 Parameters of Armature Winding

There are three important parameters of an armature winding of an alternator. These are,
1. Armature resistance Ra
2. Armature leakage reactance XL
3. Reactance corresponding to armature reaction

1. Armature Resistance
Every armature winding has its own resistance. The effective resistance of an armature winding
per phase is denoted as Raph Ω/ph or Ra Ω/ph.
Generally the armature resistance is measured by applying the known d.c. voltage and
measuring the d.c. current through it. The ratio of applied voltage and measured current is the
armature resistance. But due to the skin effect, the effective resistance under a.c. conditions is
more than the d.c. resistance. Generally the effective armature resistance under a.c. conditions
is taken 1.25 to 1.75 times the d.c. resistance.
While measuring the armature resistance, it is necessary to consider how the armature
winding is connected whether in star or delta. Consider a star connected armature winding as
shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Star connected alternator

When the voltage is applied across any two terminals of an armature winding, then the
equivalent resistance is the series combination of the two resistance of two different phase
windings,
... RRY = Resistance between R-Y terminals
= Ra + Ra = 2Ra
where Ra = armature resistance per phase
... Ra = RRY/2 Ω/ph
Thus in star connected alternator, the armature resistance per phase is half of the resistance
observed across any two line terminals.
Consider the delta connected alternator as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Delta connected alternat

When voltage is applied across any two terminals, then one phase winding appears in parallel
with series combination of other two.
Hence the equivalent resistance across the terminals is parallel combination of the resistance
Ra and 2Ra.
... RRY Ra | | Ra Ω/ph
Thus in delta connected alternator, the armature resistance per phase is to be calculated
from the equivalent resistance observed across any two line terminals.

2. Armature Leakage Reactance

When armature carries a current, it produces its own flux. Some part of this flux completes its
path through the air around the conductors itself. Such a flux is called leakage flux. This is shown
in the Fig. 3.

Fig.3 Armature leakage flux

Note : This leakage flux makes the armature winding inductive in nature. So winding possesses a
leakage reacatnce, in addition to the resistance.
So if 'L' is the leakage inductance of the armature winding per phase, then leakage reactance
per phase is given by XL = 2 π f L Ω/ph. The value of leakage reactance is much higher than the
armature resistance. Similar to the d.c. machines, the value of armature resistance is very-very
small

3. Armature Reaction
When the load is connected to the alternator, the armature winding of the alternator carries a
current. Every current carrying conductor produces its own flux so armature of the alternator
also produces its own flux, when carrying a current. So there are two fluxes present in the air
gap, one due to armature current while second is produced by the filed winding called main flux.
The flux produced by the armature is called armature flux.
Note: So effect of the armature flux on the main flux affecting its value and the distribution is
called armature reaction.
The effect of the armature flux not only depends on the magnitude of the current flowing
through the armature winding but also depends on the nature of the power factor of the load
connected to the alternator.
Now we will study the effect of nature of the load power factor on the armature reaction.

1 Unity Power Factor Load

Consider a purely resistive load connected to the alternator, having unity power factor. As
induced e.m.f. Eph drives a current of Iaph and load power factor is unity, Eph and Iph are in phase
with each other.
 If Φf is the main flux produced by the field winding responsible for producing Eph then Eph lags
Φf by 90o .
Now current through armature Ia, produces the armature flux say Φa. So flux Φa and Ia are
always in the same direction.
This relation between Φf , Φa, Eph and Iaph can be shown in the phasor diagram. (See Fig. 1)

Fig. 1 Armature reaction for unity power factor

It can be seen from the phasor diagram that there exists a phase difference of 90o between
the armature flux and the main flux. The waveforms for the two fluxes are also shown in the Fig.
1. From the waveforms it can be seen that the two fluxes oppose each other on the left half of
each pole while assist each other on the right half of each pole. Hence average flux in the air gap
remains constant but its distribution gets distrorted.
Note : Hence such distorting effect of armature reaction under unity p.f. condition of the load is
called cross magnetising effect of armature reaction.
Due to such distortion of the flux, there is small drop in the terminal voltage of the alternator.

2 Zero Lagging Power Factor Load

Consider a purely inductive load connected to the alternator having zero lagging power factor.
This indicates that Iaph driven by Eph lags Eph by 90o which is the power factor angle Φ.
Induced e.m.f. Eph lags main flux Φf by 90o while Φa is in the same direction as that of Ia. So
the phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.
It can be seen from the phasor diagram that the armature flux and the main flux are exactly
in opposite direction to each other.
Note : So armature flux tries to cancel the main flux. Such an effect of armature reaction is called
demagnetising effect of the armature reaction.
As this effect causes reduction in the main flux, the terminal voltage drops. This drop in the
terminal voltage is more than the drop corresponding to the unity p.f. load.

Fig. 2 Armature reaction for zero lagging p.f. load

3 Zero Leading Power Factor Load
Consider a purely capacitive load connected to the alternator having zero leading power
factor. This means that armature current Iaph driven by Eph, leads Eph by 90o, which is the power
factor angle Φ.
Induced e.m.f. Eph lags Φf by 90o while Iaph and Φa are always in the same direction. The phasor
diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Armature reaction for zero leading p.f. load

It can be seen from the phasor diagram and waveforms shown in the Fig. 2, the armature flux
and the main field flux are in the same direction i.e. they are helping each other. This results into
the addition in main flux.
Note : Such an effect of armature reaction due to which armature flux assists field flux is called
magnetising effect of the armature reaction.
As this effect adds the flux to the main flux, greater e.m.f. gets induced in the armature.
Hence there is increase in the terminal voltage for leading power factor loads.
For intermediate power factor loads i.e. between zero lagging and zero leading the armature
reaction is partly cross magnetising and partly demagnetising for lagging power factor loads or
partly magnetising for leading power factor loads.

4 Armature Reaction Reactance (Xar)

In all the conditions of the load power factors, there is change in the terminal voltage due to
the armature reaction. Mainly the practical loads are inductive in nature, due to demagnetising
effect of armature reaction, there is reduction in the terminal voltage. Now this drop in the
voltage due to the interaction of armature and main flux. This drop is not across any physical
element.
But to quantify the voltage drop due to the armature reaction, armature winding is assumed
to have a fictitious reactance. This fictitious reactance of the armature is called armature reaction
reactance denoted as Xar Ω/ph. And the drop due to armature reaction can be accounted as the
voltage drop across this reactance as Iar Xar.
Note: The value of this reactance changes as the load power factor changes, as armature reaction
depends on the load power factor.

 Concepts of Synchronous Reactance and Impedance

The sum of fictitious armature reaction reactance accounted for considering armature reaction
effect and the leakage reactance of the armature called synchronous reactance of the
alternator demoted as Xs.
So Xs = XL + Xar Ω/ph
As both XL and Xar are ohmic values per phase, synchronous reactance is also specified as
ohms per phase.
Now from this, it is possible to define an impedance of the armature winding. Such an
impedance obtained by combining per phase values of synchronous reactance and armature
resistance is called synchronous impedance of the alternator denoted as Zs.
So Zs = Ra + j Xs Ω/ph
And | Zs | = √ (Ra2 + j (Xs)2 )
For getting a standard frequency, alternator is to be driven at synchronous speed. So word
synchronous used in specifying the reactance and impedance is referred to the working speed of
the alternator. Generally impedance of the winding is constant but in case of alternator,
synchronous reactance depends on the load and its power factor condition, hence synchronous
impedance also varies with the load and its power factor conditions.

 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator or Circuit model of synchronous machine

From the previous discussion it is clear that in all there are three important parameters of
armature winding namely armature resistance Ra, leakage reactance XL and armature reaction
reactance Xar. If Eph is induced e.m.f. per phase on no load condition then on load it changes to
E'due to armature reaction as shown in the equivalent circuit. As current flows through the
armature, there are two voltage drops across Ra and XL as Ia Ra and respectively. Hence finally
terminal voltage Vt is less than E' by the amount equal to the drops across Ra and XL.

Fig. 1 Equivalent circuit

In practice, the leakage reactance XL and the armature reaction reactance Xar are combined
to get synchronous reactance Xs.
Hence the equivalent circuit of an alternator gets modified as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 2 Equivalent circuit of an alternator

Thus in the equivalent circuit shown,
Eph = induced e.m.f. per phase on no load
Vtph = terminal voltage per phase on load
Iaph = armature resistance per phase
Zs = synchronous impedance per phase
Voltage Equation of an Alternator
In a d.c. generators, we have seen that due to the armature resistance drop and brush drop it is
not possible to have all the induced e.m.f. available across the load. The voltage available to the
load is called terminal voltage. The concept is same in case of alternators. The entire induced
e.m.f. can not be made available to the load due to the various internal voltage drops. So the
voltage available to the load is called terminal voltage denoted as. In case of three phase
alternators as all the phases are identical, the equations and the phasor diagrams are expressed
on per phase basis.
So if Eph is the induced e.m.f. per phase in the alternator, there are following voltage drops
occur in an alternator.
i) The drop across armature resistance Ia Ra both Ia and Ra are per phase values.
ii) The drop across synchronous reactance Ia Xs, both Ia and Xs are per phase values.
After supplying these drops, the remaining voltage of Eph is available as the terminal voltage
Vph.
Note : Now drop Ia Ra is always in phase with Ia due to a resistive drop while current Ia lags by
90owith respect to drop Ia Xs as it is a drop across purely inductive reactance.
Hence all these quantities can not be added or subtracted algebraically but must be added
or subtracted vectorially considering their individual phases. But we can write a voltage equation
in its phasor from as,

This is called voltage equation of an alternator.

From this equation, we can draw the phasor diagram for various load power factor conditions
and establish the relationship between Eph and Vph, in terms of armature current i.e. load current
and the power factor cos(Φ).

 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator

The above voltage equation is to be realised using phasor diagrams for various load power
factor conditions. For drawing the phasor diagram consider all per phase values and remember
following steps.
Steps to draw the phasor diagram :
1. Choose current as a reference phasor.
2. Now if load power factor is cosΦ it indicates that angle between V ph and Ia is Φ as Vph is the
voltage available to the load.
So show the phasor Vph in such a way that angle between Vph and Ia is Φ. For lagging 'Φ',
Iashould lag Vph and for leading 'Φ', Ia should lead Vph. For unity power factor load Φ is zero, so
Vphand Ia are in phase.
3. Now the drop Ia Ra is a resistive drop and hence will always be in phase with Ia. So phasor
Ia Radirection will be always same as Ia, i.e. parallel to Ia. But as it is to be added to Vph, Ia Ra phasor
must be drawn from the tip of the Vph phasor drawn.
4. The drop Ia Xs is drop across purely inductive reactance. In pure inductance, current lags voltage
by 90o. So 'Ia Xs' phasor direction will be always such that Ia will lag Ia Xs phasor by 90o. But this
phasor is to be drawn from the tip of the Ia Ra phasor to complete phasor addition of Vph, Ia Ra and
Ia Xs.
5. Joining the starting point to the terminating point, we get the phasor E ph.
Whatever may be the load power factor, Ia Ra is a resistive drop, will be in phase with Ia while
IaXs is purely inductive drop and hence will be perpendicular to Ia in such a way that Ia will
lag Ia Xsby 90o. This is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

By using the above steps, the phasor diagrams for various load power factor conditions can
be drawn.
1 Lagging Power Factor Load
The power factor of the load is cosΦ lagging so Ia lags Vph by angle Φ. By using steps discussed
above, phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram for lagging p.f. load

To derive the relationship between Eph and Vph, the perpendicular are drawn on the current
phasor from points A and B. These intersect current phasor at points D and E respectively.
. .. (Eph)2 = (OD + DE)2 + (BE - BC)2
. .. (Eph)2 = (Vph cosΦ + Ia Ra)2 + (VphsinΦ + Ia Xs)2

It can be observed that the sign of the Ia Xs is negative as against its positive sign for lagging
p.f. load. This is because Xs consists of Xar i.e. armature reaction reactance. Armature reaction is
demagnetising for lagging while magnetising for leading power factor loads. So sign of Ia Xs is
opposite for lagging and leading p.f. conditions.
2 Unity Poer Fcator Load
The power factor of the load is unity i.e. cosΦ = 1. So Φ = 0, which means Vph is in phase with
Ia. So phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Phasor diagram for unity p.f. load

Consider ΔOBC, for which we can write,

(OC)2 = (OB)2 + (BC)2
... (Eph)2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC)2
... (Eph)2 = (Vph + Ia Ra)2 + (Ia Xs)2

As cosΦ = 1, so sinΦ = 0 hence does not appear in the equation.

