nanomaterials

Review
Carbon and Cellulose-Based Nanoparticle-Reinforced Polymer
Nanocomposites: A Critical Review
Gopal Yuvaraj 1 , Manickam Ramesh 2, * and Lakshminarasimhan Rajeshkumar 3

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, RVS College of Engineering and Technology,

Coimbatore 641402, India
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore 641402, India
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Coimbatore 641407, India
* Correspondence: mramesh97@gmail.com

Abstract: Nanomaterials are currently used for different applications in several fields. Bringing the
measurements of a material down to nanoscale size makes vital contributions to the improvement of
the characteristics of materials. The polymer composites acquire various properties when added to
nanoparticles, increasing characteristics such as bonding strength, physical property, fire retardance,
energy storage capacity, etc. The objective of this review was to validate the major functionality of
the carbon and cellulose-based nanoparticle-filled polymer nanocomposites (PNC), which include
fabricating procedures, fundamental structural properties, characterization, morphological properties,
and their applications. Subsequently, this review includes arrangement of nanoparticles, their
influence, and the factors necessary to attain the required size, shape, and properties of the PNCs.

Keywords: carbon; cellulose nanoparticles; polymer composites; processing methods; properties;

characterization

Citation: Yuvaraj, G.; Ramesh, M.;

Rajeshkumar, L. Carbon and 1. Introduction
Cellulose-Based
Nanoparticles are important materials, even though they are of nanometer size. As a
Nanoparticle-Reinforced Polymer
Nanocomposites: A Critical Review.
result of their nanoscale size range, the inter-relationships between various constituents is
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803.
accomplished. The nano-composite materials are categorized into different materials based
https://doi.org/10.3390/ on the size of the nanoparticle. The relationship between the volume and surface area of
nano13111803 the material also plays a vital role in the property of the materials due to its dimensional
characteristics [1,2]. Cellulose nanomaterials (CNMs) have a major role in the field of
Academic Editor: Antonios
current nanomaterials and are an area of increased interest for researchers due to their
Kelarakis
degradability, bio-compatibility, and economic benefits. Polymer-based nanomaterials
Received: 2 May 2023 are considered to be bio-degradable and bio-compatible, and are alternatives for several
Revised: 29 May 2023 applications due to their intriguing properties. Nanoparticle widths ranging from 1 to
Accepted: 31 May 2023 100 nm have novel properties, such as a huge surface-to-volume proportion, a smaller size,
Published: 5 June 2023 the capacity to embody different medications, etc. [3,4].
Nanocomposites fabricated along with metallic, non-metallic, and polymer-based ma-
terials provide extraordinary benefits, such as surface deformities and other characteristics
of fabricated materials. These composites are characterized by their qualities that include a
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
larger surface area, significant mechanical properties, wear and scratch resistance, and im-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
proved optical characteristics [5,6]. Carbon-based fillers in PNCs are termed as 1D straight
This article is an open access article
elements such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), 2D layered elements such as montmorillonite,
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
and 3D powder elements such as silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). Similarly, cellulose-based
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
nanoparticles are extracted from natural fibers. Generally, polysaccharide-based nanopar-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
ticles are classified as starch-based, cellulose-based, protein-based, and glycogen-based
4.0/). nanoparticles. Due to the bonding of the polymer matrix, with nanofiller a high impact in

Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13111803 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nanomaterials

Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 2 of 29

nanocomposites could be noticed. Subsequently, increasing the number of nanofillers with

sizes under 100 nm may bring enhancements in the composite strength. The fabrication of
nanocomposites can be undertaken by utilizing in situ strategies, the solvent technique,
or by blending them with a polymer matrix. The notable characteristics of PNCs are their
better thermal stability, mechanical properties, less gas porosity, etc. [7,8]. Consequently, the
choice of nanoparticles is an indication of property improvement in nanocomposites [9,10].
Oliveira et al. [11] reviewed the properties of PNCs and found that they prompt a significant
increase in interfacial properties when compared with conventional composite materials
without nanoparticles. The interfacial region is a critical part of polymer composites that
has unique characteristics in relation to the polymer, even at minimum loading conditions
of the nanofiller. Interfacial construction is known to be not quite the same as mass design
or for nanoparticles containing polymers with larger surface areas, despite the filler concen-
tration. Bio-based PNCs are a type of material with moderate properties that are made from
natural polymers [12]. The plant fibers can be used as reinforcing agents in the polymer
composites due to advantages such as high strength, solidness, minimal effort of processing,
and low thickness, and they produce low CO2 outflow [13,14]. The focus of this review was
to highlight various aspects of carbon and cellulose-based polymer nanocomposites such as
their synthesis, properties, and applications. Despite the availability of numerous studies,
the current review emphasized the advanced characterization and applications of PNCs
with state-of-the-art research and review works. Subsequently, the following section deals
with the general aspects, synthesis methods, properties, characterization, and applications
of carbon and cellulose-based PNCs. The review also highlighted the challenges involved
in the full-scale implementation of the PNCs along with the future scope of these materials.

