questions
on any aspect of the form, meaning, and/or use of a word or words in their
own or in another language.
Lexicographers can be regarded as descriptive linguists in that they
empirically analyze and describe (a) language with a traditional emphasis on
individual items of vocabulary. However, they do not require linguistic
knowledge alone, but according to the particular dictionary project may draw
on other non-linguistic disciplines including information technology,
publishing, history, and the natural and social sciences amongst others. Nor is
their description of (a) language primarily an end in itself. Its aim is not
primarily to advance linguistic theory, however much theoretical linguists
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.43
may and do draw on lexicography for their own purposes and however much
lexicographers might seek to apply relevant findings of theoretical linguistics
in their work. Rather it is in principle a means to an end, namely to make
knowledge about (a) language available to various sectors of the wider public
and to mediate between different kinds of language knowledge and different
kinds of user needs. This aim is clearly reflected in the vast range of different
dictionary types designed to respond to the different needs and interests of
different user groups.
EXER CI SE 2
1) Davies and Elder (2004) classify a wide range of topics into two broad
categories, namely the topics that belong to linguistics applied and the
topics that belong to applied linguistics. Mentions some topics that
belong to linguistics applied and the topics that belong to applied
linguistics. Provide your reasons for this classification.
2) Language teaching methodology is one of the areas in applied linguistics
that are commonly discussed and becomes one of the most important
topics in applied linguistics. How is the theory of grammar treated
language teaching methodology?
3) Find as mush as information about audiolingual method. Then answer
the following questions!
 What are the goals of teachers who use this method?
 What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
 What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
 What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature
of student-student interaction?
 What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are
emphasized?
 What is the role of students’ native language?
4) What are the main differences between grammatical syllabus and
functional syllabus?
5) Explain the types of language test based on the purposes of conducting
the test!
6) What is language for specific purposes?
7) What is the difference between English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
and English for Occupational Purposes?
8) Provide your explanation about a three-part framework for

understanding how education in multiple languages is commonly
organized!
9) What do you know about the different types of planning?
10) What is sociolinguistics?
S UM MAR Y
We have learned in this unit some most important topics in applied

linguistics. The first topic is language teaching methodology, which
deals with different ways of teaching language, especially second or
foreign language. The second topic, syllabus and materials design, deals
with the way in which learning materials should be presented to the
learners. The topic on language testing talks about types of assessment
used in measuring a learner’s language ability. Language for specific
purposes is about teaching and research of language in relation to the
communicative needs of speakers of a second language in facing a
particular workplace, academic, or professional context. The topic of
second language acquisition talks about how a second language is
acquired and to what extent does the acquisition of a secod language
resemble that of the first language. Finally, some other topics that are
also discussed in brief are bilingual education, language policy and
planning, forensic linguistics, sociolinguistics and critical discourse
analysis, translation studies, and lexicography.
1) Schmitt and Celce-Murcia (2010) mention 16 topic areas illustrated by

the call for papers for the American Association of Applied Linguistics
(AAAL) 2010 conference. Those topic areas include:
 Analysis of discourse and interaction
 Assessment and evaluation
 Bilingual, immersion, heritage and language minority education
 Language and ideology
 language and learner characteristics
 language and technology
 language cognition and brain research
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.45
 language, culture, socialization and pragmatics

 language maintenance and revitalization
 language planning and policy
 reading, writing and literacy
 second and foreign language pedagogy
 second language acquisition, language acquisition and attrition
 sociolinguistics
 text analysis (written discourse)
 translation and interpretation.
Classify these topics in the ones that belong to linguistics applied and the
one that belong to applied linguistics.
2) Find as much as information about total physical response. Then answer
 What are the goals of teachers who use this method?
 What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
 What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature
 How are the feeling of the students dealt with?
 How is the language viewed? How is the culture viewed?
 What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are
emphasized?
 What is the role of students’ native language?
3) What are the main differences between grammatical syllabus and task
based syllabus?
4) Explain some characteristics of a good test!
5) What is the main focus of language for specific purposes?
6) What is bilingual education?
7) What is language planning?
8) What is forensic linguistics?
9) What do you know about translation and translation studies?

X 100%

unit.

 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.47
Unit 3
THE IMPACT OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Introduction
In unit 2 we have discussed the kinds of topics that applied linguists are
interested in. In this unit we go into more depth, describing in detail a number
of real-world studies where applied linguistic research has had an impact on
the wider world. We start by looking at work in applied linguistics that has
influenced both the ways in which languages are taught and the types of
language that learners are exposed to. From this, we then broaden our
approach to look at how research in applied linguistics has led to a better
understanding of different types of discourse, outlining a number of studies
whose findings have helped people to engage with or become members of
particular social and cultural groups. Finally we turn to a particularly
important area to which linguistics has been applied: the legal system. We
discuss cases where the work of linguists has helped send the guilty to prison
as well as prove innocence. We close this learning activity by examining the
important contribution that applied linguistics has made to cross-cultural
understanding, and discuss studies whose findings have had particular
relevance for people involved in international business communication.
Applied linguistics and Second Language Teaching

Work in applied linguistics has had a significant impact on the way in
which second and foreign languages are taught. Work in language teaching
has followed two interrelated strands. The first looks at how language should
be taught, the focus here being on how language is best presented to learners
and what kinds of activities are most conducive to language learning. In this
case, we find several approaches and methods used by the teachers in
teaching language, especially in teaching second or foreign language. We
recognize grammatical translation method as one of the oldest language
teaching methods, direct method, and audiolingual method. We also
recognize some alternative approaches and methods in the twentieth century.
They are the natural approach, total physical response, the silent way,
community language learning, and suggestopedia. Some current approaches
and method in language teaching are communicative language teaching

(CLT), content based instruction and content and language integrated
teaching (CLIL), whole language, competency based language teaching, task
based language teaching, text based instruction, the lexical approach,
multiple intelligences, and cooperative language teaching. Further
explanation on these types of approaches and methods can be found in
Module 4.
The second focuses more on what kind of language should be taught.
Recent studies have revealed that spoken language has its own grammar
which differs in places from the grammar of the written language (Carter and
McCarthy 2006). Traditionally the grammar components of language classes
have tended to focus on written grammar, but the advent of spoken corpora
has revealed patterns in spoken language that could usefully be taught to
language learners. We begin, however, by looking at how applied linguistic
research has affected the ways in which languages are taught.
The impact of applied linguistic research on the teaching of languages
has been substantial. Its main manifestation has been in the form of an
increased focus on communication and meaning, which has led to more
communicative approaches to language teaching. The key tenets of
communicative approaches to language learning and teaching are that
learning a language is about learning to communicate, and that learning can
actually take place through communication. In other words:
- Learners learn a language through using it to communicate
- Authentic and meaningful communication is the goal of classroom
activities
- Fluency is an important part of communication
- Communication involves the integration of different language skills
- Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error
(Richards and Rodgers 2014: 105)
For some people, the beginning of communicative language teaching is

marked by a functional theory of language that focuses on language as means
of communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop what Hymes
(1972) referred to as “communicative competence” as opposed to Chomsky’s
theory of competence. In Hymes’s view, a person who acquires
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.49
communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for

language use with respect to:
1. whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible
2. whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the
means of implementation available
3. whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy,
successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated
4. whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually
performed, and what its doing entails
(Hymes, 1972: 281)
According to Groom and Littlemore (2011: 31), the beginning of the

communicative movement is marked by H.G. Widdowson’s Teaching
Language as Communication (published in 1978), and by Brumfit and
Johnson’s (1979) book The Communicative Approach to Language Learning,
which argued that language learning should not just be about learning
grammar rules and vocabulary, but should focus on teaching learners how to
use the language that they have learned to express themselves effectively, and
to understand how linguistic meanings relate to the social and situational
contexts in which they occur. That language teaching up until this point was
not in any way ‘communicative’ in this sense is of course an overstatement,
but it is fair to say that this period marked the beginning of a systematic
examination of what it means to ‘communicate’ in a foreign language, and of
what language learners need to learn if they are to ‘communicate’ effectively.
Communicative approaches to language teaching thus differ from
previous approaches to language learning in that they are competency based.
That is to say, they tend to focus on the outcomes of learning. They look at
what learners might be expected to do with the language, and use these to
inform the ways in which the language is taught. Ultimately, then, the goal of
communicative language teaching is to foster ‘the ability not only to apply
the grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct
sentences but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to
whom’ (Richards et al. 1992: 65).
Communicative competence itself consists of several competencies that
should be acquired by language learners. Various suggestions have been
made as to how this can be done. Canale and Swain (1980) propose four
types of competencies that should be included in communicative competence.