Note : The phasor diagrams can be drawn by considering voltage Vph as a reference phasor. But
to derive the relationship, current phasor selected as a reference makes the derivation much
more simplified. Hence current is selected as a reference phasor.
It is clear from the phasor diagram that Vph is less than Eph for lagging and unity p.f. conditions
due to demagnetising and cross magnetising effects of armature reaction. While V ph is more than
Eph for leading p.f. condition due to the magnetising effect of armature reaction.
Thus in general for any power factor condition,
(Eph)2 = ( Vph cos + Ia Ra)2 + (Vph sin Ia Xs)2
+ sign for lagging p.f. loads
- sign for leading p.f. loads
and Vph = per phase rated terminal voltage
Ia = per phase full load armature current
 Determination of the Synchronous Reactance
Synchronous Impedance Method or E.M.F. Method
The method is also called E.M.F. method of determining the regulation. The method requires
following data to calculate the regulation.
1. The armature resistance per phase (Ra).
2. Open circuit characteristics which is the graph of open circuit voltage against the field current.
This is possible by conducting open circuit test on the alternator.
3. Short circuit characteristics which is the graph of short circuit current against field current. This
is possible by conducting short circuit test on the alternator.
Let us see, the circuit diagram to perform open circuit as well as short circuit test on the
alternator. The alternator is coupled to a prime mover capable of driving the alternator at its
synchronous speed. The armature is connected to the terminals of a switch. The other terminals
of the switch are short circuited through an ammeter. The voltmeter is connected across the lines
to measure the open circuit voltage of the alternator.
The field winding is connected to a suitable d.c. supply with rheostat connected in series. The
field excitation i.e. field current can be varied with the help of this rheostat. The circuit diagram
is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Circuit diagram for open circuit and short circuit test on alternator
1 Open Circuit Test
Procedure to conduct this test is as follows:
i) Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to the synchronous speed of the alternator.
ii) Keeping rheostat in the field circuit maximum, switch on the d.c. supply.
iii) The T.P.S.T switch in the armature circuit is kept open.
iv) With the help of rheostat, field current is varied from its minimum value to the rated value.
Due to this, flux increasing the induced e.m.f. Hence voltmeter reading, which is measuring line
value of open circuit voltage increases. For various values of field current, voltmeter readings are
observed.
 The observation for open circuit test are tabulated as below:
Observation table for open circuit test :

From the above table, graph of (Voc)ph against If is plotted.

Note : This is called open circuit characteristics of the alternator, called O.C.C. This is shown in
the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 O.C.C. and S.C.C. of an alternator

2 Short Circuit Test
After completing the open circuit test observation, the field rheostat is brought to maximum
position, reducing field current to a minimum value. The T.P.S.T switch is closed. As ammeter has
negligible resistance, the armature gets short circuited. Then the field excitation is gradually
increased till full load current is obtained through armature winding. This can be observed on the
ammeter connected in the armature circuit. The graph of short circuit armature current against
field current is plotted from the observation table of short circuit test. This graph is called short
circuit characteristics, S.C.C. This is also shown in the Fig. 2.
Observation table for short circuit test:
 The S.C.C. is a straight line graph passing through the origin while O.C.C. resembles B-H curve
of a magnetic material.
Note: As S.C.C. is straight line graph, only one reading corresponding to full load armature current
along with the origin is sufficient to draw the straight line.

3 Determination of From O.C.C. and S.C.C.

The synchronous impedance of the alternator changes as load condition changes. O.C.C. and
S.C.C. can be used to determine Zs for any load and load p.f. conditions.
In short circuit test, external load impedance is zero. The short circuit armature current is
circulated against the impedance of the armature winding which is Z s. The voltage responsible
for driving this short circuit current is internally induced e.m.f. This can be shown in the
equivalent circuit drawn in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Equivalent circuit on short circuit

From the equivalent circuit we can write,

Zs = Eph/ Iasc
Now value of Iasc is known, which can observed on the alternator. But internally induced e.m.f.
can not be observed under short circuit condition. The voltmeter connected will read zero which
is voltage across short circuit. To determine Zs it is necessary to determine value of E which is
driving Iasc against Zs.
Now internally induced e.m.f. is proportional to the flux i.e. field current If.
Eph α Φ α If ...... from e.m.f. equation
So if the terminal of the alternator are opened without disturbing If which was present at the
time of short circuited condition, internally induced e.m.f. will remain same as E ph. But now
current will be zero. Under this condition equivalent circuit will become as shown in the Fig. 4.

Fig. 4
 It is clear now from the equivalent circuit that as Ia = 0 the voltmeter reading (Voc)ph will be equal
to internally induced e.m.f. (Eph).

This is what we are interested in obtaining to calculate value of Zs. So expression for Zs can be
modified as,

So O.C.C. and S.C.C. can be effectively to calculate Zs.

The value of Zs is different for different values of If as the graph of O.C.C. is nonlinear in
nature.
So suppose Zs at full load is required then,
Iasc = full load current.
From S.C.C. determine If required to drive this full load short circuit Ia. This is equal to 'OA',
as shown in the Fig.2.
Now for this value of If, (Voc)ph can be obtained from O.C.C. Extend kine from point A, till it
meets O.C.C. at point C. The corresponding (Voc)ph value is available at point D.
(Voc)ph = OD
While (Iasc)ph = OE

at full load
General steps to determine Zs at any load condition are :
i) Determine the value of (Iasc)ph for corresponding load condition. This can be determined from
known full load current of the alternator. For half load, it is half of the full load value and so on.
ii) S.C.C. gives relation between (Iasc)ph and If. So for (Iasc)ph required, determine the corresponding
value of If from S.C.C.
iii) Now for this same value of If, extend the line on O.C.C. to get the value of (Voc)ph. This is
(Voc)ph for same If, required to drive the selected (Iasc)ph.
iv) The ratio of (Voc)ph and (Iasc)ph, for the same excitation gives the value of Zs at any load
conditions.
The graph of synchronous impedance against excitation current is also shown in the Fig. 2.
4 Regulation Calculations
From O.C.C. and S.C.C., Zs can be determined for any load condition.
 The armature resistance per phase (Ra) can be measured by different methods. One of the
method is applying d.c. known voltage across the two terminals and measuring current. So value
of Ra per phase is known.

So synchronous reactance per phase can be determined.

No load induced e.m.f. per phase, Eph can be determined by the mathematical expression
derived earlier.

where Vph = Phase value of rated voltage

Ia = Phase value of current depending on the load condition
cosΦ = p.f. of load
Positive sign for lagging power factor while negative sign for leading power factor, R a and
Xsvalues are known from the various tests performed.
The regulation then can be determined by using formula,

5 Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous Impedance Method

The main advantages of this method is the value of synchronous impedance Z s for any load
condition can be calculated. Hence regulation of the alternator at any load condition and load
power factor can be determined. Actual load need not be connected to the alternator and hence
method can be used for very high capacity alternators.
The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large values of synchronous
reactance. This leads to high values of percentage regulation than the actual results. Hence this
method is called pessimistic method.
 Introduction to Synchronization of Alternators
In utility systems there will be such thousands of generators which then have to be operated in
parallel so that they will get interconnected by thousands of kilometers of transmission lines and
will supply electrical energy to the loads which are scattered over areas of thousand kilometers.
The reasons for interconnecting these systems are continuity of service, economics in plant
investment and operating costs.
When number of generators are operating at the same voltage and are required to be
interconnected electrically, bus bars are used as the common electrical component. Bus bars are
nothing but copper rods which operate at constant voltage.
The process of switching of an alternator to another alternator or with a common bus bar
without any interruption is called synchronization. Alternately it can also be defined as the
process of connecting the two alternators in parallel without any interruption. The synchronous
machine which is to be synchronized is normally called an incoming machine. If any alternators
is connected to a bus bar which has many other alternators already connected, no matter what
power it is supplying then alternator is said to be connected to infinite bus bar. An infinite bus
bar is one of whose frequency and phase e.m.f. remains unaffected by changes in condition of
any one machine connected to it. Thus they are nothing but constant frequency and constant
voltage bus bars. The system can be efficiently analysed if it is connected to infinite bus bar Many
important features about the behaviour of the synchronous machine can be obtained from
analysis of a single machine connected to an infinite bus bar.
In case of synchronous machines, stator carries the armature winding which is having small
resistance. Under stationary conditions e.m.f. induced in stator winding is zero. So if such an
alternator at stationary conditions is connected to bus bar, there is always danger of short circuit.
So it is not a practice to connect a stationary to live bus bars.
1 Necessary Conditions for Synchronization
To have effective synchronization without any interruption there are certain conditions to be
fulfilled. These conditions are;
i) The terminal voltage of the incoming machine must be same as that of bus bar voltage.
ii) The frequency must be same as that of the incoming machine as well as that of the bus bar.
This necessitates that speed must be properly adjusted (f = PN/120).
iii) With respect to the external load, the phase of alternator voltage must be identical with that
of the bus bar voltage. Alternately we can say that phase sequence for the two voltages must be
same.
Note ; The violence of any of the above conditions may cause a circulating current and power
surges which are accompanied by undesirable electromechanical oscillations of the rotor.
The above conditions can be satisfied by using a voltmeter, synchronizing lamps or
synchroscope. The use of voltmeter will satisfy the first conditions. Preferably the same voltmeter
is used for measuring both the voltages. Bu using synchronizing lamps conditions (ii) and (iii) will
be fulfilled. A synchroscope is a special device used for synchronizing the machines more
accurately. It will satisfy both the conditions provided that a phase sequence indicator is used
with it.
 1. Synchronization of Single Phase Alternators
In case of single phase alternators, synchronization is done generally by lamp methods. It can be
done by two ways :
a) Lamp dark method b) Lamps bright Method.
1 Lamps Dark Method
In this method the lamps are arranged as shown in Fig. 1. The alternator to be synchronized
(which is also called incoming alternator) consists of two lamps connected across the switch
terminals of the same phase.

Fig. 1

The voltage for the two alternators is measured with the help of a voltmeter. The lamps are
connected in such a way that the polarity and the frequency for the two machines can be
checked. No resultant voltage will appear across the switch terminals if the frequency of the two
alternators is exactly same as their voltage are in exact phase opposition. Thus under this case
lamps will not glow. The voltages for both the machines are having same maximum and r.m.s.
values and are in exact phase opposition thus resultant voltage is zero in local circuit. This is
represented in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2

It can be seen that with unequal frequencies of the two alternators, the two lamps will
become alternately bright and dark. The light beat will be produced whose number is equal to
the difference in frequencies for the two machines.
 The resultant voltage appearing across the lamp will be difference of the two voltages at any
instant resulting in a waveform shown in the Fig. 3. Since number of cycle completed by two
machines in any given time are not same the light beat is produced which is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig 3

Whenever the two voltage are in exact phase opposition (i.e. angle between them is 180 o)
then resultant voltage ER is zero. If the switch is not closed at this instant the voltage across lamp
will go on rising and synchronization will not appear proper.
The alternate darkness and brightness of the lamp will not indicate whether the incoming
alternator is running fast or slow. For the exact synchronization the speed of incoming alternator
is adjusted in such a way that the light beats are produced at a very slow speed and the
alternators are synchronized during the middle of the dark period where resultant voltage E R will
be zero. The word middle is used as the lamp will not glow even though there is sufficient voltage
across it. So it becomes difficult to know the correct instant of zero voltage.
2 Lamps Bright Method
Since it is very difficult to judge the correct instant of zero voltage in Lamps dark method, this
method is introduced which is shown in the Fig. 4. The lamps remain maximum bright when there
is no difference in voltages for the two machines. This is more sharp and accurate method of
synchronization because the lamps are much more sensitive to changes in voltage at their
maximum brightness than when they are dark.

Fig. 4
 2. Sycnhronization of Three Phase Alternators

The conditions to be satisfied for synchronization of three phase alternators are same as that for
single phase alternators. But instead of saying that voltages must act in phase opposition, the
phase sequence must be same i.e. phase must be connected in proper order of R, Y, B. Typical
setup for synchronization of alternators is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Setup for Synchronization of Alternators

In synchronizing three phase alternators, three lamps are connected as shown in the Fig.2,
so that it can be use to indicate whether the incoming machine is running slow or fast. With
symmetrical connection of lamps, they would dark out or glow up simultaneously provided that
phase sequence is same for incoming machine and bus bar.
Consider the two alternators A and B to be synchronized. The alternator A is already running
at synchronous speed and its excitation is so adjusted that it builds up the rated voltage. The
alternator A is connected to the bus bars of constant voltage and frequency. The alternator B is
to be connected to bus bar i.e. it is to be synchronized with alternator A. The process or
synchronization can be explained as below:
Step 1 : Start the prime mover of machine. Adjust its speed to a synchronous speed of machine
B. This will rotate the rotor of alternator B. This will rotate the rotor of alternator B at
synchronous speed.
Step 2 : The switch S4 is then closed. By adjusting the rheostat Rx the excitation to the field is
adjusted so that induced e.m.f. of B is equal to the induced e.m.f. of A. This can be verified by
voltmeter.
Step 3 : To satisfy remaining conditions, the three lamps pairs are used which are L1, L2 and L3 as
shown in the Fig. 2. These are connected in such a way that pair L 1 is straight connected while
the pairs L2 and L3 are cross connected to understand the connection, the pairs are again shown
in the Fig. 3.
 Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Now two supplies are supplying lamp pairs, ERYB i.e. voltage supply of bus bar while ER'Y'B' i.e.
supply generated by alternator B. The switch S3 is still open.
Let the three bus bar voltages be represented by phasors OR, OY, OB rotating at angular
speed of ω1 rad/s. The incoming alternator voltage are represented by phasors OR', OY', OB'
rotating at angular speed of ω2 rad/s.
The phasor ERR', joining the tips R and R' is voltage across lamp pair L1. Similarly EYB , and EBY,
are voltages across lamps L2 and L3 respectively.
If there is difference between the two frequencies due to difference in speeds of the twp
alternators, the lamps will become dark and bright in a sequence. This sequence tells whether
incoming alternator frequency is less or greater than machine A.
The sequence L1, L2, L3 tells that machine B is faster as the voltage star R'Y'B' will appear to
rotate anticlockwise with respect to bus bar voltage RYB at a speed corresponding to difference
between their frequencies shown in the Fig. 4. The sequence L3, L2, L1 tells that the machine B is
slower because voltage star R'Y'B' will appear to rotate clockwise with respect to bus bar voltage
RYB. The prime mover speed can be adjusted accordingly to match the frequencies.