2. Polymer Nanocomposites
Nanocomposites are selected based on their properties, including dimensional quan-
tities, quality, similarity with the micro-structural lattice, and the distribution of nano-
material throughout [15]. Past researchers have found that the evenly distributed oxide
components in the nanoparticles improve the composites’ fire retardance, mechanical behav-
ior, and thermal properties when compared to micro-composites [16,17]. The nanoparticles
have a major role in impacting the molecular structural characteristics of the polymer
matrix. They produce a higher impact on the molecular structure of the material, which di-
rectly influences the material’s behavior [18,19]. Nanoparticle scattering might be described
by a very fine phase at the nano level. The accumulation of nanoparticles in a material’s
surface can be explained from the morphological behavior [20]. Different methods are
implemented to improve the scattering quality along with one or another substance of the
actual material [21].
The distribution of the nanoparticles on the surface and along the depth of the mate-
rial was studied through morphology and optical property analysis [22,23]. The surface
treatment is done to help the similarity of the structures and fillers utilized, with the help
of the intersection of the organo-silanes or long-chain platelets’, intercalating particles,
etc. [24]. An alternate uniform scattering should be performed to attain a high degree of
nanocomposite properties [25]. Recent investigations of CNT with polymers have sug-
gested that the catalysts are metallic nano-sized particles such as iron, nickel, and cobalt,
which can be sprayed on silicon substrates either by solution spraying, electron beam
evaporation, or physical sputtering. The layer thickness depends on various factors such
as particle size, the deposition process, and the ability to control the particle size, which
is relevant for the development of nanocomposites [26,27] based upon composition, and
their microstructures are shown in Figure 1a. The enhancement in the mechanical, thermal,
electrical, and rheological properties of PNCs relies on various variables, such as fabrication
procedure, interfacial relation among nanoparticles and polymers, and the condition of
nanoparticle distribution [28]. The fabrication process can affect the bonding strength
and modify the dimensions of the nanoparticles, affect surface penetration, decrease the
 Nanomaterials 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 30

Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 fabrication procedure, interfacial relation among nanoparticles and polymers, and 3 of the
29
condition of nanoparticle distribution [28]. The fabrication process can affect the bonding
strength and modify the dimensions of the nanoparticles, affect surface penetration, de-
crease the combustibility,
combustibility, or increase theor mechanical
increase theproperties
mechanical properties
based upon thebased upon the vol-
volume-to-surface
ume-to-surface
ratio, as shown inratio, as shown
Figure 1b [29].in Figure 1b [29].