They are grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse
competence, and strategic competence. Hedge (2000) divides communicative
competence into five components: linguistic competence; pragmatic
competence; discourse competence; strategic competence; and fluency.
According to Celce-Murcia et.al. (1995), the components of communicative
competence are linguistic competence, socio-cultural competence, actional
competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. Discourse
competence is the center of communicative competence, while strategic
competence functions as ways to achieve other competencies. The following
figure describes the interrelation among the five competencies.
Socio-
cultural
Competence
Discourse
Competence
Linguistic Actional
Competence Competence
Strategic
Competence
Figure 1.5: The model of communicative competence based on Celce-Murcia

et.al (1995)
Furthermore, Celce-Murcia (2007) revises the model of communicative

competence that Celce-Murcia et.al. (1995) propose. She adds one more
component into the diagram. The new component is the formulaic
competence. The following figure shows the revised model of
communicative competence proposed by Celce-Murcia.
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.51
Strategic
Competence
Socio-cultural
Competence
Discourse Formulaic
Linguistic
Competence
Interactional
Competence
Figure 1.6: The model of communicative competence based on Celce-Murcia

(2007)
The first element of communicative competence is sociocultural

competence. This most recent model maintains the top-down role of
sociocultural competence. Sociocultural competence refers to the speaker’s
pragmatic knowledge, i.e. how to express messages appropriately within the
overall social and cultural context of communication. This includes
knowledge of language variation with reference to sociocultural norms of the
target language. In fact a social or cultural blunder can be far more serious
than a linguistic error when one is engaged in oral communication. The
pedagogical challenge lies in the fact that second and foreign language
teachers typically have far greater awareness and knowledge of linguistic
rules than they do of the sociocultural behaviors and expectations that
accompany use of the target language. Even when good cultural descriptions
are available, it is hard to get learners to change their native verbal behavior
based on a new set of assumptions.
Celce-Murcia et al. (1995: 23–24) describe several sociocultural variables,
three of which are most crucial in terms of the current model.
– social contextual factors: the participants’ age, gender, status, social
distance and their relations to each other re: power and affect.
– stylistic appropriateness: politeness strategies, a sense of genres and
registers.
– cultural factors: background knowledge of the target language group,

major dialects/regional differences, and cross cultural awareness.
The above competencies can be acquired in part through some

knowledge of the life and traditions as well as knowledge of the history and
literature of the target language community. An extended living experience
among members of the target language group is probably the best experience
for language acquisition if the learner has an adequate basic preparation in
both linguistic and sociocultural competence coupled with good powers of
observation.
The second component is linguistic competence. Groom and Littlemore
(2011: 31) say that linguistic competence refers to one’s knowledge of the
language itself, and includes knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, syntax
and phonology, as well as knowledge about how the different parts of a text
fit together and are generally organized. It is important to remember that
linguistic competence is indeed a component of communicative competence,
and that it is incorrect to say that communicative language teaching is all
about ‘communication’, and that it therefore does not involve grammar
teaching. In fact the teaching of grammar should be an important component
of communicative approaches to language teaching.
Linguistic competence includes four types of knowledge:

– phonological: includes both segmentals (vowels, consonants, syllable
types) and suprasegmentals (prominence/stress, intonation, and rhythm).
– lexical: knowledge of both content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) and
unction words (pronouns, determiners, prepositions, verbal auxiliaries,
etc.).
– morphological: parts of speech, grammatical inflections, productive
derivational processes.
– syntactic: constituent/phrase structure, word order (both canonical and
marked), basic sentence types, modification, coordination, subordination,
embedding.
The third component is formulaic competent. Formulaic competence is

the counterbalance to linguistic competence. Linguistic competence entails
the recursive, open-ended systems listed above. Formulaic competence refers
to those fixed and prefabricated chunks of language that speakers use heavily
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.53
in everyday interactions. It had been largely ignored prior to seminal work by

Pawley and Syder (1983), Pawley (1992), and Nattinger and DeCarrico
(l992), whose work brought this domain to general attention.
• routines: fixed phrases like of course, all of a sudden and formulaic
chunks like How do you do? I’m fine, thanks; how are you?
• collocations: verb-object: spend money, play the piano, adverb-adjective:
statistically significant, mutually intelligible adjective-noun: tall
building, legible handwriting
• idioms: e.g., to kick the bucket = to die; to get the ax = to be
fired/terminated
• lexical frames: e.g., I’m looking for ______________. See you
(later/tomorrow/ next week, etc)
Formulaic competence has grown in importance; it is now acknowledged

that fluent speakers of a language draw on formulaic knowledge of the target
language as often as they use systematic linguistic knowledge (Hunston,
2002). Much language pedagogy has yet to catch up with this fact.
The fourth component is interactional competence. The bottom-up
counterpart to the more global top-down socio-cultural competence is the
hands-on component of interactional competence. Interactional competence
has at least three sub-components relevant to the current model:
• Actional competence: knowledge of how to perform common speech
acts and speech act sets in the target language involving interactions such
as information exchanges, interpersonal exchanges, expression of
opinions and feelings, problems (complaining, blaming, regretting,
apologizing, etc.), future scenarios (hopes, goals, promises, predictions,
etc.)
• Conversational competence: inherent to the turn-taking system in
conversation described by Sachs et al. (l974) but may be extendable to
other dialogic genres:
– how to open and close conversations
– how to establish and change topics
– how to get, hold, and relinquish the floor
– how to interrupt
– how to collaborate and backchannel, etc.
• Non-verbal/paralinguistic competence includes:

– kinesics (body language), non-verbal turn-taking signals,
backchannel behaviors, gestures, affect markers, eye contact.
– proxemics (use of space by interlocutors)
– haptic behavior (touching)
– non-linguistic utterances with interactional import (e.g. ahhh! Uh-
oh. Huh?) the role of silence and pauses
The central component of communicative competence is discourse