Fig. 4

The synchronization is done at the moment when lamp L1 is in the middle of dark period. If
the lamps pair becoming dark and bright simultaneously, it indicates incorrect phase sequence
which can be correct by interchanging any two leads either of the incoming machine or of bus
bars.
Note ; For high voltage alternators it is not possible to use the lamps directly. In such cases lams
are connected through potential transformers.
In this method when lamp L1 is dark the other two lamp pairs L2 and L3 and equally bright. So this
method of synchronization is called ''Lamps bright and dark'' method.

3. Synchronization by Sycnhronscope
It can be seen that the previous method is not accurate since it requires correct sense of
judgement of the operator. Hence to avoid the personal judgement, the machines are
synchronized by accurate device known as synchroscope.
It consists of a rotating pointer which indicates the exact moment of closing the synchronizing
switch. If the pointer rotates in anticlockwise direction, it indicates that incoming machine is
running slow whereas clockwise rotation of pointer indicates that incoming machine is running
faster. The rotation of pointer is proportional to the difference in the two frequencies. The
pointer should rotate at a very low speed in the direction of arrow marked fast as shown in the
Fig. 1.
 Fig. 1

When the rotating pointer reaches the vertical position at slow speed, the switch must be
closed. The pointer will oscillate about some mean position instead of rotating if difference in
frequencies is large. In such cases the speed of incoming machine is adjusted properly.
The connections for synchroscope are shown in Fig. 1. Any two bus bars lines are connected
to its terminals while its other terminals are connected to corresponding lines of incoming
machine. The phase sequence from bus bars and from machine must be same. It can be checked
with the help of phase sequence indicator. The voltmeter is used to check the equality of voltage
of bus bars and incoming machine. The synchronization procedure is already explained before.
Note : The use of lamps and synchroscope together is a best method of synchronization.
Now a days automatic synchronizing devices are also available which will perform the entire
process of synchronization automatically without the help of shift engineer. But such schemes
are more complicated and may take larger time than required by a shift engineer.

4. Sycnhronizing Current
After proper synchronization of the alternators, they will run in synchronism. A synchronizing
torque will be developed if any of the alternator drops out of synchronism and will bring it back
to the synchronism.
Consider the two alternators shown in the Fig. 1 which are in exact synchronism. Due to this
they are having same terminal p.d. and with reference to their local circuit they are in exact phase
opposition. So there will not be any circulating current in the local circuit. The e.m.f. E 1 of
alternator 1 is in exact phase opposition to that of alternator E 2 .
 Fig. 1
With respect to external load, the e.m.f.s of the two alternators are in the same direction
although they are in phase opposition with reference to local circuit. There will be no resultant
voltage in the local circuit.
Now assume that speed of alternator 2 is changed such that its e.m.f. E 2 falls by an angle α.
But E1 and E2 are equal in magnitude. The resultant voltage in this case will cause a current in the
local circuit which is called synchronizing current. This circulating current is given by,
ISY = Er /Zs
where Zs = Synchronous impedance of winding of alternator
The phase angle of ISY is given by an angle θ which can be computed as tanθ = X s/Ra where
Xsis synchronous reactance and Ra is armature resistance. This angle is almost 90o.

Fig. 2

Thus ISY lags Er by almost 90o and approximately in phase with E1. This current is generating
current with respect to alternator 1 since it is in the same direction as that of e.m.f. of alternator
1 while it will be motoring current for alternator 2 as it is in the opposite direction as that of e.m.f.
of alternator 2. This current ISY will produce a synchronizing torque which will try to retard
alternator 1 whereas accelerate the alternator 2.
The power output of alternator 1 supplies power input to alternator 2 and copper losses in
the local path formed by armatures of two alternators.
Power output of alternator 1 = E1 ISY cosΦ1
This power is approximately equal to E1 ISY as Φ1 is small and is almost in phase with E1. This
power is called synchronizing power. Similarly power input to alternator 2 is E2 ISY cosΦ2 which is
equal to E2 ISY as Φ2 is also small.
E1 ISY = E2 ISY + Cu losses in the local circuit
Let E1 = E2 = E
Let the magnitude of resultant e.m.f. be Er which is given by,

But α is small. ... sin α/2 = α/2

Er = 2 E (α/2) = αE ............ ( θ = 90o , sin θ = 1)
The electrical angle α is expressed in radians.

Xs is synchronous reactance of each machine

Now, synchronizing power per phase, PSY = E1 . ISY = E . ISY

If Ra is not assumed as negligible then will not be so the above expression can be written in
exact form as,

For 3 phases, total synchronizing power is given by,

 The above expression is valid for two alternators connected in parallel and operating at no
load.
Now let us consider the case of alternator connected to infinite bus bar (the concept of
infinite bus bar is explained later) then the above expression for synchronizing power is still valid
with the changes of reactance of only one alternators.
. .. Er = α E

If Ra is neglected,

The exact expression is,

For 3 phases, total synchronizing power

Now assuming that E2 has advanced in phase shown in the Fig. 2(b). The synchronizing
current ISY in this case will be generating current for machine 2 and motoring current for machine
1. This will again produce a torque which will try to accelerate alternator 1 and try to retard
alternator 2.
Note : Hence if synchronism between the two machines is lost then synchronizing current will
flow in the local circuit which will produce a synchronizing torque.
This torque will tend to accelerate the lagging machine while will try to retard the leading
machine. In case of machines which are loaded this current is superimposed on the load current.

5. Effect of Change of Excitation:

A change in the excitation of an alternator running in parallel with other affects only its KVA
output; it does not affect the KW output. A change in the excitation, thus, affects only the power
factor of its output. Let two similar alternators of the same rating be operating in parallel,
receiving equal power inputs from their prime movers. Neglecting losses, their kW outputs are
therefore equal. If their excitations are the same, they induce the same emf, and since they are
in parallel their terminal voltages are also the same. When delivering a total load of I amperes at
a power-factor of cos Ф, each alternator delivers half the total current and I1 = I2 = I/2.

Since their induced emfs are the same, there is no resultant emf acting around the local circuit
formed by their two armature windings, so that the synchronizing current, Is, is zero. Since the
armature resistance is neglected, the vector difference between E 1 = E2 and V is equal
to, I1Xs1 I2Xs2 , this vector leading the current I by 900, where XS1 and XS2 are the synchronous
reactances of the two alternators respectively.
Now consider the effect of reducing the excitation of the second alternator. E2 is therefore
reduced as shown in Figure. This reduces the terminal voltage slightly, so let the excitation of the
first alternator be increased so as to bring the terminal voltage back to its original value. Since
the two alternator inputs are unchanged and losses are neglected, the two kW outputs are the
same as before. The current I2 is changed due to the change in E2, but the active components of
both I1 and I2 remain unaltered. It can be observed that there is a small change in the load angles
of the two alternators, this angle being slightly increased in the case of the weakly excited
alternator and slightly decreased in the case of the strongly excited alternator. It can also be
observed that I1 + I2 = I, the total load current.

6. Effect of Change of Input Torque

The amount of power output delivered by an alternator running in parallel with others is
governed solely by the power input received from its prime mover. If two alternators only are
operating in parallel the increase in power input may be accompanied by a minute increase in
their speeds, causing a proportional rise in frequency. This can be corrected by reducing the
power input to the other alternator, until the frequency is brought back to its original value. In
practice, when load is transferred from one alternator to another, the power input to the
alternator required to take additional load is increased, the power input to the other alternator
being simultaneously decreased. In this way, the change in power output can be effected without
measurable change in the frequency. The effect of increasing the input to one prime mover is,
thus, seen to make its alternator take an increased share of the load, the other being relieved to
a corresponding extent. The final power-factors are also altered, since the ratio of the reactive
components of the load has also been changed. The power-factors of the two alternators can be
brought back to their original values, if desired, by adjusting the excitations of alternators.

 Blondel's Two Reaction Theory (Theory of Salient Pole Machine) or Two Axis
Theory
It is known that in case of nonsalient pole type alternators the air gap is uniform. Due to uniform
air gap, the field flux as well as armature flux very sinusoidally in the air gap. In nonsalient rotor
alternators, air gap length is constant and reactance is also constant. Due to this the m.m.f.s of
armature and field act upon the same magnetic circuit all the time hence can be added
vectorially. But in salient pole type alternators the length of the air gap varies and the reluctance
also varies. Hence the armature flux and field flux cannot vary sinusoidally in the air gap. The
reluctances of the magnetic circuits on which m.m.fs act are different in case of salient pole
alternators.
Hence the armature and field m.m.f.s cannot be treated in a simple way as they can be in a
nonsalient pole alternators.
The theory which gives the method of analysis of the distributing effects caused by salient
pole construction is called two reaction theory. Professor Andre Blondel has put forward the two
reaction theory.
Note : According to this theory the armature m.m.f. can be divided into two components as,
1. Components acting along the pole axis called direct axis
2. Component acting at right angles to the pole axis called quadrature axis.
The component acting along direct axis can be magnetising or demagnetising. The component
acting along quadrature axis is cross magnetising. These components produces the effects of
different kinds.
The Fig. 1 shows the stator m.m.f. wave and the flux distribution in the air gap along direct
axis and quadrature axis of the pole.

a) Direct axis b) Quadrature axis

Fig. 1 Flux distribution in air gap for salient pole machine
 The relucatnce offered to the m.m.f. wave is lowest when it is aligned with the field pole axis.
This axis is called direct axis of pole i.e. d-axis. The relucatnce offered is highest when the m.m.f.
wave is oriented at 90 to the field pole axis which is called quadrature axis i.e. q-axis. The air gap
is least in the centre of the poles and progressively increases on moving away from the centre.
Due to such shape of the pole-shoes, the field winding wound on salient poles produces the
m.m.f. wave which is nearly sinusoidal and it always acts along the pole axis which is direct axis.
Let Ff be the m.m.f. wave produced by field winding, then it always acts along the direct axis.
This m.m.f. is responsible to produce an excitation e.m.f. Ef which lags Ff by an angle 90
When armature carries current, it produces its own m.m.f. wave FAR. This can be resolved in
two components, one acting along d-axis (cross-magnetising). Similarly armature current Ia also
can be divided into two components, one along direct axis and along quadrature axis. These
components are denoted as,
: Fd = Component along direct axis
FAR : }
Fq = Component along quadrature axis

Id = Component along direct axis

Ia : }
Iq = Component along quadrature axis
The positions of FAR, Fd and Fq in space are shown in the Fig. 2. The instant chosen to show these
positions is such that the current in phase R is maximum positive and is lagging Ef by angle Ψ.

Fig. 2 M.M.F. wave positions in salient pole machine

The phasor diagram corresponding to the positions considered is shown in the Fig. 3.
The Ia lags Ef by angle Ψ.
It can be observed that Fd is produced by Id which is at 90o to Ef while Fq is produced
by Iq which is in phase with Ef .
The flux components of ΦAR which are Φd and Φq along the direct and quadrature axis
respectively are also shown in the Fig.3. It can be denoted that the reactance offered to flux along
direct axis is less than the reactance offered to flux along quadrature axis. Due to this, the flux
ΦARis no longer along FAR or Ia. Depending upon the reluctances offered along the direct and
quadrature axis, the flux ΦAR lags behind Ia.

Fig 3 Basic phasor diagram for salient pole machine

Blondel's Two Reaction Theory (Theory of Salient Pole Machine) : part 2

We know that, the armature reaction flux ΦAR has two components, Φd along direct axis and
Φqalong quadrature axis. These fluxes are proportional to the respective m.m.f. magnitudes and
the permeance of the flux path oriented along the respective axes.
. .. Φd = P d Fd
where Pd = permeance alomng the direct axis
Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance and indicates ease with which flux can travel
along the path.
But Fd = m.m.f. = Kar Id in phase with Id
The m.m.f. is always proportional to current. While Kar is the armature reaction coefficient.
. .. Φd = Pd Kar Id
Similarly Φq = Pq Kar Iq
As the reluctance along direct axis is less than that along quadrature axis, the
permeance Pdalong direct axis is more than that along quadrature axis, (Pd < Pq ).
Let Ed and Eq be the induced e.m.f.s due to the fluxes Φd and Φq respectively. Now Ed lags
Φd by 90o while Eq lags Φq by 90o .

where Ke = e.m.f. constant of armature winding

The resultant e.m.f. is the phasor sum of Ef, Ed and Eq.
 Substituting expressions for Φd and Φq

Now Xard = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the d-axis component of armature

reaction
= Ke Pd Kar
and Xarq = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the q-axis component of armature
reaction
= Ke Pq Kar

For a realistic alternator we know that the voltage equation is,

where Vt = terminal voltage

XL = leakage reactance

Substituting in expression for ĒR ,

where Xd = d-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xard .............(2)

and Xq = q-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xarq .........(3)
It can be seen from the above equation that the terminal voltage Vt is nothing but the voltage
left after deducing ohmic drop Ia Ra, the reactive drop Id Xd in quadrature with Id and the
reactive drop Iq Xq in quadrature with Id, from the total e.m.f. Ef.
The phasor diagram corresponding to the equation (1) can be shown as in the Fig. 1. The current
Ialags terminal voltage Vt by Φ. Then add Ia Ra in phase with Ia to Vt. The drop Id Xd leads Id by
90o as in case purely reactive circuit current lags voltage by 90o i.e. voltage leads current by 90o .
Similarly the drop Iq Xq leads Xq by 90o . The total e.m.f. is Ef.