Figure1.1.(a)
Figure (a)Nanoparticles’
Nanoparticles’structure
structure[28].
[28].Reproduced
Reproducedfrom
fromRef.
Ref.[28]
[28]with
withpermission
permissionfrom
fromMDPI.
MDPI.
(b) surface-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles [29]. Reproduced from Ref. [29] with permission from
(b) surface-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles [29]. Reproduced from Ref. [29] with permission
Springer.
from Springer.
Coatings,ininturn,
Coatings, turn, enhance
enhance thethe impact
impact resistance
resistance of nano-sized
of nano-sized fillers—at
fillers—at the pe-
the periph-
ery of the substrates whilst also requiring a decreased quantity of nanoparticles than than
riphery of the substrates whilst also requiring a decreased quantity of nanoparticles the
the mass
mass [30]. [30].
The basicThe basic requirement
requirement for increasing
for increasing the mechanical
the mechanical properties
properties of PNCs of PNCs
with
with nanoparticles
nanoparticles is a lack ofis distributions
a lack of within distributions
the polymer within chainthe[31,32].
polymer chain [31,32].
Nano-coatings are
Nano-coatings are probably applied by using electro-spraying,
probably applied by using electro-spraying, which can follow layer arrangements, which can follow
such layer
as
arrangements,
substance such as
or chemical substance
vapor depositionor chemical
(CVD), which vapor enable
deposition (CVD), which
the application enable
of a layer onthea
application
nano scale [33].of aElectro-spraying
layer on a nanoisscale [33]. Electro-spraying
typically used to determineisgas typically
pressure used andtoisdetermine
incorpo-
gas pressure
rated in constant andformation
is incorporated
lines [34]. in constant
Nano-coatings formationenable lines [34]. functionalization
surface Nano-coatings enable and
surfaceproperties
explicit functionalization and explicit properties
such as anti-microbial, such as anti-microbial,
self-recuperating, fire retardance,self-recuperating,
gas obstruction,
fire[35].
etc. retardance,
In the case gasofobstruction, etc. [35]. Inapplications
bundling, packaging the case of bundling,
are probably packaging
multiplied applications
through
are probably multiplied through the coatings of nanocomposites
the coatings of nanocomposites just as a fuel line boundary, anti-microbial activities, just as a fuel
andline
so
boundary,
on [36]. The mostanti-microbial activities,
used nanofillers and so on [36].
are organo-clay The most
bentonite, quasi used nanofillers
1D graphite, are or-
etc. [37,38].
gano-clay bentonite,
Additionally, coatings are quasi 1D graphite,
probably applied etc. [37,38]. Additionally,
for tweaking surface proclivitycoatings
in theare probably
direction of
applied
fluids andfor
gels tweaking
[37,39] tosurface
obtainproclivity in the direction
non-stick repellent sheets thatof fluids
can beand gelsremoved
easily [37,39] to obtain
[40–42].
non-stick repellent
Mechanical strengtheningsheetsconfers
that can thebe easily removed
nanoparticles [40–42].
an inverse kindMechanical
of strengthstrengthening
and stability,
confers
and the them
permits nanoparticles
an enhanced an inverse
capacity kind
at aof strength weight
decreased and stability,
compared andwithpermits them an
composites
enhanced
or pure polymerscapacity at a decreased
[42–46]. Phases ofweight comparedelectricity
non-obligatory with composites
contribute or topure
thepolymers
various
[42–46]. Phases
utilization and depths of non-obligatory
of connections, electricity
both withincontribute to the sheets
the solar reacted various utilization
in securing and
layers
and at inof
depths outdoor applications
connections, [47,48].the solar reacted sheets in securing layers and at in
both within
Power
outdoor generation[47,48].
applications through 2D structural graphite is intended within the outer re-
gion [49,50].
Power Nano-textured
generation through surfaces and nano-coatings
2D structural graphiteare created towithin
is intended supplythe self-cleansing
outer region
influences and to restrict the electricity yield [51,52]. Coatings
[49,50]. Nano-textured surfaces and nano-coatings are created to supply self-cleansing of nano-structured substances
have been applied on the outer layer to enhance stickiness
influences and to restrict the electricity yield [51,52]. Coatings of nano-structured and boundary layer thick-
sub-
ness [53,54].
stances have A been
distinctive
applied method
on thethat can layer
outer be applied for nanocomposite
to enhance stickiness and transformation
boundary layer is
increasing
thickness the moistAcompound
[53,54]. distinctiveinmethod
additionthat to electro-spraying
can be applied [55,56]. A substance can
for nanocomposite add
transfor-
carbon
mationfunctionalities
is increasing to thefibers
moist at compound
the nano scale, for example,
in addition arrangement, scattering
to electro-spraying [55,56]. A of sub-
the
filler, and interfacial bonding among the filler and polymer
stance can add carbon functionalities to fibers at the nano scale, for example, arrange- [57,58]. The obstacles and re-
quired method enhancements are then referenced, demonstrating
ment, scattering of the filler, and interfacial bonding among the filler and polymer problems in nanoparticle
scattering
[57,58]. The [59].obstacles
The method and often
requiredinvolves
method the enhancements
elevated exploitation of nanocomposites
are then referenced, demon- in-
spected at the interfacial region, as well as mechanical, electrical/microwave
strating problems in nanoparticle scattering [59]. The method often involves the elevated characteristics,
and combustibility
exploitation obstruction [60,61].
of nanocomposites inspected PNCs are interfacial
at the improved region,along with
as wellpolymer volatile
as mechanical,
matters, which scatter inside the composites [62,63]. The applications
electrical/microwave characteristics, and combustibility obstruction [60,61]. PNCs are of nano-composites
include
improved bundling,
along signboards,
with polymer and other
volatile diverse uses which
matters, [64–66].scatter
Quantum insidedotsthe such as metal
composites
particles, metal oxides, and semiconductors are major research topics in recent history due
to their good optical, magnetic, catalytic, and thermal properties. The structure of quantum
dots is presented in Figure 2a.
 [62,63]. The applications of nano-composites include bundling, signboards, and other
diverse uses [64–66]. Quantum dots such as metal particles, metal oxides, and semicon-
Nanomaterials 2023,ductors
13, 1803 are major research topics in recent history due to their good optical, magnetic, 4 of 29
catalytic, and thermal properties. The structure of quantum dots is presented in Figure
2a.
Nanotubes areNanotubes
similar in design to the
are similar circulartoatom
in design C60 found
the circular atominC60 thefound
1980s;inhow-
the 1980s; however,
ever, they are stretched to resemble rounded constructions of
they are stretched to resemble rounded constructions of 1–2 nm 1–2 nm in width [67–69]. In [67–69]. In
in width
their structure,their
nanotubes involve solitary layers of carbon atoms arranged
structure, nanotubes involve solitary layers of carbon atoms arranged similarly to a similarly to
chamber [67,69]. These are called single-walled CNTs (SWCNTs), which are
a chamber [67,69]. These are called single-walled CNTs (SWCNTs), which are shown in shown in
Figure 2b. They can likewise
Figure 2b. Theybe canshaped
likewiseas be
various
shapedconcentric
as variouscylinders
concentric with a measure-
cylinders with a measurement
ment of 20 nm, of and if they
20 nm, and feature a lengtha greater
if they feature than 1 than
length greater mm, 1theymm,are theycalled mul- multi-walled
are called
ti-walled CNTsCNTs (MWCNTs) [70–72]. They show high thermal and electrical conductivity,
(MWCNTs) [70–72]. They show high thermal and electrical conductivity, high surface
high surface territory,
territory, andandconceivably
conceivably high
high atomicatomic adsorption
adsorption capacity
capacity [73,74].[73,74].
Nano-wires can be
Nano-wires can be generated from conducting (metals) or semi-conducting
generated from conducting (metals) or semi-conducting (carbon) materials using several (carbon)
materials usingprocessing
several processing
techniques techniques
[74]. They [74]. They
have have a uniform
a uniform crystalcrystal
structure structure
and diameter in the
and diameter in rangethe of
range
a few oftens
a few tensand
of nm of nm
a high andaspect
a high aspect
ratio ratioThese
[75,76]. [75,76]. These are used as
nano-wires
nano-wires areinterconnectors
used as interconnectors for the of
for the transport transport
electrons ofinelectrons in nano-electronic
nano-electronic devices. Different metals
devices. Different
such metals such as
as cobalt, cobalt,
gold, andgold,
copperandhavecopperbeenhave been
used toused to manufacture
manufacture nano-wires. Phyllo-
nano-wires. Phyllo-silicates are the most widely used layered silicates for
silicates are the most widely used layered silicates for making polymer-layered making poly- silicate
mer-layered silicate
(PLS) (PLS) nanocomposites.
nanocomposites. Layers Layers
of two oftetrahedrally
two tetrahedrally coordinated
coordinated siliconsili-
atoms are fused
con atoms are fused
into an into an edge-shared
edge-shared octahedral
octahedral sheetsheet of either
of either aluminum
aluminum or magne- hydroxide to
or magnesium
sium hydroxide make up their
to make crystal
up their structure
crystal [77,78].
structure ThreeThree
[77,78]. different formsforms
different of PLSofnanocomposites
PLS are
nanocomposites thermodynamically
are thermodynamically possible depending
possible on the frequency
depending of interfacial
on the frequency interactions between
of interfa-
cial interactionsthe polymer
between thematrix
polymerandmatrix
layered andsilicate.
layered silicate.