competence. Discourse competence refers to those abilities that are required
to create and understand coherent written and spoken discourse (Groom and
Littlemore, 2011: 32). It is perhaps most useful to think of these rules in
terms of cohesion (i.e. lexical and grammatical links) and coherence (i.e.
appropriate combination of groups of utterances in terms of their
communicative function). Both cohesion and coherence refer to the ways in
which words and ideas are linked in a text. Discourse competence applies not
only to references to other parts of the text but also to things outside the text.
There is also a need to understand ellipsis (the omission of grammatically
non-essential words, phrases and clauses) and to grasp a speaker’s intentions
when very little information is actually provided in the exact words used by
the speaker.
The last component is strategic competence. Strategic competence,
according to Canale and Swain (1980: 30), ‘is made up of verbal and non-
verbal communication strategies that may be called into action to compensate
for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or to
insufficient competence’. So if for example, you don’t know the word ‘chess
board’ you might say something like: ‘It’s a game. There is a square. It’s got
black and white squares, and small figures move around on it’. Canale and
Swain divide communication strategies into two types: those that compensate
for lack of knowledge of grammatical forms, and those that compensate for
lack of sociolinguistic knowledge.
So what effects has this focus on communicative competence had on the
way languages are actually taught? In language teaching circles there has
been much debate about how communicative language teaching
methodologies can best be implemented in the language classroom. This has
led to an increased popularity of teaching methods such as task-based
learning. This involves the use of tasks where the focus is primarily on
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.55
meaning, and work on form follows. There are different ways of defining a
‘task’ but one of the most comprehensive definitions is that proposed by
Nunan (2004: 4):
a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending,
manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their
attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to
express meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than
to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being
able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning,
a middle and an end.
Many textbooks, particularly those published in the area of English
language teaching, now have a predominantly communicative focus, and
elements of task-based learning can be found in a wide variety of course
books and language teaching syllabi worldwide. However, this is not to say
that the change has been universal. There are many places where, for very
good local reasons, communicative approaches to language teaching have not
been adopted. What applied linguistics has done is to raise the issue of
communicative competence and define it in a way that is useful to language
educators. Whether or not they act on this information remains a matter of
choice, such as in Australia where systemic functional linguistics has been
heavily influential on government policy for the teaching of English to
immigrants. This approach places a strong emphasis on the analysis of form-
function relationships, and thus priorities what Hedge would call pragmatic
competence.
How exactly do applied linguists go about making the sorts of
discoveries that have been mentioned in this section? Although
‘communicative language ability’ and ‘communicative competence’ began
life as theoretical constructs there has since been a great deal of work
investigating the nature of the competences that need to be acquired in
different contexts, and on the most effective ways of fostering these
competencies in language learners. Other work has involved empirical
studies designed to investigate the relative effectiveness of different language
teaching approaches that focus on different degrees and aspects of
communicative competence. This has involved a mixture of different types of
research including quantitative approaches, where the outcomes of different
language teaching techniques are compared in terms of the impact they have
on the language learned by the students, and more qualitative approaches,
involving classroom observation and interviews, which have attempted to

ascertain, for example, how the different language teaching approaches affect
classroom dynamics and student motivation.
Applied Linguistics and Discourse Analysis

Strongly related to the language description work we have just seen is
the area of applied linguistic research that investigates the features of
different types of discourse. Groups of people who use specific types of
language for a common purpose are sometimes referred to as discourse
communities, and the language spoken by these discourse communities often
has its own unique features. In order to fully understand these communities,
or to become a member oneself, it is useful to be aware of the characteristics
of the particular language features used when producing or participating in
genres that are typical of those communities.
The important position that discourse analysis occupies in applied
linguistics has come about because it enables applied linguists to analyse and
understand real language data, for example, texts written by first and second
language learners, or recordings of the spoken output of second language
learners, or of the interaction between teachers and learners or among
learners themselves in classrooms. It also enables us to understand better the
kinds of discourse that language learners are exposed to outside the
classroom: the language of service encounters in shops, banks, restaurants,
etc., the language of newspapers, the language of everyday informal
conversation. In addition, such analyses can assist language teachers and
materials writers to evaluate language course books in terms of how closely
they approximate authentic language, or what needs to be modified when
authentic texts are brought into the classroom. Language testing can also gain
a great deal from looking at real language use as a source of criteria for the
evaluation of test performances.
Discourse analysis is the analysis of language in its social context.
Discourse analysts are just as interested in the analysis of spoken discourse as
they are in the analysis of written discourse. When the focus in linguistics
was primarily on written language and restricted to the study of isolated
sentences, spoken language was seen as formless and ungrammatical and
written language as highly structured and organized. Beattie (1983) wrote:
‘Spontaneous speech is unlike written text. It contains many mistakes,
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.57
sentences are unusually brief and indeed the whole fabric of verbal
expression is riddled with hesitations and silences’ (Beattie, 1983: 33).
However, research on the analysis of spoken discourse (Halliday, 1985;
Eggins and Slade, 1997; McCarthy, 1998) shows that spoken English does
have a consistent and describable structure and that in many respects the
language patterning is the same as written English. Halliday (1985: 77)
provides an explanation for the myth of the ‘formlessness’ of spoken
language, arguing that it derives from the analysis of written transcriptions of
conversation, with all their pauses, repetitions and false starts. He contends
that an author’s first draft, with its crossings-out and re-writings, would look
just as ramshackle. Beneath its surface ‘imperfections’ (which are an
essential part of its dynamic flexibility) spoken language exhibits a highly
elaborate organization, and is grammatically intricate, though in a way which
is quite different from the language which we read and write.
One way of approaching differences between speaking and writing is to
plot individual texts along scales or dimensions. The following figure maps
different kinds of spoken and written texts along such a scale. At one end of
the scale, we have the most informal, concrete, interactions and, at the other,
the most formal and abstract interactions.
Figure 1.7: The cline between spoken discourse and written discourse
Language teachers will be aware that most traditional grammars derive

from analysis of written texts. However, recently there has been the
development of grammars that deal with both spoken and written English
(Halliday, 1994; Biber et al., 1999; Carter, Hughes and McCarthy, 2001).
Discourse analysis, provides valuable insights into the way we pattern and
organize our speech. In every way possible, learners should be alerted to the
special qualities of spoken language and encouraged to accord equal

‘validity’ to both spoken and written formulations of language.
There are different approaches in analyzing discourse. They come from a
number of different academic disciplines and the field is vast. We will not,
therefore, attempt to provide a comprehensive review of approaches to
discourse analysis, as this has been done elsewhere (see Levinson (1983),
McCarthy (1991), Schiffrin (1994), Coulthard (1985), Eggins and Slade
(1997)) but will, rather, focus on those approaches that have the greatest
relevance to applied linguistics and language education. The different
approaches that have developed since the mid-twentieth century may be
classified according to different criteria. The most prominent, according to
disciplinary origins, are shown in the following Figure.
(Cited from Eggins and Slade, 1997)
Figure 1.8: Different approaches in discourse analysis
The major contribution to the study of spoken discourse has come from
sociology, in particular from conversational analysis. Within sociolinguistic
approaches those relevant to the analysis of spoken discourse are the
ethnography of speaking; interactional linguistics, research on narrative
within variation theory. From philosophy, speech act theory and pragmatics
have shed light on how people interpret particular utterances. Within
linguistics, the Birmingham School and systemic functional linguistics (SFL)
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.59
have both made significant contributions to an understanding of spoken and

written discourse in English. Recently, perspectives have emerged from
interdisciplinary connections between linguistics and critical and cultural
theory, including critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis (CDA).
Conversation analysis is concerned with the detailed organization of
everyday interaction; thus, it contrasts with much of the work in mainstream
sociology which focuses on large-scale categories of class, gender, age
groups and so on. It is concerned mainly with dialogic, spoken discourse of a
fairly informal character. Conversation analysis was stimulated by
Garfinkel’s ethnomethodology and Goffman’s frame analysis, and was
developed into a distinctive field of enquiry by Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson
and others. Conversation analysis focuses on conversation because it offers a
particularly appropriate and accessible resource for sociological enquiry. It
favors fine-grain analyses, often of quite short stretches of conversation. Key
questions for conversation analysts are:
• How do people take turns in conversation?
• How do people open and close conversations?
• How do people launch new topics, close old ones, shift topic, etc.?
• How is it that conversation generally progresses satisfactorily from one
utterance to the next?
Ethnographic approaches to conversation have been led by Hymes and

are concerned with ‘the situation and uses, the patterns and functions, of
speaking as an activity in its own right. Hymes developed a schema for
analyzing context that has the ‘speech event’ in which language occurs as its
prime unit of analysis:
The speech event is to the analysis of verbal interaction what the
sentence is to grammar ... It represents an extension in the size of the basic
analytical unit from the single utterance to stretches of utterances, as well as a
shift in focus from ... text to ... interaction.
(Hymes, 1972: 17)
Speech events include interactions such as a conversation at a party or