Blondel's Two Reaction Theory (Theory of Salient Pole Machine) : part 3

In the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 4, the angles Ψ and δ are not known, through Vt, Ia and
Φ values are known. Hence the location of Ef is also unknown. The components of Ia, Id and Iq can
not be determined which are required to sketch the phasor diagram.
 Fig. 4

Let us find out some geometrical relationships between the various quantities which are
involved in the phasor diagram. For this, let us draw the phasor diagram including all the
components in detail.
We know from the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 4 that,
Id = Ia sin Ψ ............. (4)
Iq = Ia cos Ψ ..............(5)
cosΨ = Iq/Ia ...............(6)
The drop Ia Ra has two components which are,
Id Rd = drop due to Ra in phase with Id
Iq Ra = drop due to Ra in phase with Iq
The Id Xd and Iq Rq can be drawn leading Id and Iq by 90o respectively. The detail phasor diagram
is shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Phasor diagram for lagging p.f.

In the phasor diagram,

OF = Ef
OG = Vt
GH = Id Ra and HA = Iq Ra
GA = Ia Ra
AE = Id Xd and EF = Iq Xa
 Now DAC is drawn perpendicular to the current phasor Ia and CB is drawn perpendicular to
AE.
The triangle ABC is right angle triangle,

But from equations (6), cosΨ = Iq/Ia

Thus point C can be located. Hence the direction of Ef is also known.

Now triangle ODC is also right angle triangle,

Now OD = OI + ID = Vt cos Φ + Ia Ra
and CD = AC + AD = Ia Xq + Vt sinΦ

As Ia Xq is known, the angle Ψ can be calculated from equation (10). As Φ is known we can
write,
δ = Ψ - Φ for lagging p.f.

Hence magnitude of Ef can be obtained by using equation (11).

Note : In the above relations, Φ is taken positive for lagging p.f. For leading p.f., Φ must be
taken negative.

Determination of Xd and Xq Using Slip Test

The method used to determine Xq and Xd, the direct and quadrature axis reactance is called slip
test.
In an alternatore we apply excitation to the field winding and voltage gets induced in the
armature. But in the slip test, a three phase supply is applied to the armature, having voltage
must less than the rated voltage while the field winding circuit is kept open. The circuit diagram
is shown in the Fig. 1.
 Fig.1 Circuit diagram for slip test
The alternator is run at a speed close to synchronous but little less than synchronous value.
The three phase currents drawn by the armature from a three phase supply produce a rotating
flux. Thus the armature m.m.f. wave is rotating at synchronous speed as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 rotating armature m.m.f.

Note that the armature is stationary, but the flux and hence m.m.f. wave produced by three
phase armature currents is rotating. This is similar to the rotating magnetic field existing in an
induction motor.
The rotor is made to rotate at a speed little less than the synchronous speed. Thus armature
m.m.f. having synchronous speed, moves slowly past the filed poles at a slip speed (n s -n) where
n is actual speed of rotor. This causes an e.m.f. to be induced in the field circuit.
When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the d-axis of field poles then flux Φd per poles is set
up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xd.
When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the q-axis of field poles then flux Φq per pole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xq.
As the air gap is nonuniform, the reatance offered also varies and hence current drawn the
armature also varies cyclically at twice the slip frequency.
The r.m.s. current is minimum when machine reactance is Xd and it is maximum when machine
reactance is Xq. As the reactance offered varies due to nonuniform air gap, the voltage drops
also varies cyclically. Hence the impedance of the alternator also varies cyclically. The terminal
voltage also varies cyclically. The voltage at terminals is maximum when current and various
drops are minimum while voltage at terminals is minimum when current and various drops are
maximum.
 The waveforms of voltage induced in rotor, terminal voltage and current drawn by armature
are shown in the Fig. 3.
It can observed that rotor field is aligned with the armature m.m.f., its flux linkage are
maximum, but the rate of change of flux is zero. Hence voltage induced in field goes through zero
at this instant. This is the position where alternator offers reactance Xd. While when rate of
change of flux associated with rotor is maximum, voltage induced in field goes through its
maximum. This is the position where alternator offers reactance Xq.
The reactances can be calculated as

Fig. 3 Current and voltage wave forms in slip test

 Theory of cylindrical rotor machine

Let us consider the phasor diagram for alternator as shown in the Fig. 1.
Let E = E.M.F. induced in each phase
V = Terminal voltage
Φ = Phase angle between voltage and current
δ = Power angle
 Ra = Resistance of armature
Xs = Synchronous reatance of alternator.
. .. tanθ = Xs/Ra
. .. θ = tan-1 (Xs/Ra)
α=Φ+δ

Fig. 1

Power output per phase = V . I cos (V ^ I)

= VI cos
Power input, Pi = EI cos (E ^ I)
= E I cos (Φ + δ) = E I cosα = I (E cos α)
= I (V cos Φ + I Ra)
= VI cosΦ + I2 Ra
The voltage equation of alternator is given by,
 Pi is the power converted internally into electrical power from mechanical power which is
given by,
Pi = Eo.I

Note: With increase in δ power increases and with decrease in δ power decreases. Power in case
of synchronous machines depends on the angle δ. This angle δ is called power angle.
In case of large synchronous machines, Xs >>> R
. .. θ = tan-1(Xs/R) = 90o (if resistance is neglected)
θ = 90o
Substituting this value in above expression for power

Operating Characteristics of Synchronous Generator

The operating characteristics of a synchronous machine are seen under variable excitation and
load condition. One of the parameter is kept constant while other is varied for studying these
characteristics. The resistance of armature is neglected as it does not change the characteristics
significantly. So the corresponding circuit is as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
 The phasor diagram corresponding to above condition is shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
Power Delivered to the infinite bus per phase is given by,
Pi = V . Ia cosΦ
From the above phasor diagram it can be seen that

From ∆OBC,

Substituting the above value of Ia cosΦ in the expression for power we get,
Note: The above power is the electrical power exchanged with bus bars. Angle δ between E and
V is known as power angle.

Power Angle Characteristics of Synchronous Generator

Case 1 Cylindrical rotor generator
We have seen previously,

The relation between Pi and δ is known as power angle characteristics of the machine. It is
shown in the Fig. 1.
 Fig. 1 Power Angle Characteristics
The maximum power occurs at δ = 90o . Beyond this point the machine falls out of step and
loses synchronism. The machine can be taken up to Pi max only by gradually increasing the load.
This is known as the steady state stability limit of the machine. The is normally operated
at δ much less than 90o.

Case 2 salient pole generator

Power output of a salient pole generator is given by

The first term is the same as for a round rotor machine with Xs = Xd and constitutes the major
part in power transfer. The second term is quite small (about 10-20%) compared to the first term
and is known as reluctance power. P versus δ is plotted in Fig. 4.31. It is noticed that the maximum
power output occurs at δ < 90° (about 70°). Further dp/d δ (change in power per unit change in
power angle for small changes in power angle), called the synchronizing power coefficient, in the
operating region (δ < 70°) is larger in a salient pole machine than in a round rotor machine.
 Alternator Connected to Infinite Bus bar
In the previous post we have seen that synchronous generators do not operate individually in
a generating station but they are interconnected so that total generating capacity will be high.
When number of alternators are interconnected forming a system which may be treated as an
infinite bus. Infinite bus bar is one which keeps constant voltage and frequency although the load
varies. Thus it may behave like a voltage source with zero internal impedance and infinite
rotational inertia. Any alternator switched on to or off, the infinite bus does not cause any change
in the voltage and frequency of the system.
The characteristics of a synchronous generator on infinite bus bars are quite different from
those when it is connected to another alternator and both are in parallel. When two alternators
are connected in parallel we have seen that a change in the excitation changes the terminal
voltage and p.f. is determined by load. However change in excitation for an alternator connected
to infinite bus bar will not change the terminal voltage but the power factor only is affected
whereas the power developed by an alternator depends only on mechanical power input.
Now we will consider the effect of excitation and driving torque on the performance of an
alternator which is connected to infinite bus bar. In all the further discussion we will take zero
losses for the machine.
1.1 Effect of Excitation
Let us consider the cylindrical rotor as shown in the Fig.1 connected to infinite busbar.

Fig. 1
The voltage equation can be written as

where E = Induced e.m.f. or excitation e.m.f.

V = Constant bus voltage
I = Armature current
Zs = Synchronous impedance
The same equation neglecting the armature resistance can be rewritten as,

Again we will consider the two cases one with alternator on no load and other with alternator
on load.
1.1.1 Alternator on No Load
Since we are considering the losses to be zero the power angle will be zero. Thus the power
transferred from or to the bus is zero ( P = ((EV/Xs) sinδ )
Now if the excitation is properly adjusted at no load then induced e.m.f. E will be equal to
bus voltage V and no current will flow. This is shown in Fig. 2. This is floating condition of
alterntor.
 Fig. 2 Fig.3
Now if the alternator is under excited then induced e.m.f. E will be less that V. This will cause
circulating current ISY to flow which will lead E by angle of 90o. Due to this it produces magnetizing
m.m.f. which will try to increase field m.m.f. to maintain alternator terminal voltage equal to the
bus bar voltage. This is shown in the following Fig. 3.
Similarly if alternator is over excited then induced e.m.f. will be more than V which will again
cause a circulating current to ISY flow. The power angle δ is zero. This current lags E by 90 o. This
will produce demagnetizing armature m.m.f. which will counterbalance the effect of increased
field m.m.f. and again the terminal voltage of an alternator will be equal to constant bus bar
voltage V. This is represented in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4
It can be seen that in both the cases considered above, no active power is delivered since I SY is
in quadrature with V and load angle is also zero. But alternator takes reactive power from bus
since E < V and delivers it to bus if E > V.
1.1.2 Alternator on Load
Now let us consider that alternator is supplying power to an infinite bus which has induced
e.m.f. E, power angle δ and working at unity power factor with current I.
With mechanical power input to the alternator remaining constant, the power given by
(EV/Xs) sin δ will remain constant. If by varying excitation induced e.m.f. E is increased to E1 then
the load angle will also change from δ to δ1. From the phasor diagram it can be determined as
E1 sinδ1 = E sinδ as V and Xs are constant. The drop due to synchronous reactance also increases
and armature current increases from I to I1. This current has two components one real
component and other quadrature component. This quadrature component is nothing but
demagnetizing component. This will result in lagging power factor cosΦ1.
Similarly if the excitation is decreased so that induced e.m.f. reduces from E to E 2 with
corresponding change in power angle from δ to δ2. The armature current in this case will be
I2which has real component and magnetizing component which results in leading power factor
cosΦ2. This can be represented in the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 5.
 Fig. 5
From the phasor diagram it can be seen that
I1 cosΦ1 = I2 cosΦ2 = 1
Multiplying by V throughout,
V I1 cosΦ1 = V I2 cosΦ2 = VI
This indicates that power delivered to the bus will remain constant. Thus by changing the
field excitation the active power is unaltered. But change in excitation results in corresponding
operating power factor as shown in phasor diagram.
Note : An under excited alternator operates at leading power factor whereas an over excited
alternator operates at lagging power factor.
It can also be seen that armature current is minimum at unity power factor. For over excited
alternator as E1 cos δ >V therefore as seen from case (i) i.e. no load condition alternator delivers
reactive power to the bus whereas for underexcited alternator E2 cosδ < V, alternators takes
reactive power from the bus. This variation of excitation and armature current can be plotted as
shown in Fig. 6. This is known as curves for synchronous generators by virture of their shape.