Figure 2. Structure of (a) quantum dot [66]. and (b) SWCNTs [68]. Reproduced from Ref. [68] with
Figure 2. Structure of (a) quantum dot [66]. and (b) SWCNTs [68]. Reproduced from Ref. [68] with
permission from Elsevier.
permission from Elsevier.
The graphite comprises
The graphitelayered nano-sheets
comprises layered of nano-sheets
graphene-like of layered silicateslayered
graphene-like [79]. silicates [79].
Graphite is generally utilized as a nanofiller to create conductive polymer-based compo-
Graphite is generally utilized as a nanofiller to create conductive polymer-based composites.
sites. Traditional fillers such
Traditional as metal
fillers such as powder, carbon dark,
metal powder, carbon ordark,
carbon or fibers
carbonare generally
fibers are generally used in
used in the micrometer scale. A
the micrometer fillerAproportion
scale. of 15–55%
filler proportion in polymer
of 15–55% in polymernanocomposites
nanocomposites results in
results in enhanced
enhancedelectrical conductivity,
electrical conductivity,but atbuttheat same
the sametime, it reduces
time, mechanical
it reduces mechanical properties
properties andandincreases the density of the polymer nanocomposites
increases the density of the polymer nanocomposites [80–82]. [80–82]. Incredibly,
Incredibly, the surface
the surface roughness
roughness of of
thethe
graphite
graphitenano-sheets
nano-sheetsenables
enablesthethe arrangement
arrangement of of layers
layersinside
in- the polymer.
side the polymer. Graphite
Graphite nano-platelets
nano-platelets (GNPs) (GNPs)
comprisecomprise
graphite graphite
particles particles interca-
intercalated with prominently
lated with prominently focused structures,
focused structures, which havewhich have the
the potential to potential to expand 200–
expand 200–300-fold while maintaining
300-fold while the
maintaining the same crystallinity
same crystallinity degree at elevateddegreetemperatures
at elevated temperatures [83,84].
[83,84]. Isolating a graphite sheet
Isolating a graphite sheet into nano-platelets, a few graphene layers, with a
into nano-platelets, a few graphene layers, with a high angle proportion is considered high angle
proportion is considered as having
as having barely any barely
layeredany layered Unlike
graphene. graphene.otherUnlike other nanopar-
nanoparticles, graphite has special
ticles, graphitefeatures,
has special
with features,
a totallywith a totally unreasonable
unreasonable modulus close modulus
to that of close to that of
graphene. An arrangement
graphene. An of arrangement of graphene–graphite
graphene–graphite layers with C-C layers withpossesses
bonding C-C bonding higher possesses
thermal and electrical
conductivity in its plane owing to the laminated structure of the model [80,85].
Due to the nanoscale impacts and profoundly actuated debris of the PNCs, a massive
part of the coatings of nanofillers have high morphological properties with electro-chemical,
active coupling, functional CNT-influenced polymers, and so on [86–90]. These PNCs can
be utilized for material reinforcement, as electrolytes, drugs, biomedical materials, thin
 the formation of films, which are prepared through the casting method and also for
coating on unique substrates. A polymer-based coating is applied to a substrate using a
spraying technique [38]. Standing out from ousted coverings, critically, these coatings
have much lower impediment resistance [94]. In contrast with multilayer films,
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 nano-coatings have reduced reinforcement usage [95–97], which is both a monetary5 of and
29
biological advantage, and the thermoplastic stages are explained in Figure 3a. They can
be utilized for the reinforcement of fluid-repellent houses in different layers, e.g., for
water-resistant-based bundling [2] clean-to-discharge [5,87] processes.
films, etc. [89]. The major processing methods for PNCs are sol–gel amalgamation, oxidative
polymerization, thermally atomized methods, microwave-assisted processes, composite
2.1.2. Thermo-Plastic Processing
blending, electrochemical deposition, reactant chain polymerization, etc. [91–93].
Thermoplastic processing is used for the processing PNCs, and is completed
2.1. Processing
through Methods process, which is given in Figure 3b. Extrusion permits the quick
the extrusion
melting
2.1.1. ofChemical
Wet a polymerProcessing
with an excessive power entry at some stage. It is possible to stuff,
blend, homogenize, and plasticize
Wet chemical processing is onethe mass
of the of the
most PNCs during
important the whole
processing methodsprocess,
for useand
in
they can also be modified over surface coatings [98,99]. While blending the
the formation of films, which are prepared through the casting method and also for coating filler materi-
als unique
on into a modified
substrates.matrix, unique properties
A polymer-based coating are obtained.
is applied to aWhen processing
substrate using a the ordi-
spraying
narily preferred
technique exfoliated
[38]. Standing outnanocomposites, the dispersion
from ousted coverings, particularly
critically, relieshave
these coatings upon the
much
extruder’s
lower configuration
impediment [100].[94].
resistance Shedding upheld
In contrast at multilayer
with maximum films,shear favors a higherhave
nano-coatings dis-
sipation,reinforcement
reduced even for longer durations.
usage Additionally,
[95–97], which is both a the spot wherein
monetary the nano-clay
and biological advantage, is
added has been exhibited to be a basic segment. Regardless, the essential
and the thermoplastic stages are explained in Figure 3a. They can be utilized for the difficulty is
whether or not excellent dissipation or stripping is viable in the thermodynamic
reinforcement of fluid-repellent houses in different layers, e.g., for water-resistant-based procliv-
ity of the nano-clay/nanoparticles
bundling [2] clean-to-discharge [5,87]andprocesses.
polymer structures [101–103].