ordering a meal, etc. Any speech event comprises several components and
these are listed in the grid in the following table. With each letter acting as an
abbreviation for a different component of communication, Hymes’s grid has
become known as the ‘SPEAKING grid’.
Table 1.1: Hymes’s SPEAKING grid (Hymes, 1972)
S Setting scene temporal and physical circumstances

subjective definition of an occasion
P Participant speaker/sender/addressor
hearer/receiver/audience/ addressee
E Ends ends purposes and goals outcomes
A Act sequence message form and content
K Key tone, manner
I Instrumentalities channel (verbal and non-verbal; physical forms
of speech drawn from community repertoires)
N Norms norms of interaction and interpretation specific
properties attached to speaking interpretations
of norms within cultural belief system
G Genre textual categories
S Setting scene temporal and physical circumstances subjective definition

of an occasion
P Participant speaker/sender/addressor hearer/receiver/audience/
addressee
K Key tone, manner
I Instrumentalities channel (verbal and non-verbal; physical forms of
speech drawn from community repertoires)
N Norms norms of interaction and interpretation specific properties
attached to speaking interpretations of norms within cultural belief
system
The SPEAKING grid provides a necessary reminder of the contextual

dimensions that determine our use of language. Hymes’s ethnographic
framework led not only to broader notions of the ‘communicative
competence’ language users display but also to a recognition of the close
relationship between speech events and their social or cultural contexts.
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.61
Discourse analysts also investigate how language is used, either

consciously or subconsciously, to convey ideology. Findings from this
research, which is sometimes referred to as Critical Discourse Analysis, have
direct applications in the political arena. One of the most widely used models
of Critical Discourse Analysis is proposed by Fairclough (2003). This model
combines a focus on the internal properties of texts (i.e. the uses that they
make of grammar, semantics, lexis and phonology) with a focus on their
external properties (i.e. the relations that they have with more general social
practices). Critical discourse analysts are interested in what speech functions
are prominent in the texts, how people and ideas are represented, and what
kind of stance or attitude is conveyed. Drawing on this information, they
attempt to identify what the writer is trying to do with the text, and how he or
she is using the text to represent the world. Fairclough’s model assumes that
no discourse can be completely neutral, and that a speaker’s or writer’s
language choices convey particular ideologies, even at very microscopic
levels.
Applied Linguistics and Forensic Linguistics

For lots of people, the word forensic will evoke images of white-coated
scientists conducting lab tests on guns to see if they’ve recently been fired or
dusting for fingerprints at the scene of a murder – the stuff of TV shows like
CSI or Waking the Dead . Although in the USA the term forensics is
normally associated with criminal investigation, it is used more broadly in
the UK to refer to any activity or process related to the law enforcement and
justice systems. In this sense, forensic linguists are those who study or
interpret language use in the legal process, from crime scene to courtroom,
either in the pursuit of justice or for general or applied linguistic scholarship.
Forensic linguistics is a booming sub-field of applied linguistics, with
international professional organizations, journals, research centres and
conferences (see Coulthard and Johnson, 2007: 5–7). From its roots in
English language scholarship in the 1960s, it is now fast becoming a truly
global area of scholarship and professional practice. According to a list from
2007 (Blackwell, 2008), the subject is taught at over forty institutions in
more than fifteen countries, from Hong Kong to Kenya, Malaysia to Malta,
Israel to Australia. In some it may be a single course on legal language in a
law program; in others it may be a complete master’s degree. In the couple of
years since that list was compiled, new courses have opened in the Czech
Republic, Singapore and beyond.
Legal language, or ‘jargon’ as it is sometimes called, can be extremely
difficult for the lay person to understand. This can lead to communication
difficulties that have disastrous consequences for those involved. Linguists
working in this area are interested in helping people to understand this jargon
so that they do not ‘trip up’ linguistically and end up in prison. In a related
field of study, which is sometimes referred to as forensic linguistics,
researchers use linguistic tools to identify, for example, the likely authorship
of blackmail notes, suicide notes and disputed plagiarism cases. Their
evidence is sometimes used in court to establish whether or not it is likely
that a person accused of writing for instance a blackmail letter did in fact
write the letter, on the basis of linguistic comparisons made with other pieces
of writing that they have produced (Eagleson 1994). These comparisons are
based not just on the handwriting itself (if indeed the letter has been
handwritten) but also on the writer’s typical choices of vocabulary,
collocation and phraseological patterning. It is worth noting at this point that
authorship attribution is also well established in historical literary studies.
A well-known case of forensic linguistic intervention, cited by Olsson
(2009), involves an investigation into the disappearance of a teenage girl
from her home in Yorkshire. Since her disappearance her parents had been
receiving texts from her mobile phone, but the police suspected that they may
have been sent by her abductor in order to create the impression that she had
left home voluntarily. A forensic linguist who was involved with the case
observed that these texts were substantially longer than those that had been
sent by the girl before she disappeared, and there were also significant
differences in style. For example, whereas the girl tended to leave few spaces
in her texts, using phrases like ‘ave2go’ to mean ‘have to go’, the texts that
her parents had been receiving contained gaps between words, as in: ‘ave 2
go’. The texts also contained abbreviations such as ‘didn’t’ and ‘aint’ which
the girl herself tended not to use. They also featured words such as ‘mite’
instead of ‘might’, and ‘of’ instead of ‘off’. The identification of these small
linguistic differences eventually led to the arrest of the girl’s boyfriend. They
were found to be features of his texting style rather than hers; he
subsequently confessed to having faked the texts and was eventually jailed
for her abduction and murder.
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.63
Sometimes forensic linguists have used linguistic data to show that

evidence has been fabricated by the police. They have been able to
demonstrate this by pointing out cases where the police have used words and
expressions that the suspect would never themselves have used. For example,
evidence provided by the eminent forensic linguist Malcolm Coulthard
(1994) was instrumental in securing the release of the ‘Birmingham Six’; a
group of innocent men who had been wrongfully imprisoned for planting a
terrorist bomb in the centre of the second largest city in the UK. Coulthard
was able to establish that the so-called ‘confessions’ used to secure the
convictions of these men had been fabricated by the police by pointing out a
number of features of the language in the confessions that are characteristic
of written rather than spoken discourse, and that would never have been used
by these men.
EXER CI SE 3
1) There are two interrelated strands of work in language teaching, how

language shoould be taught and what kind of language should be taught.
What are the focuses of the first strand?
2) What is Widdowson and Brumfit’s view of language learning?
3) What is the main difference between the model of communicative
competence proposed by Celce-Murcia et. al (1995) and the model of
communicative competence proposed by Cecle-Murcia (2007)?
4) What is the main difference between linguistic competence and
formulaic competence?
5) One approach that is commonly used in analyzing discourse, especially
spoken discourse, is ethnography of speaking proposed by Hymes.
Provide your explanation about this approach.
S UM MAR Y
In this chapter we have looked at just a few of the ways in which

applied linguistic research has had a real impact in different walks of life
beyond the realms of academia. As we have seen, this desire to engage
with – and be accountable to – the wider public is one of the hallmarks
of applied linguistics as a field of study, and is one of the main reasons
why applied linguistics is such a dynamic and exciting field to be

involved in. This is not to say that applied linguistics is a purely practical
endeavor, however. On the contrary, applied linguistics remains an
academic subject first and foremost, and in the next module we will take
a closer look at what studying applied linguistics at university level
actually involves.

language should be taught and what kind of language should be taught.
What are the focuses of the second strand?
2) What is Richards’ view of communicative language teaching?
3) Explain some variables included in sociocultural competence!
4) Why is discourse competence important in applied linguistics?
5) What do you understand about forensic linguistics
X 100%

 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.65
unit.