Fig. 6 V curves for alternators

1.2 Effect of Driving Torque
As already discussed in the previous section the driving torque of an alternator can be changed
by throttle opening in steam power plants and by gate opening in case of hydro-generation. Let
us see the effect of driving torque on performance of alternator with the help of phasor diagram
as shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7
The voltage equation remains same as

The load angle is δ. Now if the driving torque of alternator is increased keeping excitation
constant then output (EV/Xs) sinδ also increases as is changing, but E, V and Xs are constant. The
angle increases so as to balance between increased mechanical input and the power (EV/Xs)sinδ.
Thus the tip of phase E follows a curved path. The maximum value of δ will be 90o for which
armature current is I1 leading the bus bar voltage V by power factor angle Φ1.
Thus with increase in input the alternator delivers more power to infinite bus. The frequency
and terminal voltage of an alternator remains same as it is connected to infinite bus bar.
If driving torque is decreased, the power angle δ must decrease correspondingly. If it becomes
zero, no power is transferred to the infinite bus. The prime mover will only supply the losses.
If driving torque is reversed or if the prime mover is decoupled from the shaft E shifts and
lags behind V, then δ will be reversed and the operation of machine will change from synchronous
generator to synchronous motor as now

The synchronous motor operates at a leading p.f. indicating that it is delivering reactive
power to infinite bus.
 Voltage Regulation of an Alternator
Under the load condition, the terminal voltage of alternator is less than the induced e.m.f. Eph.
So if load is disconnected, Vph will change from Vph to Eph, if flux and speed is maintained constant.
This is because when load is disconnected, Ia is zero hence there are no voltage drops and no
armature flux to cause armature reaction. This change in the terminal voltage is significant in
defining the voltage regulation.
Note : The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in its terminal voltage
when full load is removed, keeping field excitation and speed constant, divided by the rated
terminal voltage.,
So if Vph = Rated terminal voltage
Eph = No load induced e.m.f.
the voltage regulation is defined as,

The value of the regulation not only depends on the load current but also on the power factor
of the load. For lagging and unity p.f. conditions there is always drop in the terminal voltage
hence regulation values are always positive. While for leading capacitive load conditions, the
terminal voltage increases as load current increases. Hence regulation is negative in such cases.
The relationship between load current and the terminal voltage is called load characteristics of
an alternator. Such load characteristics for various load power factor conditions are shown in
Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Load characteristics of an alternator

KVA Rating of an Alternator

The alternators are designed to supply a specific voltage to the various loads. This voltage is called
its rated terminal voltage denoted as VL. The power drawn by the load depends on its power
factor. Hence instead of specifying rating of an alternator in watts, it is specified in terms of the
maximum apparent power which it can supply to the load. In three phase circuits, the apparent
power is √3VL IL, measured in VA (volt amperes). This is generally expressed in kilo volt amperes
and is called kVA rating of an alternator where IL is the rated full load current which alternator
can supply. So for a given rated voltage and kVA rating of an alternator, its full load rated current
can be decided.
Consider 60 kVA, 11 kV three phase alternator.
In this case kVA rating = 60

........ 10-3 to express the product in kilo volt amperes

... 60 = √3 x 11 x 103 x IL x 10-3
... IL = 3.15 A
This is the rated full load current of an alternator. But load current is same as the armature
current. So from kVA rating, it is possible to determine full load armature current of an alternator
which is important in predicating the full load regulation of an alternator for various power factor
conditions. Similarly if load condition is different than the full load, the corresponding armature
current can be determined from its full load value.
Note: Ia at half load = 1/2 x Ia at full load. It reduces in the same proportion in which load
condition reduces.
Hence regulation at any p.f. and at any load condition can be determined.

 Regulation of Synchronous Generator: Introduction

The regulation of an alternator can be determined by various methods. In case of small capacity
alternators it can be determined by direct loading test while for large capacity alternators it can
be determined by synchronous impedance method.
The synchronous impedance method has some short comings. Another method which is
popularly used is ampere-turns method. But this method also has certain disadvantages. The
disadvantages of these two methods are overcome in a method called zero power factor method.
Another important theory which gives accurate results is called Blondel's two reaction theory.
Thus there are following methods available to determine the voltage regulation of an alternator,
1. Direct loading method
2. Synchronous impedance method or E.M.F. method
3. Ampere-turns method or M.M.F. method
4. Zero power factor method or potier triangle method
5. ASA modified from of M.M.F. method
6. Two reaction theory

1. Voltage Regulation by Direct Load

The Fig. 1 shows the circuit diagram for conducting the direct loading test on the three phase
alternator. The star connected armature is to be connected to a three phase load with the help
of triple pole single throw (TPST) switch. The field winding is excited by separate d.c. supply. To
control the flux i.e. the current through field winding, a rheostat is inserted in series with the field
winding. The prime mover is shown which is driving the alternator at its synchronous speed.
Procedure: The alternator is first driven at its synchronous speed Ns by means of a prime
mover.
 Fig. 1 Circuit diagram for direct loading test on alternator
Now Eph α Φ ..... (From e.m.f. equation)
By giving d.c. supply to the field winding, the field current is adjusted to adjust the flux so
that rated voltage is available across the terminals. This can be observed on the voltmeter
connected across the lines. The load is then connected by means of a TPST switch. The load is
then increased so that ammeter reads rated value of current. This is full load condition of the
alternator. Again adjust the voltage to its rated value by means of field excitation using a rheostat
connected. The throw off the entire load by opening the TPST switch, without changing the speed
and the field excitation. Observe the voltmeter reading. As load is thrown off, there is no
armature current and associated drops. So the voltmeter reading in this situation indicates the
value of internally induced e.m.f. called no load terminal voltage. Convert both the reading to
phase values. The rated voltage on full load is Vph while reading when load is thrown off is Eph. So
by using the formula,

The full load regulation of the alternator can be determined. The value of the regulation
obtained by this method is accurate as a particular load at required p.f. is actually connected to
the alternator to note down the readings.
Note : But for high capacity alternators, that much full load cannot be simulated or directly
connected to the alternator. Hence method is restricted only for small capacity alternators.

Example : While supplying a full load, running at synchronous speed, the terminal voltage of an
alternator is observed to be 1100 V. When the load is thrown off, keeping field excitation and
speed constant, the terminal voltage is observed to be 1266 V. Assuming star connected
alternator, calculate its regulation on full load.Solution : On full load, terminal voltage is 1100 V.
So VL = 1100 V
. .. Vph = VL/√3 = 635.0853 V
When load is thrown off, VL = 1266 V. But on no load,
VL = Eline
. .. Eline = 1266 V
... Eph = 1266/√3
 = 730.925 V

2. M.M.F. Method of Determining Regulation

This method of determining the regulation of an alternator is also called Ampere-turn method or
Rothert's M.M.F. method. The method is based on the results of open circuit test and short circuit
test on an alternator.
For any synchronous generator i.e. alternator, it requires m.m.f. which is product of field current
and turns of field winding for two separate purposes.
1. It must have an m.m.f. necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit.
2. It must have an m.m.f. equal and opposite to that of armature reaction m.m.f.
Note : In most of the cases as number of turns on the field winding is not known, the m.m.f. is
calculate and expressed i terms of the field current itself.
The field m.m.f. required to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit can be obtained
from open circuit test results and open circuit characteristics. This is denoted as FO.
We know that the synchronous impedance has two components, armature resistance and
synchronous reactance. Now synchronous reactance also has two components, armature
leakage reactance and armature reaction reactance. In short circuit test, field m.m.f. is necessary
to overcome drop across armature resistance and leakage reactance and also to overcome effect
of armature reaction. But drop across armature resistance and also to overcome effect of
armature reaction. But drop across armature resistance and leakage reactance is very small and
can be neglected. Thus in short circuit test, field m.m.f. circulates the full load current balancing
the armature reaction effect. The value of ampere-turns required to circulate full load current
can be obtained from short circuit characteristics. This is denoted as FAR.
Under short circuit condition as resistance and leakage reactance of armature do not play
any significant role, the armature reaction reactance is dominating and hence the power factor
of such purely reactive circuit is zero lagging. Hence FAR gives demagnitising ampere turns. Thus
the field m.m.f. is entirely used to overcome the armature reaction which is wholly demagntising
in nature. The two components of total field m.m.f. which are FO and FAR are indicated in O.C.C.
(open circuit characteristics) and S.C.C. (short circuit characteristics) as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig.1
 If the alternator is supplying full load, then total field m.m.f. is the vector sum of its two
components FO and FAR. This depends on the power factor of the load which alternator is
supplying. The resultant field m.m.f. is denoted as FR. Let us consider the various power factors
and the resultant FR.
Zero lagging p.f. : As long as power factor is zero lagging, the armature reaction is completely
demagnetising. Hence the resultant FR is the algebraic sum of the two components FO and FAR.
Field m.m.f. is not only required to produce rated terminal voltage but also required to overcome
completely demagnetising armature reaction effect.

Fig. 2
This is shown in the Fig. 2.
OA = FO
AB = FAR demagnetising
OB = FR = FO + FAR
Total field m.m.f. is greater than FO.
Zero leading p.f. : When the power factor is zero leading then the armature reaction is totally
magnetising and helps main flux to induce rated terminal voltage. Hence net field m.m.f.
required is less than that required to induce rated voltage normally, as part of its function is
done by magnetising armature reaction component. The net field m.m.f. is the algebraic
difference between the two components FO and FAR. This is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3
OA = FO
AB = FAR magnetising
OB = FO - FAR = FR
Total m.m.f. is less than FO
Unity p.f. : Under unity power factor condition, the armature reaction is cross magnetising and
its effect is to distort the main flux. Thus and F are at right angles to each other and hence
resultant m.m.f. is the vector sum of FO and FAR. This is shown in the Fig.4.

Fig. 4
OA = FO
AB = FAR cross magnetising

General Case : Now consider that the load power factor is cos Φ. In such case, the resultant
m.m.f. is to be determined by vector addition of FO and FAR.
cosΦ, lagging p.f. : When the load p.f. is cosΦ lagging, the phase current Iaph lags Vph by angle Φ.
The component FO is at right angles to Vph while FAR is in phase with the current Iaph. This is because
the armature current Iaph decides the armature reaction. The armature reaction FAR due to current
Iaph is to be overcome by field m.m.f. Hence while Finding resultant field m.m.f., - FAR should be
added to vectorially. This is because resultant field m.m.f. tries to counterbalance armature
reaction to produce rated terminal voltage. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 5.
From the phasor diagram the various magnitude are,
OA = FO , AB = FAR , OB = FR
Consider triangle OCB which is right angle triangle. The FAR is split into two parts as,
AC = FAR sinΦ and BC = FAR cosΦ

Fig. 5
. .. ( FR)2 )2
= (FO + FAR sinΦ + (FAR cosΦ)2 ................ (1)
From this relation (1), FR can be determined.
cosΦ, leading p.f. : When the load p.f. is cosΦ leading, the phase current Iaph leads Vph by Φ. The
component FO is at right angles to Vph and FAR is in phase with Iaph. The resultant FR can be obtained
by adding - FAR to FO. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.6.

Fig. 6
From the phasor diagram, various magnitudes are,
AC = FAR sinΦ and BC = FAR cosΦ
OA = FO, AB = FAR and OB = FR
Consider triangle OCB which is right angles triangle.
... (OB)2 = (OC)2 + (BC)2
... ( FR)2 = (FO - FAR sinΦ )2 + (FAR cosΦ) .................... (2)
From the relation (2), FR can be obtained.
Using relations (1) and (2), resultant field m.m.f. FR for any p.f. load condition can be
obtained.
 Once FR is known, obtain corresponding voltage which is induced e.m.f. Eph, required to get
rated terminal voltage Vph. This is possible from open circuit characteristics drawn.

Fig. 7
Once Eph is known then the regulation can be obtained as,

Note : To obtain Eph corresponding to FR, O.C.C. must be drawn to the scale, from the open circuit
test readings.
Note : This ampere-turn method gives the regulation of an alternator which is lower than the
actually observed. Hence the method is called optimistic method.
Important note : When the armature resistance is neglected then FO is field m.m.f. required to
produce rated Vph at the output terminals. But if the effective armature resistance is given then
FO is to be calculated from O.C.C. such that FO represents the excitation (field current) required a
voltage of Vph + Iaph Raph cosΦ where
Vph = rated voltage per phase
Iaph = full load current per phase
Ra = armature resistance per phase
cosΦ = power factor of the load
It can also be noted that, FR can be obtained using the cosine rule to the triangle formed by
FO, FAR and FO as shown in the Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

Using cosine rule to triangle OAB,

 Students can use equations 1, 2 or 3 to calculate FR.
The angle between Eo and Vph is denoted as δ and is called power angle. Neglecting Ra we
can write,
Ia Xs cosΦ = Eo sinδ
Pd = Vph Ia cosΦ = internal power of machine

Note : This equation shows that the internal power of the machine is proportional to sin δ.

3. Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Method

This method is also called potier method. In the operation of any alternator, the armature
resistance drop and armature leakage reactance drop IXL are actually e.m.f. quantities while the
armature reaction is basically m.m.f. quantity. In the synchronous impedance all the quantities
are treated as e.m.f. quantities as against this in M.M.F. method all are treated as m.m.f.
quantities. Hence in both the methods, we are away from reality.
Note: This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance and armature
reaction effects. The armature leakage reactance XL is called Potier reactance in this method,
hence method is also called potier reactance method.
To determine armature leakage reactance and armature reaction m.m.f. separately, two tests
are performed on the given alternator. The two tests are,
1. Open circuit test
2. Zero power factor test
1 Open Circuit Test
The experimental setup to perform this test is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
 The steps to perform open circuit test are,
1. The switch S is kept open.
2. The alternator is driven by its prime mover at its synchronous speed and same is maintained
constant throughout the test.
3. The excitation is varied with the help of potential divider, from zero upto rated value in definite
number of steps. The open circuit e.m.f. is measured with the help of voltmeter. The readings
are tabulated.
4. A graph of If and (Voc) i.e. field current and open circuit voltage per phase is plotted to some
scale. This is open circuit characteristics.
2 Zero Power Factor Test
To conduct zero power factor test, the switch S is kept closed. Due to this, a purely inductive
load gets connected to an alternator through an ammeter. A purely inductive load has power
factor of cos i.e. zero lagging hence the test is called zero power factor test.
The machine speed is maintained constant at its synchronous value. The load current
delivered by an alternator to purely inductive load is maintained constant at its rated full load
value by varying excitation and by adjusting variable inductance of the inductive load. Note that,
due to purely inductive load, an alternator will always operate at zero p.f. lagging.
Note : In this test, there is no need to obtain number of points to obtain the curve. Only two
points are enough to construct a curve called zero power factor saturation curve.
This is the graph of terminal voltage against excitation when delivering full load zero power
factor current.
One point for this curve is zero terminal voltage (short circuit condition) and the field current
required to deliver full load short circuit armature current. While other point is the field current
required to obtain rated terminal voltage while delivering rated full load armature current. With
the help of these two points the zero p.f. saturation curve can be obtained as,
1. Plot open circuit characteristics on graph as shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
2. Plot the excitation corresponding to zero terminal voltage i.e. short circuit full load zero p.f.
armature current. This point is shown as A in the Fig. 1 which is on the x-axis. Another point is
the rated voltage when alternator is delivering full load current at zero p.f. lagging. This point is
P as shown in the Fig. 1.
3. Draw the tangent to O.C.C. through origin which is line OB as shown dotted in the Fig. 1. This
is called air line.
4. Draw the horizontal line PQ parallel and equal to OA.
5. From point Q draw the line parallel to the air line which intersects O.C.C. at point R. Join RQ
and join PR. The triangle PQR is called potier triangle.
6. From point R, drop a perpendicular on PQ to meet at point S.
7. The zero p.f. full load saturation curve is now be constructed by moving a triangle PQR so that
R remains always on O.C.C. and line PQ always remains horizontal. The doted triangle is shown
in the Fig. 1. It must be noted that the potier triangle once obtained is constant for a given
armature current and hence can be transferred as it is.
8. Through point A, draw line parallel to PR meeting O.C.C. at point B. From B, draw perpendicular
on OA to meet it at point C. Triangles OAB and PQR are similar triangles.
9. The perpendicular RS gives the voltage drop due to the armature leakage reactance i.e. IXL.
10. The length PS gives field current necessary to overcome demagnetising effect of armature
reaction at full load.
11. The length SQ represents field current required to induce an e.m.f. for balancing leakage
reactance drop RS.
These values can be obtained from any Potier triangle such as OAB, PQR and so on.
So armature leakage reactance can be obtained as,

This is nothing but the potier reactance.