Figure 3. Schematic of (a) wet chemical synthesis [95]. Reproduced from Ref. [95] with permission
Figure 3. Schematic of (a) wet chemical synthesis [95]. Reproduced from Ref. [95] with permis-
from Elsevier; and (b) thermoplastic processing stages [98]. Reproduced from Ref. [98] with per-
sion from
mission Elsevier;
from and (b) thermoplastic processing stages [98]. Reproduced from Ref. [98] with
Elsevier.
permission from Elsevier.

2.1.2. Thermo-Plastic Processing

Thermoplastic processing is used for the processing PNCs, and is completed through
the extrusion process, which is given in Figure 3b. Extrusion permits the quick melting
of a polymer with an excessive power entry at some stage. It is possible to stuff, blend,
homogenize, and plasticize the mass of the PNCs during the whole process, and they
can also be modified over surface coatings [98,99]. While blending the filler materials
into a modified matrix, unique properties are obtained. When processing the ordinarily
preferred exfoliated nanocomposites, the dispersion particularly relies upon the extruder’s
configuration [100]. Shedding upheld at maximum shear favors a higher dissipation,
even for longer durations. Additionally, the spot wherein the nano-clay is added has
been exhibited to be a basic segment. Regardless, the essential difficulty is whether or
not excellent dissipation or stripping is viable in the thermodynamic proclivity of the
nano-clay/nanoparticles and polymer structures [101–103].

2.1.3. Physical Vapour Deposition

The advantages of liquid-phase approaches include addressing the most severe de-
velopments of layer deposition of thin layers. Depending on the reinforcing components,
the vapor-phase technique may be known as physical vapor deposition (PVD) [104,105].
Nano-clay techniques are conducted in an excessive reaction and rely on the change of
consistently protecting fabric on the vapor level observed through an accumulation on
the surface of the substrate [106]. The mixing is carried out by using proper strategies,
which can be a substance reaction amongst the fiber and matrix individually. At a vaporous
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 6 of 29

length, the protecting fabric is acquired through vanishing due to electrical heating or
electron beam illumination [106,107] or by using faltering strategies [108]. In the other
methods, debris of the consistent protecting fiber is dispatched because of the effect of the
vaporization method, which is ionized and advanced with the help of electrical charging.
The boundary conditions of the saved layer are probably advanced methods for appealing
difficult programming, which is called magnetron faltering [109,110]. The production of
thin-walled metal films on the surface of polymeric materials with the help of PVD is
generally used for steel- and polymer-blended nanocomposites [111].