Answer Key
Exercise 1:
1) After reading several definitions of applied linguistics you find that most
of them are similar. Why do you think most of them are similar?
Answer:
Becuase most of the difinitions of applied linguistics deal with the
interdisciplinary field that covers or involves not only linguistics but also
other fields like sociology, psychology, anthropology, communication,
education, politics, law, computer science, and many other field. Almost
all definitons of applied linguistics deals with the real or practical
problems involving language.
2) State your own definition of applied linguistics!

Answer:
The answer will vary, but the definition proposed should include at the
keywords such as application, interdisciplinary field, real or practical
problem involving language.
3) Many people tend to agree with the inclusive or broad definition of

applied linguistics. What are the advantages of using the broad
defintion?
Answer:
There are two advantages of using broad definition. First, it makes
applied linguistics different from other branches of linguistics by
focusing its orientation towards language-related problems, and it
implies that the work in applied linguistics can have some impact upon
those problems, potentially influencing how decisions are made about
them. Second, it is also general enough to encompass the many disparate
activities and areas of enquiry that call themselves applied linguistics.
4) What is the relationship between linguistics and applied linguisitcs?

Answer:
Looking at the term applied linguistics literally, many people say that
applied linguistics is the application of linguistic theories. This opinion is
supported by Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 32) who state that many
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.67
people might think that a definition of applied linguistics would follow

on quite naturally as another sub-discipline of general linguistics,
presumably like applied physics follows from pure physics. Applied
physics could be defined as ‘physics applied for practical use’. By
analogy, then, the term ‘applied linguistics’ should refer to the
application of general linguistics to practical use in additional language
teaching, translation, speech therapy, etc.
Another opinion says that there three positions to explain their
relationship. First, applied linguistics, because linguistics is part of its
name, is linked to linguistics, which is sometimes referred to as the
‘parent’ discipline. The literal interpretation of applied linguistics as
‘linguistics applied’ reinforces this view. From this perspective,
linguistics is the authoritative source for all that is needed to meet the
aims of applied linguistics. The second view is known as ‘autonomous
applied linguistics.’ Autonomous applied linguistics sees applied
linguistics as at least semiautonomous, if not completely autonomous,
from linguistics or any source discipline and allows that anyone can be
an applied linguist. While acknowledging that linguistics may be part of
applied linguistics, practitioners do not rely exclusively on linguistics. A
third view is known as the ‘applied linguistics’ position, so called
because applied linguists are linguists engaged in application. It is
distinguished from other views in its recognition that the knowledge and
skills of a linguist are inadequate to the task of solving problems related
to the uses and users of language. To address this inadequacy, the
applied linguist calls upon the skills and knowledge of other
professionals both inside and outside the academic world.
5) What is the main difference between Applied Linguistics and Linguistics

Applied?
Answer:
Following the opinion from Davies and Elder, we can say that Applied
Linguistics (AL) looks outward, beyond language in an attempt to
explain, perhaps even ameliorate social problems, while Linguistics
Applied (LA) looks inward, concerned not to solve language problems
“in the real world” but to explicate and test theories about language
itself. So LA uses language data to develop our linguistic knowledge
about language, while AL studies a language problem with a view to
correcting it. Applied Linguistics is a coherent activity which theorizes

through speculative and empirical investigations real-world problems in
which language is a central issue. They intend to offer a coherent
account of applied linguistics as an independent and coherent discipline,
which seeks to marry practical experience and theoretical understanding
of language development and language in use.
Exercise 2:
1) Davies and Elder (2004) classify aa wide range of topics into two broad
categories, namely the topics that belong to linguistics applied and the
topics that belong to applied linguistics. Mentions some topics that
belong to linguistics applied and the topics that belong to applied
linguistics. Provide your reasons for this classification.
Answer:
Some topics that are classified into Linguistics-Applied are language
descriptions, lexicography, second language acquisition, language
corpora, discourse analysis, assessing language attitude, language
attrition, language, thought and culture, conversation analysis, language
and law, language and gender, language and politics, and stylistics.
Some topics that are classified into applied linguistics are native speaker
in applied linguistics, language minorities, second language learning,
literacy studies, fashions in language teaching methodology, Computer
Assisted Language Learning (CALL), language for specific purposes,
bilingual education, language maintenance, language planning, language
testing, and critical applied linguistics.
The classification is based on the extent of the use of linguistics in
solving problems related to each topic. If the involvement of the
linguistic theories is greater, then we classify the topic into linguistics
applied. On the other hand, the involvement of the other fields, such as
education, sosiology, computer science, is greater, we classify the topic
into applied linguistics.
2) Language teaching methodology is one of the areas in applied linguistics

that are commonly discussed and becomes one of the most important
topics in applied linguistics. How is the theory of grammar treated
language teaching methodology?
Answer:
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Theories of grammar come and go with monotonous regularity. There is

ongoing debate about the role of explicit grammar teaching in the
language classroom, and this has been a fruitful area for a great deal of
applied linguistic research. Although there remain a number of different
positions on this question, the general consensus is that language learners
do benefit from having their attention drawn to target language structures
and patterns, but that the teaching of rigid ‘grammar rules’ can
sometimes do more harm than good as they do not accurately describe
the way the language actually works.
3) Find as mush as information about audiolinual method. Then answer the

following questions!
The teacher wants his/her students to be able to use the target
language communicatively so that they need to overlearn the target
language, to learn it automatically without stopping to think. The
student achieve this by forming new habits in the target language.
The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the
language behavior of the students and responsible for providing the
students with a good model for imitation. Students are imitators of
teacher’s model. They follow the teacher’s directions and respond as
accurately and as rapidly as possible.
- What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
New vocabulary and structural pattern are presented through dialog
and the dialogs are learned through imitation and repetition. Drills
are conducted based on the patterns present in the dialog. Grammar
is induced from the examples given and explicit grammar rules are
not provided.
- What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature
- There is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when
students take different role in dialogs but this interaction is teacher-
directed and most of the interaction between teacher and students is
initiated by the teacher.
The target language is used in the classroom. Not the students’

native language because the habits of the native language interfere
with the students’ attempts to master the target language.
4) What are the main differences between grammatical syllabus and

functional syllabus?
Answer:
The grammatical syllabus focuses on the ordering of grammatical
structures from the simplest to the most complex. Vocabulary and
grammar tend to be treated as separate phenomena and the language
presented tends to be somewhat artificial, in order to allow for the
systematic introduction of grammar ‘rules’.
Functional syllabus is the syllabus that is ordered according to lists of
functions and notions which the syllabus designer deems relevant to
learners at a particular level. Functions are the ‘communicative
purposes’ for which language is used and include things such as
‘advising’ or ‘persuading’, and notions are the contexts in which these
functional communicative acts take place.
5) Explain the types of language test based on the purposes of conducting

the test!
Answer:
- Achievement test is the test used to measure students’ progress on a
certain type of learning process.
- Proficiency test is the test used to measure someone’s performance
regardless of any training or learning process he/she has followed.
- Placement test is the test used to position the students in the
appropriate level of language training.
- Diagnostic test is the test used to find the strengths and weaknesses
of the students.
6) What is language for specific purposes?

Answer:
Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) is generally used to refer to the
teaching and research of language in relation to the communicative
needs of speakers of a second language in facing a particular workplace,
academic, or professional context. In such contexts language is used for
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.71
a limited range of communicative events. For example, in a university

context, spoken language is typically used by students in events such as
participating in seminars and tutorials, presenting papers, and asking and
answering questions in class. Analysis of language in such events
generally reveals that language is used in constrained and fairly
predictable ways.
7) What is the difference between English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

and English for Occupational Purposes?
Answer:
A major sub-branch of LSP is English for Academic Purposes (EAP),
whose main aim is to help prepare international students for study at
English-speaking universities. According to Groom and Littlemore
(2011: 18), researchers in this area study the types of language that are
used in lectures, seminars and written papers across the range of
disciplines that are offered at universities where English is the medium
of instruction. They are also interested in studying how the types of
language used vary across different disciplines, and across the different
spoken and written genres of higher education (e.g. lectures, seminars,
research articles, textbooks, argumentative essays, laboratory reports,
etc.). They also investigate the effectiveness of different modes of
delivery, including for example team teaching with subject lecturers.
Related to this is the field of academic literacy. The focus here is more
on native speakers of the language who for one reason or another may
not be familiar with the linguistic conventions that are common in
academic discourse. Again the focus is on describing and teaching or
critiquing these conventions in order to enhance student learning levels
in higher education.
8) Provide your explanation about a three-part framework for

understanding how education in multiple languages is commonly
organized!
Answer:
The three-part framework consists of (1) language-based, (2) content-
based and (3) context based. These ways of looking at programs are not
mutually exclusive, of course. To some extent, all programs must take
into account the language and subject matter learning needs of their
students, as well as the contextual features and constraints of the larger

context in which they are based. We argue that much more can be
learned about particular schools and programs by examining them from
all three frames.
9) What do you know about the different types of planning?