3 Use of Potier Reactance to Determine Regulation
To determine regulation using Potier reactance, draw the phasor diagram using following
procedure:
Draw the rated terminal voltage Vph as a reference phasor. Depending upon at which power
factor (cosΦ) the regulation is to be predicted, draw the current phasor Iph lagging or leading
Vph by angle Φ.
Draw Iph Raph voltage drop to Vph which is in phase with Iph. While the voltage drop Iph XLph is to
be drawn perpendicular to Iph Raph vector but leading Iph Raph at the extremely of Vph.
The Raph is to be measured separately by passing a d.c. current and measuring voltage across
armature winding. While XLph is Potier reactance obtained by Potier method.
Phasor sum of Vph rated, Iph Raph and Iph XLph gives the e.m.f. which is say E1ph.

Obtain the excitation corresponding to Ē1ph from O.C.C. drawn. Let this excitation be Ff1. This
is excitation required to induce e.m.f. which does not consider the effect of armature reaction.
The field current required to balance armature reaction can be obtained from Potier
triangle, which is say FAR.
... FAR = l (PS) = l (AC) = .....
 The total excitation required is the vector sum of the Ff1 and FAR. This can be obtained exactly
similar to the procedure used in M.M.F. method.
Draw vector Ff1 to some scale, leading E1ph by 90o. Add FAR to Ff1 by drawing vector FAR in phase
opposition to Iph. The total excitation to be supplied by field is given by FR.
The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3
Once the total excitation is known which is FR, the corresponding induced e.m.f. Eph can be
obtained from O.C.C. This Eph lags FR by 90o. The length CD represents voltage drop due to the
armature reaction. Drawing perpendicular from A and B on current phasor meeting at points G
and H respectively, we get triangle OHC as right angle triangle. Hence E1ph can be determined
analytically also.
Once Eph is known, the regulation of an alternator can be predicted as,

This method takes into consideration the armature resistance an leakage reactance voltage
drops as e.m.f. quantities and the effect of armature reaction as m.m.f. quantity. This is reality
hence the results obtained by this method are nearer to the reality than those obtained by
synchronous impedance method and ampere-turns method.
The only drawback of this method is that the separate curve for every load condition is
necessary to plot if potier triangles for various load conditions are required.

4. ASA Modification of M.M.F. Method

We have seen that neither of the two methods, M.M.F. method and E.M.F. method is capable of
giving the reliable values of the voltage regulation. The error in the results of these methods is
mainly due to the two reasons,
1. In these methods, the magnetic circuit is assumed to be unsaturated. This assumption is
unrealistic as in practice. It is not possible to have completely unsaturated magnetic circuit.
2. In salient pole alternators, it is not correct to combine field ampere turns and armature ampere
turns. This is because the field winding is always concentrated on a pole core while the armature
winding is always distributed. Similarly the field and armature m.m.f.s act on magnetic circuits
having different reluctances in case of salient pole machine hence phasor combination of field
and armature m.m.f. is not fully justified.
Inspite of these short comings, due to the simplicity of constructions the ASA modified from
of M.M.F. method is very commonly used fore the calculation of voltage regulation.

Fig. 1
Consider the phasor diagram according to the M.M.F. method as shown in the Fig. 1 for cosΦ
lagging p.f. load. The FR is resultant excitation of FO and FAR where FO is excitation required to
produce rated terminal voltage on open circuit while is m.m.f. required for balancing armature
reaction effect.
Thus OB = FR = resultant m.m.f.
The angle between FAR and perpendicular to FO is Φ, where cosΦ is power factor of the load.
But OB = F resultant is based on the assumption of unsaturated magnetic circuit which is not
true in practice. Actually m.m.f. equal to BB' is additional required to take into account the effect
of partially saturated magnetic field. Thus the total excitation required is OB' rather than OB.
Let us see method of determining the additional excitation needed to take into account effect
of partially saturated magnetic circuit.
Construct the no load saturation characteristics i.e. O.C.C. and zero power factor
characteristics. Draw the potier triangle as discussed earlier and determine the leakage reactance
XL for the alternator. The excitation necessary to balance armature reaction can also be obtained
from the potier triangle. The armature resistance is known.

Construct ASA diagram, and draw phasor diagram related to the above equation.
The ASA diagram has x-axis as field current and y-axis as the open circuit voltage. Draw O.C.C.
on the ASA diagram. Then assuming x-axis as current phasor, draw Vph at angle Φ, above the
horizontal. The Vph is the rated terminal voltage. Add Ia Ra in phase with Ia i.e. horizontal and
Ia XLperpendicular to Ia Ra to Vph. This gives the voltage E1ph.
Now with O as a central and radius E1ph draw an arc which will intersect y-axis at E1. From E1,
draw horizontal line intersecting both air gap line and O.C.C. These points of intersection are say
B and B'. The distance between the points BB' corresponding to the field current scale gives the
additional excitation required to take into account effect of partially saturated field. Adding this
to FR we get the total excitation as FR'. From this FR', the open circuit voltage E1ph can be
determined from O.C.C. using which the regulation can be determined. The ASA diagram is shown
in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

The resultant obtained by ASA method are reliable for both salient as well as nonsalient
pole machines.
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
It may be recalled that a D.C. generator can be run as a D.C. motor. In same way, an alternator
may operate as a motor by connecting its armature winding to a 3-phase supply. It is then called
a synchronous motor. As the name implies, a synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed (Ns
= 120f/P) i.e., in synchronism with the revolving field produced by the 3-phase supply. The speed
of rotation is, therefore, tied to the frequency of the source. Since the frequency is fixed, the
motor speed stays constant irrespective of the load or voltage of 3- phase supply. However,
synchronous motors are not used so much because they run at constant speed (i.e., synchronous
speed) but it found very useful applications because they possess other unique electrical
properties

 Construction of Three Phase Synchronous Motor

Similar to d.c. machine where there is no constructional difference between a generator and
motor, There is no difference between the construction of synchronous motor and the
alternator, both being the synchronous machines.
The synchronous motor construction is basically similar to rotating field type alternator. It
consists of twp parts:
i) Stator: Consisting of a three phase star or delta connected winding. This is excited by a three
phase a.c. supply.

ii) Rotor: Rotor is a field winding, the construction of which can be salient (projected pole) or
non-salient (cylindrical) type. Practically most of the synchronous motors use salient i.e.
projected pole type construction. The field winding is excited by a separate d.c. supply through
slip rings.

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of three phase synchronous motor

 Working Principle Of Synchronous Motor

Principal
Synchronous motor works on the principle of the magnetic locking. When two unlike poles are
brought near each other, if the magnets are strong, there exists a tremendous force of attraction
between those two poles. In such condition the two magnets are said to be magnetically locked.
 If now one of the two magnets is rotated, the other also rotates in the same direction, with
the same speed due to the force of attraction i.e. due to magnetic locking condition. The principle
is shown schematically in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Principle of magnetic locking

Working
So to have the magnetic locking condition, there must exist two unlike poles and magnetic axes
of two must be brought very close to each other. Let us see the application of this principle in
case of synchronous motor.
Consider a three phase synchronous motor, whose stator is wound for 2 poles. The two
magnetic fields are produced in the synchronous motor by exciting both the windings, stator and
rotor with three phase a.c. supply and d.c. supply respectively. When three phase winding is
excited by a three phase a.c. supply the the flux produced by the three phase winding is always
of rotating type, which is already discussed in the previous post. Such a magnetic flux rotates in
space at a speed called synchronous speed. This magnetic field is called rotating magnetic field.
The rotating magnetic field creates the effect similar to the physical rotation of magnets in space
with a synchronous speed. So stator of the synchronous motor produces one magnet which is as
good as rotating in space with the synchronous speed. The synchronous speed of a stator rotating
magnetic field depends on the supply frequency and the number of poles for which stator
winding is wound. If the frequency of the a.c. supply is f Hz and stator is wound for P number of
poles, then the speed of the rotating magnetic field is synchronous given by,
Ns = 120f/P r.p.m.
In this case, as stator is wound for say 2 poles, with 50 Hz supply, the speed of the rotating
magnetic field will be 3000 r.p.m. This effect is similar to the physical rotation of two poles with
a speed of Ns r.p.m. For simplicity of understanding let us assume that the stator poles are N1 and
S1which are rotating at a speed of Ns. The direction of rotation of rotating magnetic field is say
clockwise.
When the field winding on rotor is excited by a d.c. supply, it also produces two poles,
assuming rotor construction to be two pole, salient type. Let these poles be N 2 and S2.
Now one magnet is rotating at Ns having poles N1 and S1 while at start rotor is stationary i.e.
second magnet is stationary having poles N2 and S2. If somehow the unlike poles N1 and S2 or
S1and N2 are brought near each other, the magnetic locking may get established between stator
and rotor poles.

As stator poles are rotating due to magnetic locking rotor will also rotate in the same direction
as that of stator poles i.e. in the direction of rotating magnetic field, with the same speed i.e N s.
Hence synchronous motor rotates at one and only one speed i.e. synchronous speed. But this all
depends on existence of magnetic locking between stator and rotor poles. Practically it is not
possible for stator poles to pull the rotor poles from their stationary position into magnetic
locking condition. Hence synchronous motors are not self-starting. Let us see the reason behind
this in detail.

Why Synchronous Motor is Not Self Starting?

(i) Consider a 3-phase synchronous motor having two rotor poles NR and SR. Then the stator
will also be wound for two poles NS and SS. The motor has direct voltage applied to the
rotor winding and a 3-phase voltage applied to the stator winding. The stator winding
produces a rotating field which revolves round the stator at synchronous speed Ns (= 120
f/P). The direct (or zero frequency) current sets up a two-pole field which is stationary so
long as the rotor is not turning. Thus, we have a situation in which there exists a pair of
revolving armature poles (i.e., NS - SS) and a pair of stationary rotor poles (i.e., NR - SR).
(ii) Suppose at any instant, the stator poles are at positions A and B as shown in Fig: It is clear
that poles NS and NR repel each other and so do the poles SS and SR. Therefore, the rotor
tends to move in the anticlockwise direction. After a period of half-cycle (or ½ f = 1/100
second), the polarities of the stator poles are reversed but the polarities of the rotor poles
remain the same as shown in Fig: Now SS and NR attract each other and so do NS and SR.
Therefore, the rotor tends to move in the clockwise direction. Since the stator poles
change their polarities rapidly, they tend to pull the rotor first in one direction and then
after a period of half-cycle in the other. Due to high inertia of the rotor, the motor fails to
start. Hence, a synchronous motor has no self- starting torque i.e., a synchronous motor
cannot start by itself.

 Procedure to Start a Synchronous Motor

Now suppose the rotor is rotated by some external means at a speed almost equal to
synchronous speed. And then the rotor is excited to produce its poles. At a certain instant now,
the stator and rotor unlike poles will face each other such that their magnetic axes are near each
other. Then the force of attraction between the two, pulls both of them into the magnetic locking
condition.
Once magnetic locking is established, the rotor and stator poles continue to occupy the same
relative positions. Due to this, rotor continuously experiences a unidirectional torque in the
direction of the rotating magnetic field. Hence rotor rotates at synchronous speed and said to be
in synchronism with rotating magnetic field. The external device used to rotate rotor near
synchronous speed can be removed once synchronism is established. The rotor then continues
its rotation at Nsdue to magnetic locking. This is the reason why synchronous motor runs only at
synchronous speed and does not rotate at any speed other than the synchronous. This operation
is shown in the Fig 1(a) and (b).