2.1.4. Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)

The CVD technique relies on gaseous precursors reacting chemically on the substrate
surface [107,112]. The responses are enacted both with the help of using heat or with
the manually graphite-formed surface, since the polymer’s primary chains were allowed
to move around the lamella. This can likewise be clarified by the presence of a nano-
clay structure [113,114]. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is a modified process of a CVD
method [115]. Layers form over the penetration of oxygen and water vapor through
bundling films, and, in this method, blast the presence of bundled fibers [112,116]. The
surfaces of vacuum protection boards, photovoltaic modules, and characteristic mellow
radiating diodes, contrary to natural impacts, subsequently require liquefied intercalation at
270 ◦ C; the matrix containing 3 and 5% organo-clay indicates the development of crossover
with some inclination of peeling [117]. Electro-hydrodynamic preparation is a miniature
nano-fabrication process including electro-turning and electro-spraying [102,118]. Electro-
turning is a process that produces persistent polymers with measurements ordinarily
within the micron range through the development of an outer layer over the top voltage-
electric-controlled request constrained on a polymer’s course of action or condenses.
Surface topography is affected by properties (fundamentally by methods addressing
the consistency, surface strain, and conductivity of the polymer) and by strategies address-
ing their limitations [119–121]. With some restrictions, chemical substrates inside the layers
can be acquired by changing their direction and manner, and this method is known as
electro-hydrodynamic atomization [122]. The nano-clay is ordinarily made, resembling a
metallic film that is one-sided by means of a high voltage. In contrast with other methods,
electro-spray deposition (ESD) offers the advantage of an over-the-top execution and a
decrease in the network procedure [122–125]. Nano-sponges can melt the molecule, as
detailed for the meloxicam drug resembling a cyclodextrin. Meloxicam has a melting point
at 250 ◦ C. This is not the case when meloxicam is reinforced in nano-sponges, hence demon-
strating the arrangement of a bond between meloxicam and the nano-sponges [96,126],
and that the use of meloxicam is ideal in nano-sponges; although there have been some
attempts to upgrade the electro-turning framework, it is nowadays easier than electro-
splashing [79–81], which is scaled-up through multi-nozzle injectors to a higher level. The
preparation technique is explained in Figure 4.

2.2. Conventional Manufacturing Techniques

Enhancing properties emerge when the nano-structure of a material is correlated
with the basic aspects of material science. More than one exposing surface can cause the
organo-clay characterization to move out of different materials [81]. A few of the resulting
nanocomposites may exhibit their ultimate properties, while the others may show strengths
related to morphological structures [82,127]. In contact with these zones, measurements of
electrical, mechanical, thermal, and optical characteristics demand examination such that
the nanocomposites can be used in common applications. In the arrangement of fibers in
nano-sized polymer matrix composites (PMCs), the preliminary step is the selection of the
proper technique. A few of the most widely applied techniques for processing PMCs are
lay-up, spraying, pultrusion, resin transfer molding (RTM), vacuum-assisted process, the
autoclave method, pre-preg method, fiber winding, etc. [83]. Wet lay-up is a fundamental
approach that contrasts with other nano-composite manufacturing techniques, as presented
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 7 of 29

in Figure 5. The mechanical characteristics of the composites are poor owing to the presence
of voids
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW and the result is non-uniformity. Pultrusion is a process with an excessive advent
7 of 30
rate, wherein the pre-preg or materials gather and form a cluster. Some conventional
nano-composite preparation processes are presented in Table 1.

Nanomaterials 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 30

Nanoparticle preparation
Figure 4. Nanoparticle preparationtechniques
techniques[123].
[123].Reproduced
Reproducedfrom
fromRef.
Ref.[123]
[123]with
withpermission
permission
from MDPI.

2.2. Conventional Manufacturing Techniques

Enhancing properties emerge when the nano-structure of a material is correlated
with the basic aspects of material science. More than one exposing surface can cause the
organo-clay characterization to move out of different materials [81]. A few of the result-
ing nanocomposites may exhibit their ultimate properties, while the others may show
strengths related to morphological structures [82,127]. In contact with these zones,
measurements of electrical, mechanical, thermal, and optical characteristics demand
examination such that the nanocomposites can be used in common applications. In the
arrangement of fibers in nano-sized polymer matrix composites (PMCs), the preliminary
step is the selection of the proper technique. A few of the most widely applied techniques
for processing PMCs are lay-up, spraying, pultrusion, resin transfer molding (RTM),
vacuum-assisted process, the autoclave method, pre-preg method, fiber winding, etc.
[83]. Wet lay-up is a fundamental approach that contrasts with other nano-composite
manufacturing techniques, as presented in Figure 5. The mechanical characteristics of the
composites are poor owing to the presence of voids and the result is non-uniformity.
Pultrusion is a process with an excessive advent rate, wherein the pre-preg or materials
gather and form a cluster. Some conventional nano-composite preparation processes are
presented in Table 1.
multi-layered nanofillers
Figure 5. Single and multi-layered nanofillers[82].
[82]. Reproduced
Reproducedfrom
fromRef.
Ref.[82]
[82]with
withpermission
permissionfrom
from Royal
Royal Society
Society of Chemistry.
of Chemistry.

Table 1.
Table 1. Techniques
Techniques for
for the
the preparation
preparation of
of PNCs.
PNCs.