Answer:
There are three different types of planning. The first one is status
planning. Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language
or variety to functional domain within a society, thus affecting the status,
or standing, of a language. The second one is corpus planning. Corpus
planning refers to the prescriptive intervention in the forms of a
language, whereby planning decisions are made to engineer changes in
the structure of the language. Three groups of corpus planning are
graphisation, standardization, and modernization. The third one is
acquisition planning. Acquisition planning is a type of language planning
in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence
aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy
through education
10) What is sociolinguistics?

Answer:
Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society.
The focus is on variation in the way people use language as well as on
language change. Researchers in this area are interested in how people
use language to create and maintain social structures and hierarchies.
They also look at the role of language in creating and maintaining a
person’s identity.
Exercise 3:
What are the focuses of the first strand?
Answer:
The focus of the first strand is on how language is best presented to
learners and what kinds of activities are most conducive to language
learning. In this case, we find several approaches and methods used by
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.73
the teachers in teaching language, especially in teaching second or

foreign language. We recognize grammatical translation method as one
of the oldest language teaching methods, direct method, and audiolingual
method. We also recognize some alternative approaches and methods in
the twentieth century. They are the natural approach, total physical
response, the silent way, community language learning, and
suggestopedia. Some current approaches and method in language
teaching are communicative language teaching (CLT), content based
instruction and content and language integrated teaching (CLIL), whole
language, competency based language teaching, task based language
teaching, text based instruction, the lexical approach, multiple
inteligences, and cooperative language teaching.
2) What is Widdowson and Brumfit’s view of language learning?

Answer:
Language learning should not just be about learning grammar rules and
vocabulary, but should focus on teaching learners how to use the
language that they have learned to express themselves effectively, and to
understand how linguistic meanings relate to the social and situational
contexts in which they occur.
3) What is the main difference between the model of communicative

competence proposed by Celce-Murcia et. al (1995) and the model of
communicative competence proposed by Cecle-Murcia (2007)?
Answer:
Celce-Murcia et.al. (1995) say that the components of communicative
competence are linguistic competence, socio-cultural competence,
actional competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.
Discourse competence is the center of communicative competence, while
strategic competences function as ways to achieve other competencies.
The following figure describes the interrelation among the five
competencies.
Socio-
cultural
Competence
Discourse
Competence
Linguistic Actional
Strategic
Competence
Celce-Murcia (2007) revises the model of communicative competence that

Celce-Murcia et.al. (1995) propose. She adds one more component into the
diagram. The new component is the formulaic competence. The following
figure shows the revised model of communicative competence proposed by
Celce-Murcia.
Strategic
Competence
Socio-cultural
Competence
Discourse Formulaic
Linguistic
Competence
Interactional
Competence
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.75
4) What is the main difference between linguistic competence and

formulaic competence?
Answer:
Linguistic competence refers to one’s knowledge of the language itself,
and includes knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, syntax and
phonology, as well as knowledge about how the different parts of a text
fit together and are generally organised. Linguistic competence includes
four types of knowledge:
– phonological: includes both segmentals (vowels, consonants,
syllable types) and suprasegmentals (prominence/stress, intonation,
and rhythm).
– lexical: knowledge of both content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives)
and unction words (pronouns, determiners, prepositions, verbal
auxiliaries, etc.).
– morphological: parts of speech, grammatical inflections, productive
derivational processes.
– syntactic: constituent/phrase structure, word order (both canonical
and marked), basic sentence types, modification, coordination,
subordination, embedding.
Formulaic competence is the counterbalance to linguistic competence.
Linguistic competence entails the recursive, open-ended systems listed
above. Formulaic competence refers to those fixed and prefabricated
chunks of language that speakers use heavily in everyday interactions.
Formulaic competence inncludes:
• routines: fixed phrases like of course, all of a sudden and formulaic
chunks like How do you do? I’m fine, thanks; how are you?
• collocations: verb-object: spend money, play the piano, adverb-
adjective: statistically significant, mutually intelligible; adjective-
noun: tall building, legible handwriting
• idioms: e.g., to kick the bucket = to die; to get the ax = to be
fired/terminated
• lexical frames: e.g., I’m looking for ______________. See you
(later/tomorrow/ next week, etc)
5) One approach tht is commonly used in analyzing discourse, especially

spoken discourse, is ethnography of speaking proposed pby Hymes.
Provide your explanation about this approach.
Answer
Ethnographic approaches to conversation are concerned with ‘the
situation and uses, the patterns and functions, of speaking as an activity
in its own right. Hymes developed a schema for analysing context that
has the ‘speech event’ in which language occurs as its prime unit of
analysis. Speech events include interactions such as a conversation at a
party or ordering a meal, etc. Any speech event comprises several
components and these are listed in the grid in the following table. With
each letter acting as an abbreviation for a different component of
communication, Hymes’s grid has become known as the ‘SPEAKING
grid’.
S Setting scene temporal and physical circumstances subjective

definition of an occasion
P Participant speaker/sender/addressor hearer/receiver/audience/
addressee
K Key tone, manner
I Instrumentalities channel (verbal and non-verbal; physical forms of
speech drawn from community repertoires)
N Norms norms of interaction and interpretation specific properties
attached to speaking interpretations of norms within cultural belief
system
Key to Formative Tests
Formative Test 1:
1) Study the following definitions of applied linguistics carefully and
explain the similarities and the differences among these three definitions!
‘Applied linguistics’ (AL) is one of several academic disciplines
focusing on how language is acquired and used in the modern world. It is
a somewhat eclectic field that accommodates diverse theoretical
approaches, and its interdisciplinary scope includes linguistic,
psychological and educational topics. Although the field’s original focus
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.77
was the study of foreign/second languages, this has been extended to

cover first language issues, and nowadays many scholars would consider
sociolinguistics and pragmatics to be part of the AL rubric. Recently, AL
conferences and journals have reflected the growing influence of
psychology-based approaches, which in turn is a reflection of the
increasing prevalence of cognitive (neuro)science in the study of human
mental functions. (Zoltán Dörnyei:Professor of Psycholinguistics,
University of Nottingham)
Applied linguistics is a discipline which explores the relations between

theory and practice in language with particular reference to issues of
language use. It embraces contexts in which people use and learn
languages and is a platform for systematically addressing problems
involving the use of language and communication in real-world
situations. Applied linguistics draws on a range of disciplines, including
linguistics. In consequence, applied linguistics has applications in
several areas of language study, including language learning and
teaching, the psychology of language processing, discourse analysis,
stylistics, corpus analysis, literacy studies and language planning and
policies. (Dawn Knight Research Associate, University of Nottingham)
Applied linguistics is a broadly interdisciplinary field concerned with
promoting our understanding of the role language plays in human life. At
its centre are theoretical and empirical investigations of real-world issues
in which language plays a leading role. Applied linguistics focuses on
the relationship between theory and practice, using the insights gained
from the theory-practice interface for solving language-related problems
in a principled way. (Juliane House: Professor of Foreign Language
Teaching, Universität Hamburg)
2) De Bot (2015) classifies the definitions of applied linguistics in inclusive