Fig. 1 Unidirectional torque experienced by rotor

It is necessary to keep field winding i.e. rotor excited from d.c. supply to maintain the magnetic
locking, as long as motor is operating.
So a general procedure to start a synchronous motor can be stated as :
1. Give a three a.c. supply to a three phase winding. This will produce rotating magnetic field
rotating at synchronous speed Ns r.p.m.
2. Then drive the rotor by some external means like diesel engine in the direction of rotating
magnetic field, at a speed very near or equal to synchronous speed.
3. Switch on the d.c. supply given to the rotor which will produce rotor poles. now there are twp
fields one is rotating magnetic field produced by stator while the other is produced by rotor which
is physically rotated almost at the same speed as that of rotating magnetic field.
4. At a particular instant, both the fields get magnetically locked. The stator field pulls rotor field
into synchronism. Then the external device used to rotate rotor can be removed. But rotor will
continue to rotate at the same speed as that of rotating magnetic field i.e. Ns due to magnetic
locking.
Key Point : So the essence of the discussion is that to start the synchronous motor, it needs some
device to rotate the rotor at a speed very near or equal to the synchronous speed.

Methods of Starting Synchronous Motor

As seen earlier, synchronous motor is not self starting. It is necessary to rotate the rotor at a
speed very near to synchronous speed. This is possible by various method in practice. The various
methods to start the synchronous motor are,
1. Using pony motors
2. Using damper winding
3. As a slip ring induction motor
4. Using small d.c. machine coupled to it.
1. Using pony motors
In this method, the rotor is brought to the synchronous speed with the help of some external
device like small induction motor. Such an external device is called 'pony motor'.
Once the rotor attains the synchronous speed, the d.c. excitation to the rotor is switched on.
Once the synchronism is established pony motor is decoupled. The motor then continues to
rotate as synchronous motor.
2. Using Damper Winding
In a synchronous motor, in addition to the normal field winding, the additional winding
consisting of copper bars placed in the slots in the pole faces. The bars are short circuited with
the help of end rings. Such an additional winding on the rotor is called damper winding. This
winding as short circuited, acts as a squirrel cage rotor winding of an induction motor. The
schematic representation of such damper winding is shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 starting as a squirrel cage I.M.

 Once the rotor is excited by a three phase supply, the motors starts rotating as an induction
motor at sub synchronous speed. Then d.c. supply is given to the field winding. At a particular
instant motor gets pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at a synchronous speed. As rotor
rotates at synchronous speed, the relative motion between damper winding and the rotating
magnetic field is zero. Hence when motor is running as synchronous motor, there can not be any
induced e.m.f. in the damper winding. So damper winding is active only at start, to run the motor
as an induction motor at start. Afterwards it is out of the circuit. As damper winding is short
circuited and motor gets started as induction motor, it draws high current at start so induction
motor starters like star-delta, autotransformer etc. used to start the synchronous motor as an
induction motor.
3. As a Slip Ring Induction Motor
The above method of starting synchronous motor as a squirrel cage induction motor does
not provide high starting torque. So to achieve this, instead of shorting the damper winding, it is
designed to a form a three phase star or delta connected winding. The three ends of this winding
are brought out through slip rings. An external rheostat then can be introduced in series with the
rotor circuit. So when stator is excited, the motor starts as a slip ring induction motor and due to
resistance added in the rotor provides high starting torque. The resistance is then gradually cut
off, as motor gathers speed. When motor attains speed near synchronous. d.c. excitation is
provided to the rotor, then motors gets pulled into synchronism ans starts rotating at
synchronous speed. The damper winding is shorted by shorting the slip rings. The initial
resistance added in the rotor not only provides high starting torque but also limits high inrush of
starting current. Hence it acts as a motor resistance starter.
The synchronous motor started by this method is called a slip ring induction motor is shown
in the Fig.1(b).

Fig. 2 Starting as a slip ring I.M.

It can be observed from the Fig. 1(b) that the same three phase rotor winding acts as a normal
rotor winding by shorting two of the phases. From the positive terminal, current 'I' flows in one
of the phases, which divides into two other phases at start point as 1/2 through each, when
switch is thrown on d.c. supply side.
4. Using Small D.C. Machine
Many a times, a large synchronous motor are provided with a coupled d.c. machine. This
machine is used as a d.c. motor to rotate the synchronous motor at a synchronous speed. Then
the excitation to the rotor is provided. Once motor starts running as a synchronous motor, the
same d.c. machine acts as a d.c. generator called exciter. The field of the synchronous motor is
then excited by this exciter itself.

 Equivalent Circuit
Unlike the induction motor, the synchronous motor is connected to two electrical systems; a d.c.
source at the rotor terminals and an a.c. system at the stator terminals.

1. Under normal conditions of synchronous motor operation, no voltage is induced in the rotor
by the stator field because the rotor winding is rotating at the same speed as the stator field.
Only the impressed direct current is present in the rotor winding and ohmic resistance of this
winding is the only opposition to it as shown in Fig: (i).

2. In the stator winding, two effects are to be considered, the effect of stator field on the stator
winding and the effect of the rotor field cutting the stator conductors at synchronous speed.

(i) The effect of stator field on the stator (or armature) conductors is accounted for by including
an inductive reactance in the armature winding. This is called synchronous reactance Xs. A
resistance Ra must be considered to be in series with this reactance to account for the copper
losses in the stator or armature winding as shown in Fig: (i). This resistance combines with
synchronous reactance and gives the synchronous impedance of the machine.

(ii) The second effect is that a voltage is generated in the stator winding by the synchronously-
revolving field of the rotor as shown in Fig: 2.23 (i). This generated e.m.f. E b is known as back
e.m.f. and opposes the stator voltage V. The magnitude of Eb depends upon rotor speed and rotor
flux ф per pole. Since rotor speed is constant; the value of Eb depends upon the rotor flux per
pole i.e. exciting rotor current If.
Fig: 2.23 (i) shows the schematic diagram for one phase of a star-connected synchronous motor
while Fig: 2.23 (ii) shows its equivalent circuit. Referring to the equivalent circuit in Fig: 2.23 (ii).

Net voltage/phase in stator winding is

Er = V - Eb phasor difference
Armature current/phase,

This equivalent circuit helps considerably in understanding the operation of a synchronous

motor. A synchronous motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that E b =
V. If the field excitation is such that Eb < V, the motor is said to be under-excited. The motor is
said to be over-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb > V. As we shall see, for both normal
and under excitation, the motor has lagging power factor. However, for over-excitation, the
motor has leading power factor.

 Behavior of Synchronous Motor on Loading

When a d.c. motor or an induction motor is loaded, the speed of the motors drops. This is because
the load torque demand increases then the torque produced by the motor. Hence motor draws
more current to produce more torque to satisfy the load but its speed reduces. In case of
synchronous motor speed always remains constant equal to the synchronous speed, irrespective
of load condition. It is interesting to study how synchronous motor reacts to changes in the load
condition.
In a d.c. motor, armature develops an e.m.f.after motoring action starts, which opposes
supply voltage, called back e.m.f. Eb.
Hence if Ra the armature resistance and V is the supply voltage, we have established the
relation for the armature current as,
Ia = (V- Eb) / Ra ...... for a d.c. motor
where Eb = ΦPNZ / 60A .........for a d.c. motor

In case of synchronous motor also, once rotor starts rotating at synchronous speed, the
stationary stator (armature) conductors cut the flux produced by rotor. The only difference is
conductors are stationary and flux is rotating. Due to this there is an induced e.m.f. in the stator
which according to Lenz's law opposes the supply voltage. This induced e.m.f. is called back e.m.f.
in case of synchronous motor. It is obtained as Ebph i.e. back e.m.f. per phase. This gets generated
as the principle of alternator and hence alternating in nature and its magnitude can be calculated
by the equation,
 or Ebph α Φ
As speed is always synchronous, the frequency is constant and hence magnitude of such back
e.m.f. can be controlled by changing the flux Φ produced by the rotor.
So back e.m.f. in case of synchronous motor depends on the excitation given to the field
winding and not on the speed, as speed is always constant.
As stator construction is similar to the armature of a three phase alternator, the impedance
of the stator is called synchronous impedance of synchronous motor consisting of Ra as the stator
winding resistance and Xs as the synchronous reactance. All the values are generally expressed
on per phase basis.
Zs = Ra + jXs Ω per phase
So similar to the d.c. motor, we can write voltage equation for a synchronous motor as,

The difference is that this equation is vector equation as each quantity is alternating and has
different phase. So addition is to be performed vectorially to obtain the result.

where Vph is the supply voltage per phase. The magnitude of Ebph is adjusted almost equal to
Vph, on no load by controlling flux produced by rotor i.e. field winding.
1.1 Ideal Condition on No Load
The ideal condition on no load can be assumed by neglecting various losses in the motor.
And Vph = Ebph
Under this condition, the magnetic locking between stator and rotor is in such a way that the
magnetic axes of both, coincide with each other as shown in the Fig.1. As this is possible only
under no losses condition, is said to be ideal in case of synchronous motor.

Fig. 1 Magnetic locking under no load condition

 As magnitude of Ebph and Vph is same and opposes the phasor diagram for this condition can
be shown as in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram on no load losses

In practice this is impossible. Motor has to supply mechanical losses and iron losses alongwith
small copper losses. Let us see how it can be explained in case of synchronous motor.
1.2 Synchronous Motor on No Load (With Losses)
We have seen that Ebph and Vph are magnitudewise same, which is adjusted by controlling
field current, in turn controlling the flux.
Now due to the various losses practically present on no load, the magnetic locking exists
between stator and rotor but in such a way that there exists a small angle difference between
the axes of two magnetic fields as shown in the Fig.3.

Fig. 3 Magnetic locking under practical condition

So the rotor axis falls back with respect to stator axis by angle 'δ' as shown in the Fig.3 This
angle decides the amount of current required to produce the torque to supply various losses.
Hence this angle is called load angle, power angle, coupling angle, torque angle or angle of
retardation and denoted as δ as mentioned earlier.
The magnetic locking still exists between the two and rotor rotates at synchronous speed
alongwith rotating magnetic field maintaining angle difference between the axes of two fields,
as shown in the Fig. 3(b). The flux lines between the two get stretched due to such retardation of
rotor axis with respect to stator.
 Now though │Ebph │ = │ Vph │, Ebph will not be located in exact opposition with Vph , but will get
displaced from its initial position by angle'δ' as shown in the Fig. 4(a).

Fig. 4(a) Phasor diagram for no load condition with losses

Hence the vector difference between the two, Ebph and Vph is not zero but give rise to a phasor
'OB' as shown.

This resultant decides the amount of current Iaph to be drawn to produce the torque which
meets the various losses present in the synchronous motor. Under no load condition, δ is very
small and hence ERph is also very small.
So current drawn by the motor is also very small on no load which is the case in all the various
type of motors.
1.3 Synchronous Motor on Load
As the load on the synchronous motor increases, there is no change in its speed. But what
gets affected is the load angle 'δ' i.e. the angle by which rotor axis retards with respect to stator
axis.
Hence as load increases, δ increases but speed remains synchronous.
As δ increases, though Ebph and Vph magnitudes are same, displacement of Ebph from its ideal
position increases.

As synchronous impedance is constant, the magnitude of Iaph drawn by the motor increases
as load increases. This current produces the necessary torque which satisfied the increased load
demand. The magnetic locking still exists between the rotor and stator.
The phasor diagrams showing ERph increases as load increases are shown in the Fig. 4(b) and
(c).
 Fig. 4
So from the above discussion it is clear that on no load, current drawn by the motor is very
small. This is because the stator and the rotor magnetic axes are almost matching transformer
each other i.e. load angle δ is very small. As load increases, rotor magnetic axis starts retarding
with respect to stator axis i.e. load angle δ increases maintaining the magnetic locking condition.
And hence in case of the synchronous motor load affects the angle δ without affecting the speed.
As δ increases, the magnitude of ERph increases which shows that motor draws more current from
the supply. This satisfies the increased load torque demand.
So torque produced in the synchronous motor depends on the load angle 'δ' for small values
of and to be precise depends on 'sinδ'. The load angle 'δ' is measured in degrees electrical. As
angle δ increases, the magnetic flux lines producing the force of attraction between the two get
more and more stretched. This weakens the force maintaining the magnetic locking, though
torque produced by the motor increases. As δ reaches upto 90 o electrical i.e. half a pole pitch,
the stretched flux lines get broken and hence magnetic locking between the stator and rotor no
longer exists. The motor comes out of synchronism. So torque produced at δ equal to
90o electrical is the maximum torque, a synchronous motor can produce, maintaining magnetic
locking i.e. synchronism. Such s torque is called pull out torque. The relationship between torque
produced and load angle is shown in the Fig 5.

Fig. 5 Torque angle characteristic

 Analysis of Phasor Diagram
Consider a phasor diagram with normal excitation i.e. such a current through field winding which
will produce flux that will adjust magnitude of Ebph same as Vph.
Let δ be the load angle corresponding to the load on the motor. So from the exact opposing
position of Ebph with respect to Vph. Ebph gets displaced by angle δ.
Vector difference of Ebph and Vph, gives the phasor which represents Ia Zs, called ERph.
Now Zs = Ra + j Xs Ω
where Ra = Resistance of stator per phase
Xs = Synchronous reactance of stator per phase
i.e. θ = tan-1 (Xs/Ra)
and | Zs | = √(Ra2 + Rs2) Ω
This angle 'θ' is called internal machine angle or an impedance angle.
The significant of 'θ' is that it tells us that phasor Iaph lags behind ERph i.e. Ia Zs by angle θ.
Current always lags in case of inductive impedance with respect to voltage drop across that
impedance. So phasor Iaph can be shown lagging with respect to ERph by angle θ. Practically Ra is
very small compared to Xa and hence θ tends to 90o.
Note : The power factor at which motor is running, gets decided by the angle between Vph and
Iaph shown. This angle is denoted as Φ and called power factor angle.

and cos Φ = Power factor at which motor is working.