Thermosetting
Thermosetting Polymers
Polymers Thermoplastic
Thermoplastic Polymers
Polymers
Hand
Hand molding and nano-coating
molding and nano-coating Hot pressing
Hot pressing
Inject ram
Inject ramand
andplunger transfer
plunger transfer Vacuum
Vacuumforming
forming
Closed-mold process
Closed-mold process Backpressure
Back pressure method
method
Plungerand
Plunger andram-type
ram-type molding
molding Colddrawn
Cold drawn
Pump nozzle injection Thermoforming
Pump nozzle injection
Vacuum bag molding
Thermoforming
Glass fiber thermoplastics
Vacuum bag molding
Fiber-reinforced plastics GlassDrostholm
fiber thermoplastics
process
Fiber-reinforced
Vacuum infusion plastics
molding Drostholm
Injected foamprocess
molding
Vacuum infusion molding Injected foam molding

We investigated MWCNTs’ impacts on ramie fiber-reinforced epoxy composites

with different weight fractions in terms of their mechanical and crack propagation char-
acteristics. The results of this investigation demonstrated an increase of inter-laminar
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 8 of 29

We investigated MWCNTs’ impacts on ramie fiber-reinforced epoxy composites with

different weight fractions in terms of their mechanical and crack propagation characteristics.
The results of this investigation demonstrated an increase of inter-laminar shear and flexural
strengths along with flexural moduli by 38%, 34%, and 37%, respectively, according to the
volume fraction of MWCNTs. The inclusion of CNTs increased the storage moduli, glass
transition temperature, and quasi-static crack propagation. Conversely, durability was
diminished by adding different concentrations of CNTs [84,85,128,129]. Higher durability is
probably obtained via utilizing a woven fabric fiber. VARTM is considered to be a modified
version of the RTM technique, where open molds are used to reinforce the additives by
means of a vacuum [130]. This setup has advantages compared with hand lay-up, and
it diminishes surface defects when compared with other methods. The impact of nano-
constituents on the structure causes an issue with the flow of resin consistency and fastens
energy [131], and there is probably a threat of voids over the reinforcements [132,133].
Autoclaving is a promising method for manufacturing excellent composite structures and
can process thermosetting and thermo-plastic composites with uniform thicknesses and the
least porosity [134]. For advanced composite materials for airplanes, autoclaving remains
one of the most widely applied methodologies [135].
Resin film imbuement (RFI) is much the same as RTM, in which a thin film is reinforced
on top of the layer under heat and weight. Resin-infused woven or unidirectional-oriented
fibers are reinforced inside the pre-preg strategy with vacuum packing and autoclave
molding. Although the technique is difficult to work with, the pre-form is ordinarily
homogenous [136,137]. In the filament winding technique, infused filaments are folded
around a mandrel and shaped into the required form. Muddled round and hollow segments,
strain vessels, and gas and water tanks for automotive applications might be fabricated with
the help of this method [138]. The consistency-related issues of the matrices of this technique
might negligible [139]. Fiber winding is a cost-effective method for manufacturing round
and barrel-shaped components. This is an advanced method for conventional composite
processing [140,141].
As of now, a number of experiments are generally organized on the level of nanopar-
ticle scattering in polymer matrices. For the most part, the effect of scattering degree on
mechanical and rheological properties is perceived, which is shown in Figure 6 [142]. The
non-appearance of synthetic reinforcements among the polymer and molecule, in asso-
ciation with scattering, can affect the mechanical properties of PNCs owing to the solid
movement of the load from fiber to the matrix due to the presence of a solid interfacial
bonding. Ultrasonic molding of nanocomposites was performed, and it was found that the
measure of energy is disturbed at the interfaces [143,144]. As a result, this method is often
used to disperse, emulsify, and trigger particles [145,146]. Furthermore, ultrasound energy
can disrupt C–C bonds, which are important for the formation of long-chain radicals, which
results in the formation of a chemical bond on the surface of nanocomposites [143,147].
Ultrasound techniques have been used to separate silica agglomerates in flexible ethylene
propylene diene monomer (EPDM), drastically lowering the size of agglomerate particles.
Menezes et al. [148] discovered that the added nano-silica powder during ultrasound pro-
cessing was diminished and redispersed in fluid structures. Wang et al. [149] prepared an
ultrasound strategy for polyolefin-earth nanocomposites utilizing MMT soils changed with
quaternary ammonium salts in a polyolefin resin. This system typically impacts the blend
of nanoparticles to address immoderate aggregation in the nanocomposites, as shown in
Figure 7.
Surfactant-assisted mechanical alloying and milling minimize clustering by providing
a barrier to reduce surface strain [150,151]. Three stages can be identified in the milling
process for crystalline nanoparticles in a high-power ball mill. Deformation localization
within the shear bands occurs first, followed by the development of a grain shape in the
nano-dimensions [152]. Hydrophobic surfaces can be obtained with the essential property of
surfactants to prevent debris from accumulating and to determine the length and shape of the
final product based on the surfactant grinding material and process [153,154]. Ye et al. [154]
 that the measure of energy is disturbed at the interfaces [143,144]. As a result, this
method is often used to disperse, emulsify, and trigger particles [145,146]. Furthermore,
ultrasound energy can disrupt C–C bonds, which are important for the formation of
long-chain radicals, which results in the formation of a chemical bond on the surface of
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 nanocomposites [143,147]. Ultrasound techniques have been used to separate silica 9 ofag-
29
glomerates in flexible ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), drastically lowering
the size of agglomerate particles. Menezes et al. [148] discovered that the added
nano-silica powder during ultrasound processing was diminished and redispersed in
analyzed carbon’s impact resistance from 80 to 500 nm with the use of sodium dodecyl
fluid structures. Wang et al. [149] prepared an ultrasound strategy for polyolefin-earth
sulfate. They found that the particles displayed more grounded scattering and accumulation
nanocomposites
while poly (acrylicutilizing
ruinous, MMT soilssalt)
sodium changed with
became quaternary
surfactant. ammonium high-force
Consequently, salts in a
ball milling can be applied for the arrangement of extraordinary properties foraddress
polyolefin resin. This system typically impacts the blend of nanoparticles to use in
immoderate aggregation
reinforcements [155]. in the nanocomposites, as shown in Figure 7.