and exclusive definitions. The inclusive definition is the open one in line
with the range of topics at the conferences of the Association
Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée (AILA), avoiding any risk that
someone would not feel welcome. The exclusive definition is the
restricted definitions, usually proposed by an individual based on his/her
area of expertise. Find two examples of inclusive definitions and two
examples of exclussive definitons and provide the reasons for choosing

the examples.
Answer:
The definition provided by the International Association for Applied
Linguistics (AILA) is an example of the inclusive definitions.
Applied linguistics is ‘an interdisciplinary field of research and practice
dealing with practical problems of language and communication that can
be identified, analyzed or solved by applying available theories, methods
or results of Linguistics or by developing new theoretical and
methodological frameworks in linguistics to work on these problems.
The definition proposed by AILA is classified inclusive because it

covers many different areas like child language acquisition, language
and communication disorders, multilingualism, language testing,
communication in the workplace, and so on.
The second example of the inclusive definition is the definitions

proposed by Davies and Elder (2004):
Applied linguistics is often said to be concerned with solving or at least
ameliorating social problems involving language. The problems applied
linguistics concerns itself with are likely to be: How can we teach
languages better? How can we improve the training of translators and
interpreters? How can we write a valid language examination? How can
we evaluate a school bilingual program? How can we determine the
literacy levels of a whole population? How can we helpfully discuss the
language of a text? What advice can we offer a Ministry of Education on
a proposal to introduce a new medium of instruction? How can we
compare the acquisition of a European and an Asian language? What
advice should we give a defense lawyer on the authenticity of a police
transcript of an interview with a suspect?
(Davies & Elder, 2004: 1)
The definition proposed by Davies and Elder is also classified as the

inclusive definition because it is broad and covers many different areas
like language teaching, translation and interpretation, language
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.79
assessment, bilingualism, literacy, language planning and policy,

language acquisition, language and law, etc.
The first example of exclusive definition is the definition proposed by

Corder (1973):
“Applied linguistics is the utilization of the knowledge about the nature
of language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of the
efficiency of some practical tasks in which language is a central
component”.
The definition is considered exclusive because this definition limits its

scope on the use of knowledge about language in solving practical
problems related to language.
The second example of exclusive definition is the one proposed by

Schmitt and Celce-Murcia:
‘Applied Linguistics is using what we know about (a) language, (b) how
it is learned, and (c) how it is used, in order to achieve some purpose or
solve some problem in the real world’
This definition is considered exclusive because the primary concerns of

Applied Linguistics have been second language acquisition theory,
second language pedagogy and the interface between the two.

the field of applied linguistics. One of them is: A teacher of English as a
foreign language wonders why groups of learners sharing the same first
language regularly make a particular grammatical mistake that learners
from other language backgrounds do not. List at least five questions a
language teacher asks to solve this problem!
4) Study the following language problem carefully and then provide some
questions that should be answered to solve the problem.
Many teachers of English as a second or foreign language will be

familiar with errors such as the following in their students’ written work:
A teacher has set an essay entitled ‘Traffic in Jakarta’. A student writes
the title at the top of the page:
Traffic in Jakarta
And then begins the first paragraph of the essay:
The teacher crosses out the first it and puts traffic instead.
Traffic
Another student writes:

cities…etc
The teacher crosses out it and puts traffic instead.
Traffic
cities…etc
5) Why do many people view applied linguistics as a sister (rather than a

sub-) discipline of general linguistics?
Answer:
Because they view applied linguistics as a discipline concerned with the
role language and languages play in perceived problems of
communication, social identity, education, health, economics, politics
and justice, and in the development of ways to remediate or resolve these
problems. Scholars in this view address an increasingly broad range of
language-related issues. They draw on theory, findings and method from
many other scholarly fields aside from general linguistics, including
education, anthropology, sociology, public policy, health sciences,
information technology and others. Thus they differ largely in terms of
the scope of objectives, methods and inputs.
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.81
6) What is the main focus of applied linguistics in Australia?

Answer:
Following McNamara’s opinion, we can say that Australian applied
linguistics took as its target the applied linguistics of modern languages
and the languages of immigrants, rather than of English, especially the
considerable work in the applications of linguistics to the development
of teaching materials and writing systems for aboriginal languages.
English in general came on the applied linguistics rather late, and it was
in the context of mother tongue teaching and of the teaching of English
to immigrants (ESL) rather than as a foreign language (EFL). What has
been distinctive about applied linguistics in Australia has been its
concern for language in education, both with regard to new migrant
languages (and linking with language maintenance) and with regard to
literacy in English.
Formative Test 2:
1) Schmitt and Celce-Murcia (2010) mention 16 topic areas illustrated by
the call for papers for the American Association of Applied Linguistics
(AAAL) 2010 conference. Those topic areas include:
- sociolinguistics
Classify these topics in the ones that belong to linguistics applied and the
one that belong to applied linguistics.
Answer:
There may be many possible classification. The classification depends
on the degree of the involvement of linguistic theories in each of the
topics. One of the classifications are as follow:
Linguistics applied:
Applied linguistics:
- sociolinguistics
2) Find as mush as information about total physical response. Then answer

Teachers using TPR believe in the importance of having their
students enjoy their experience in learning to communicate in a
foreign language.
The teacher is the director of all students behavior. The students are
imitators of teacher’s nonverbal model.
- What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.83
The teacher interacts with the whole group and with individual
students. Initially the teacher speaks and students respond it through
action, then students become more verbal and the teacher responds
nonverbally
- How are the feeling of the students dealt with?
TPR is develop to reduce stress and anxiety when studying foreign
language. So learners are allow to speak when they are ready and
forcing them to speak will create anxiety. One way to relieve
anxiety is to create learning as enjoyable as possible.
- How is the language viewed? How is the culture viewed?
Oral language is the primary one and culture is the life style of peple
who speak the language natively
- What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are
emphasized?
Vocabulary and grammatical structure are emphasized.
Understanding spoken language is emphasized over written
language.
TPR is usually introduced in the student’s native language. After the
introduction the native language is rarely used because meanig is
made clear through body movement.
3) What are the main differences between grammatical syllabus and task
based syllabus?
Answer:
The grammatical syllabus focuses on the ordering of grammatical
structures from the simplest to the most complex. Vocabulary and
grammar tend to be treated as separate phenomena and the language
presented tends to be somewhat artificial, in order to allow for the
systematic introduction of grammar ‘rules’.
The task-based syllabus emphasizes the successful completion, through
interaction and communication between learners, of a variety of tasks
which are preselected by the teacher or syllabus designer for their
suitability in promoting the process of acquisition, or for their relevance
to learners’ needs, rather than the learning of pre-selected linguistic
content.
4) Explain some characteristics of a good test!

Answer:
The first characteristic of a good test is validity. The is is called valid
when is measures what it supposes to measure. The second characteristic
is reliability. The test is reliable when it measures consistently. The third
characteristic is practicality. The test is called practical when it is easy to
administer, does not spend a lot of budget, and is easy to score.
5) What is the main focus of language for specific purposes?

Answer:
The main focus of Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP) is at the
features of different types of language with a view to teaching learners
who are going to have to use these specific types of language in their
everyday lives. The groups of people who use specific types of language
for a common purpose are sometimes referred to as discourse
communities, and the aim of researchers in the area of LSP is to
investigate how teachers can best help students to enter these
communities.
LSP courses usually focus on the specific language needs of fairly
homogeneous groups of learners in regard to one particular context
referred to as the target situation. For example, LSP courses may involve
a group of language learners who all intend to study at university, work
as engineers, or aim to work as nurses in the future. The aim of such
courses is to help the learners deal with the linguistic demands of their
academic, workplace, or professional target situations.
6) What is bilingual education?