The nature of this p.f. is lagging if Iaph lags Vph by angle Φ. While it is leading if Iaph leads
Vphby angle Φ. Phasor diagram indicating all the details is shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Phasor diagram under normal working condition

 Operation of Synchronous Motor at Constant Load Variable Excitation

We have seen previously that when load changes, for constant excitation, current drawn by the
motor increases. But if excitation i.e. field current is changed keeping load constant, the
synchronous motor reacts by by changing its power factor of operation. This is most interesting
feature of synchronous motor. Let us see the details of such operation.
Consider a synchronous motor operating at a certain load. The corresponding load angle is δ.
At start, consider normal behaviour of the synchronous motor, where excitation is adjusted
to get Eb = V i.e. induced e.m.f. is equal to applied voltage. Such an excitation is called Normal
Excitation of the motor. Motor is drawing certain current from the supply and power input to the
motor is say Pin. The power factor of the motor is lagging in nature as shown in the Fig. 1(a).
Now when excitation is changed, changes but there is hardly any change in the losses of the
motor. So the power input also remains same for constant load demanding same power output.
Now Pin = √3 VL IL cos Φ = 3 (Vph Iph cos Φ)
Most of the times, the voltage applied to the motor is constant. Hence for constant power
input as Vph is constant, 'Iph cos Φ' remains constant.
Note : So far this entire operation of variable excitation it is necessary to remember that the
cosine component of armature current, Ia cosΦ remains constant.
So motor adjusts its cos Φ i.e. p.f. nature and value so that Ia cos Φ remains constant when
excitation of the motor is changed keeping load constant. This is the reason why synchronous
motor reacts by changing its power factor to variable excitation conditions.
1.1 Under Excitation
When the excitation is adjusted in such a way that the magnitude of induced e.m.f. is less
than the applied voltage (Eb < V) the excitation is called Under Excitation.
Due to this, ER increases in magnitude. This means for constant Zs, current drawn by the motor
increases. But ER phase shifts in such a way that, phasor Ia also shifts (as ER ^ Ia = θ) to keep Ia cos
Φ component constant. This is shown in the Fig. 1(b). So in under excited condition, current
drawn by the motor increases. The p.f. cos Φ decreases and becomes more and more lagging in
nature.
1.2 Over Excitation
The excitation to the field winding for which the induced e.m.f. becomes greater than applied
voltage (Eb < V), is called over excitation.
Due to increased magnitude of Eb, ER also increases in magnitude. But the phase of ER also
changes. Now = ER ^ Ia = θ is constant, hence Ia also changes its phase. So Φ changes. The
Iaincreases to keep Ia cos Φ constant as shown in Fig.1(c). The phase of ER changes so that
Ia becomes leading with respect to Vph in over excited condition. So power factor of the motor
becomes leading in nature. So overexcited synchronous motor works on leading power factor.
So power factor decreases as over excitation increases but it becomes more and more leading in
nature.
1.3 Critical Excitation
When the excitation is changed, the power factor changes. The excitation for which the power
factor of the motor is unity (cos Φ = 1) is called critical excitation. Then Iaph is in phase with Vph.
Now Ia cos Φ must be constant, cos Φ = 1 is at its maximum hence motor has to draw minimum
current from supply for unity power factor condition.
So for critical excitation, cos Φ = 1 and current drawn by the motor is minimum compared to
current drawn by the motor for various excitation conditions. This is shown in the Fig. 1(d).

Fig. 1 Constant load variable excitation operation

 V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves
From the previous article, it is clear that if excitation is varied from very low (under excitation) to
very high (over excitation) value, then current Ia decreases, becomes minimum at unity p.f. and
then again increases. But initial lagging current becomes unity and then becomes leading in
nature. This can be shown as in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Excitation can be increased by increasing the field current passing through the field winding
of synchronous motor. If graph of armature current drawn by the motor (Ia) against field current
(If) is plotted, then its shape looks like an english alphabet V. If such graphs are obtained at various
load conditions we get family of curves, all looking like V. Such curves are called V-curves of
synchronous motor. These are shown in the Fig. 2a).
As against this, if the power factor (cos Φ) is plotted against field current (If), then the shape
of the graph looks like an inverted V. Such curves obtained by plotting p.f. against I f, at various
load conditions are called Inverted V-curves of synchronous motor. These curves are shown in
the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2 V-curves and Inverted V-curves

1.1 Experimental Setup to Obtain V-Curves
Fig. 3 shows an experimental setup to obtain V-curves and Inverted V-curves of synchronous
motor.
Stator is connected top three phase supply through wattmeters and ammeter. The two
wattmeter method is used to measure input power of motor. The ammeter is reading line current
which is same as armature (stator) current. Voltmeter is reading line voltage.

Fig. 3 Experimental setup for V-curves

A rheostat in a potential divider arrangement is used in the field circuit. By controlling the
voltage by rheostat, the field current can be changed. Hence motor can be subjected to variable
excitation condition to note down the readings.
Observation Table :

Now IL = Ia, per phase value can be determined, from the stator winding connections.
IL = Iaph for stator connection
IL/√3 = Iaph for delta connection
The power factor can be obtained as

The result table can be prepared as :

 The graph can be plotted from this result table.
1) Ia Vs If → V-curve
2) cosΦ Vs If → Inverted V-curve
The entire procedure can be repeated for various load conditions to obtain family of V-curves
and Inverted V-curves.

 Hunting and Damper Winding:

Hunting
Sudden changes of load on synchronous motors may sometimes set up oscillations that are
superimposed upon the normal rotation, resulting in periodic variations of a very low frequency
in speed. This effect is known as hunting or phase-swinging. Occasionally, the trouble is
aggravated by the motor having a natural period of oscillation approximately equal to the hunting
period. When the synchronous motor phase-swings into the unstable region, the motor may fall
out of synchronism.
Damper Winding:
The tendency of hunting can be minimized by the use of a damper winding. Damper windings are
placed in the pole faces. No emfs are induced in the damper bars and no current flows in the
damper winding, which is not operative. Whenever any irregularity takes place in the speed of
rotation, however, the polar flux moves from side to side of the pole, this movement causing the
flux to move backwards and forwards across the damper bars. Emfs are induced in the damper
bars forwards across the damper winding. These tend to damp out the superimposed oscillatory
motion by absorbing its energy. The damper winding, thus, has no effect upon the normal
average speed, it merely tends to damp out the oscillations in the speed, acting as a kind of
electrical flywheel. In the case of a three-phase synchronous motor the stator currents set up a
rotating mmf rotating at uniform speed and if the rotor is rotating at uniform speed, no emfs are
induced in the damper bars. Fig: shows a salient pole synchronous motor with damper winding.
Or given by another away
 Hunting and Damper Winding:
Hunting
It is seen that, when synchronous motor is on no load, the stator and rotor pole axes almost
coincide with each other.
When motor is loaded, the rotor axis falls back with respect to stator. The angle by which rotor
retards is called load angle or angle of retardation δ.
If the load connected to the motor is suddenly changed by a large amount, then rotor tries
to retard to take its new equilibrium position.
But due to inertia of the rotor, it can not achieve its final position instantaneously. While
achieving its new position due to inertia it passes beyond its final position corresponding to new
load. This will produce more torque than what is demanded. This will try reduce the load angle
and rotor swings in other direction. So there is periodic swinging of the rotor on both sides of the
new equilibrium position, corresponding to the load. Such a swing is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Hunting in synchronous motor

Such oscillations of the rotor about its new equilibrium position, due to sudden application
or removal of load is called swinging or hunting in synchronous motor.
Due to such hunting, the load angle changes its value about its final value δ. As changes, for
same excitation i.e. Ebph the current drawn by the motor also changes. Hence during hunting there
are changes in the current drawn by the motor which may cause problem to the other appliances
connected to the same line. The changes in armature current due to hunting is shown in the Fig.
2.

Fig. 2 Current variations during hunting

 If such oscillations continue for longer period, there are large fluctuations in the current. If such
variations synchronous with the natural period of oscillation of the rotor, the amplitude of the
swing may become so great that motor may come out of synchronism. At this instant mechanical
stresses on the rotor are sever and current drawn by the motor is also very large. So motor gets
subjected to large mechanical and electrical stresses.
Note : Hence hunting is not desirable phenomenon from motor point of view and must be
prevented.
1.1 Use of Damper Winding to Prevent Hunting
It is mentioned earlier that in the slots provided in the pole faces, a short circuited winding is
placed. This is called damper winding.
When rotor starts oscillating i.e. when hunting starts a relative motion between damper
winding and the rotating magnetic field is created. Due to this relative motion, e.m.f. gets induced
in the damper winding. According to Lenz's law, the direction of induced e.m.f. is always so as to
oppose the cause producing it. The cause is the hunting. So such induced e.m.f. oppose the
hunting. The induced e.m.f. tries to damp the oscillations as quickly as possible. Thus hunting is
minimised due to damper winding.
The time required by the rotor to take its final equilibrium position after hunting is called as
setting time of the rotor. If the load angle is plotted against time, the schematic representation
of hunting can be obtained as shown in the Fig. 3. It is shown in the diagram that due to damper
winding the setting time of the rotor reduces considreably.

Fig. Effect of damper winding on hunting

 Synchronous Condenser
A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore, behaves as a
capacitor. An over-excited synchronous motor running on no-load in known as synchronous
condenser. When such a machine is connected in parallel with induction motors or other devices
that operate at low lagging power factor, the leading kVAR supplied by the synchronous
condenser partly neutralizes the lagging reactive kVAR of the loads. Consequently, the power
factor of the system is improved. Fig: 2.29 shows the power factor improvement by synchronous
condenser method. The 3 - f load takes current IL at low lagging power factor cosфL. The
synchronous condenser takes a current Im which leads the voltage by an angle fm. The resultant
current I is the vector sum of Im and IL and lags behind the voltage by an angle ф. It is clear that
ф is less than фL so that cos f is greater than cos фL. Thus the power factor is increased from
cos фL to cos ф. Synchronous condensers are generally used at major bulk supply substations for
power factor improvement.

Advantages
(i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor can be
changed by any amount. This helps in achieving step less control of power factor.
(ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.
(iii) The faults can be removed easily.

Disadvantages
(i) There are considerable losses in the motor.
(ii) The maintenance cost is high.
(iii) It produces noise.
(iv) Except in sizes above 500 RVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of the
same rating.
(v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, then-fore, an auxiliary equipment
has to be provided for this purpose.

Or Given by another way

 Synchronous Condenser
When synchronous motor is over excited it takes leading p.f. current. If synchronous motor is on
no load, where load angle δ is very small and it is over excited (Eb > V) then power factor angle
increases almost upto 90o. And motor runs with almost zero leading power factor condition. This
is shown in the phasor diagram Fig. 1.
 Fig. 1 Synchronous condenser
This characteristics is similar to a normal capacitor which takes leading power factor current.
Hence over excited synchronous motor operating on no load condition is called as synchronous
condenser or synchronous capacitor. This is the property due to which synchronous motor is used
as a phase advancer or as power improvement device.
1.1 Disadvantage of Low Power Factor
In various industries, many machines are of induction motor type. The lighting and heating
loads are supplied through transformers. The induction motors and transformers draw lagging
current from the supply. Hence the overall power factor is very low and lagging in nature.
The power is given by,
P = VI cosΦ .............. single phase
. .. I = P/(VcosΦ)
The supply voltage is constant and hence for supplying a fixed power P, the current is inversely
proportional to the p.f. cosΦ. Let P = KW is to be supplied with a voltage of 230 V then,
Case i) cosΦ = 0.8,
I = (5 x103)/(230 x 0.8) = 27.17 A
Case ii) cos = 0.6,

I = (5 x103)/(230 x 0.6) = 36.23 A

Thus as p.f. decreases, becomes low, the current drawn from the supply increases to supply
same power to the load. But if p.f. maintained high, the current drawn from supply is less.
The high current due to low p.f. has following disadvantages :
1. For higher current, conductor size required is more which increases the cost.
2. The p.f. is given by
cosΦ = Active power/ Apparent = (P in KW)/ (S i.e. KVA rating)
Thus for fixed active power P, low p.f. demands large KVA rating alternators and transformers.
This increases the cost.
3. Large current means more copper losses and poor efficiency.
4. Large current causes large voltage drops in transmission lines, alternators and other
equipments. This results into poor regulation. To compensate such drop extra equipments is
necessary which further increases the cost.
Note : Hence power factor improvement is must practice. Hence the supply authorities
encourage consumers to improve the p.f.
1.1 Use of Synchronous Condenser in Power Factor Improvement
The low power factor increases the cost of generation, distribution and transmission of the
electrical energy. Hence such low power factor needs to be corrected. Such power factor
correction is possible by connecting synchronous motor across the supply and operating it on no
load with over excitation.
Now let Vph is the voltage applied and I1ph is the current lagging Vph by angle Φ1. This power
factor Φ1 is very low, lagging.
The synchronous motor acting as a synchronous condenser is now connected across the same
supply. This draws a leading current of I2ph.
The total current drawn from the supply is now phasor of Iph and I2ph. This total current IT now
lags Vph by smaller angle Φ due to which effective power factor gets improved. This is shown in
the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Power factor correction by synchronous condenser

This is how the synchronous motor as a synchronous condenser is used to improve power
factor of the combined load.