Answer:
Bilingual education has multiple meanings. First, bilingual education is
loosely used to refer to schools attended by bilingual children, such as
Greek and Gujarati children in U.K. schools. Bilingualism is not fostered
in this school because the aim is to shift the child rapidly from the home,
minority language to the dominant, majority language. Second, the term
refers to children who are allowed to use their home language in the
classroom for only a short period (e.g., one or two years) until they
switch to the majority language (called transitional bilingual education).
Third, bilingual education appears a more appropriate label for schools
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.85
in which students learn through two languages in the classroom. For

example, there are dual language schools in the United States that teach
students through Spanish for one day and the next day through English.
7) What is language planning?

Answer:
Language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the function,
structure, or acquisition of a language or language variety within a
speech community. It is often associated with government planning, but
it is also used by a variety of non-governmental organizations. The goal
of language planning differs depending on the nation or organization, but
generally includes making planning decisions and possibly changes for
the benefit of communication. Planning or improving effective
communication can also lead to other social changes, such as language
shift or assimilation.
8) What is forensic linguistics?

Answer:
Forensic linguistics broadly deals with the relationship between language
and the law. It looks at how language is used in the legal process,
focusing on the discourse of the police, lawyers, judges and legal
documents, and courtroom interaction. Under its narrower definition,
forensic linguistics refers to the examination of linguistic evidence in
court. It is used in cases of disputed authorship of written texts (such as
police statements) and where there are issues of plagiarism. Forensic
linguists provide information that helps jurors decide whether a
particular person is likely to have been the author of a particular text.
They also study cases where inaccurate translations of statements made
by nonnative speakers have led to miscarriages of justice, and are
therefore able to advise on the treatment of people who may have
difficulties with the language of the legal system.
9) What do you know about translation and translation studies?

Answer:
Translation has several meanings. First, it may refer to the general field
introduced in linguistics department. Second, it may refer to the product,
that is the text that has been translated. Third, it may refer to the process,
that is the act of producing the translation, also known as translating. The
process of translation between two different written languages involves
the translator changing an original written text, known as source text, in
the original verbal language, known as source language, into a written
text, the target text, in a different verbal language, known as target
language.
Translation study is an academic research area or the discipline that
concerns itself with the theory and practice of translation. Researchers in
translation studies study the choices that people make when translating
from one language to another. Translation studies scholars are also
interested in studying the impact that translations or collections of
translations have had in the sociocultural situation of the languages
involved. They attempt to use existing theories of translation to predict
what the process of translation is likely to involve for particular pairs of
languages and types of text.
Formative Test 3:
What are the focuses of the second strand?
Answer:
The second strand focuses more on what kind of language should be
taught. Traditionally the grammar components of language classes have
tended to focus on written grammar, but the advent of spoken corpora
has revealed patterns in spoken language that could usefully be taught to
language learners. Recent studies have revealed that spoken language
has its own grammar which differs in places from the grammar of the
written language. The second component is vocabulary. Traditionally,
the main focus of teaching vocabulary was the vocabulary of written
language. But nowadays, vocabulary is taught based on the context.
2) What is Richards’ view of communicative language teaching?

Answer:
Communicative approaches to language teaching differ from previous
approaches to language learning in that they are competency based. The
main focus is on the outcomes of learning. They look at what learners
might be expected to do with the language, and use these to inform the
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.87
ways in which the language is taught. The ultimate goal of

communicative language teaching is to foster the ability not only to
apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form
grammatically correct sentences but also to know the appropriate time
and place to use these sentences and to the appropriate audience.
3) Explain some variables included in sociocultural competence!

Answer:
Sociocultural competence refers to the speaker’s pragmatic knowledge,
i.e. how to express messages appropriately within the overall social and
cultural context of communication. This includes knowledge of language
variation with reference to sociocultural norms of the target language.
Three most crucial variables of sociocultural competence are:
– social contextual factors: the participants’ age, gender, status, social
distance and their relations to each other re: power and affect.
– stylistic appropriateness: politeness strategies, a sense of genres and
registers.
– cultural factors: background knowledge of the target language
group, major dialects/regional differences, and cross cultural
awareness.
4) Why is discourse competence important in applied linguistics?

Answer:
Because discourse analysis enables applied linguists to analyze and
understand real language data, for example, texts written by first and
second language learners, or recordings of the spoken output of second
language learners, or of the interaction between teachers and learners or
among learners themselves in classrooms. It also enables us to
understand better the kinds of discourse that language learners are
exposed to outside the classroom: the language of service encounters in
shops, banks, restaurants, etc., the language of newspapers, the language
of everyday informal conversation. In addition, such analyses can assist
language teachers and materials writers to evaluate language course
books in terms of how closely they are approximate authentic language,
or what needs to be modified when authentic texts are brought into the
classroom. Language testing can also gain a great deal from looking at
real language use as a source of criteria for the evaluation of test

performances.
5) What do you understand about forensic linguistics?

The answer will vary.
 MPBI5104/MODUL 1 1.89
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Module 1

APPLIED LINGUISTICS: AN OVERVIEW

Dr. Refnaldi, M.Litt.

D ear students! Welcome to module 1 concerning an overview of applied

To achieve the objectives academically, the presentation and explanation

is to serve you to be able to understand and have argumentations on the

All right students, do your best and good luck!

THE NATURE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS

The Definitions of Applied Linguistics

The definition proposed by AILA is broad because it covers many different

world problems in which language is a central issue’. Brumfit’s useful and

Applied linguistics is often said to be concerned with solving or at

How can we compare the acquisition of a European and an Asian

When we pay attention to the above examples of questions we begin to

findings and recommendations. In short, Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono see

8. A literary scholar suspects that an anonymous work was in fact written

Figure 1.1: linguistic questions for the solution of a grammatical problem

If we consider another of the problems, that of the dictionary writer looking

Figure 1.2: Linguistic questions for the solution of a lexicographic problem

contribute to this kind of practical undertaking? The title of a paper by

consult experts in language teaching. Thus, this process constitutes applied

Linguistics and Applied Linguistics

in seismology and engineering for the very practical purposes of earthquake

For many, applied linguistics is a sister (rather than a sub-) discipline of

Because of this broad scope, autonomous applied linguistics draws on

(Hall, Smith, and Wicaksono, 2011:16)

It may be that a helpful way of distinguishing between what linguistics

What is ‘Applied’ about Applied Linguistics?

subjects, applied linguistics is in reality closer in spirit to the second type of

Applied Linguistics and Linguistics Applied.

We have learned many difinitions of applied linguistics. These

1) Study the following definitions of applied linguistics carefully and

‘Applied linguistics’ (AL) is one of several academic disciplines

world issues in which language plays a leading role. Applied linguistics

2) De Bot (2015) classifies the definitions of applied linguistics in inclusive

Many teachers of English as a second or foreign language will be

Another student writes:

5) Why do many people view applied linguistics as a sister (rather than a

Feedback and Follow up

Number of correct answer

Category Percentage Meaning and Follow-up

Remember your mastery of the next learning is based on your mastery of

TOPICS IN APLLIED LINGUISTICS

language for specific purposes, (h) bilingual education, (i) language

An applied linguistics textbook entitles Mapping Applied Linguistics: A

Language Teaching Methodology

- What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are

Moreover, Richards and Rodgers (2014), in their 3rd edition of

finding from this research area is that, contrary to expectations, language

Syllabus and Materials Design

The most popular of these four syllabus types is the grammatical/

be somewhat artificial, in order to allow for the systematic introduction of

language aptitude? How do different types of tests (such as dictations, gap-

Language for Specific Purposes

Another major branch of ESP, Business English, endeavors to describe the

Second Language Acquisition

situations, and how bilingualism is best fostered. An interesting observation

Figure 1.4: Three frameworks for understanding bilingual and multilingual

One key way of looking at bilingual and multilingual programs is in