Nanomaterials 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 ofRe-

Figure 6. General methods associated with the design of the interface of core–shell fillers [82]. 30
Figure 6. General methods associated with the design of the interface of core–shell fillers [82].
produced from
Reproduced Ref.
from [82]
Ref. with
[82] permission
with from
permission Royal
from Society
Royal of of
Society Chemistry.
Chemistry.

Figure
Figure7.7.Dispersion techniques
Dispersion [146].
techniques Reproduced
[146]. fromfrom
Reproduced Ref. Ref.
[146][146]
withwith
permission from from
permission RoyalRoyal
So-
ciety of Chemistry.
Society of Chemistry.

The utilization of CNTs

Surfactant-assisted in polymer
mechanical composites
alloying andenables
millingattractive thermal,
minimize mechanical,
clustering by
providing a barrier to reduce surface strain [150,151]. Three stages can be identified in theso
optical, and electrical properties. Properties of CNT such as elasticity, chirality, and
on are process
milling governedforby their physico-mechanical
crystalline nanoparticles in properties
a high-power[156].
ballThe advantage
mill. Deformationof CNTs
lo-
is their top-notch
calization elastic
within the energy
shear bandsand moduli,
occurs first,and they are
followed byforeseen as having application
the development of a grain
shape in the nano-dimensions [152]. Hydrophobic surfaces can be obtained with the es-
sential property of surfactants to prevent debris from accumulating and to determine the
length and shape of the final product based on the surfactant grinding material and
process [153,154]. Ye et al. [154] analyzed carbon’s impact resistance from 80 to 500 nm
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 10 of 29

in reinforcements [157]. Polymer/CNT composites have attracted interest because of

their specific surface areas and strong interfacial bonding with the matrix due to their
nanoscale microstructure model [158]. The reinforcing components of CNTs are considered
to be a particular form of these reinforcing fibers, and fillers will enhance the resulting
properties [159].
A number of studies have been performed on the experimental setup arrangements
of CNT composites by using polymer matrixes [160,161], and it has been found that the
tensile and bending strength, modulus, and yield strength increase significantly. Among
different polymers, PET is the most widely utilized polymer with different nanoparticles
and fibers. The distinction between conventional carbon fibers produced using polymer and
catalytically grown carbon filaments is within the diameter, and various handmade fibers
can be consistent, while other fibers are irregular in shape [162,163]. Fibers additionally
vary inside the microstructure of the carbon, as shown in Figure 8a [164]. They have carbon
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 30
layers randomly oriented close to the fiber structure, while other fibers do not have this
orientation. Due to the measurement of the carbon fiber morphology, the dispersion of
carbon fibers in a polymer matrix requires additional attention when compared with that
compared with carbon
of conventional that offibers
conventional carbonAfibers
in composites. in composites.
technique A technique
for scattering the carbon for scat-
fibers in
tering the carbon
a thermoplastic fibers
resin in a thermoplastic
is slurry resin is slurry
preparation, including fiber preparation,
arrangement,including
mixing thefiber ar-
slurry
rangement,
with mixing the
nano-powder, slurry with
depleting nano-powder,
the appropriate depleting
response andthe appropriate
drying, response
and, finally, and
heating
drying, and, finally,
over a glass heating
transition over a glass
temperature transition
[165–167]. Ontemperature
account of a[165–167]. On account
thermosetting polymer, of
afor
thermosetting
example, epoxy,polymer, for example,
the scattering epoxy,
of fibers the scattering
induces of fibersofinduces
the weakening the weak-
the interface into
ening of the interface
a dissolvable state, and into
thisa serves
dissolvable
as anstate, and this
approach serves
to bring as anthe
down approach to bring
consistency and
resulting
down theblending of the
consistency andfiber with the
resulting matrixof[168,169].
blending the fiber Figure
with the8bmatrix
shows[168,169].
the morphology
Figure
of various
8b shows thecarbon-based
morphology structures.
of various carbon-based structures.

Figure 8. CNT filaments (a) Various carbon-based nanomaterials [164]. Reproduced from Ref. [164]
Figure 8. CNT filaments (a) Various carbon-based nanomaterials [164]. Reproduced from Ref. [164]
with permission from Springer Nature. (b) Scale of CNMs [166]. Reproduced from Ref. [166] with
with permission
permission from from Springer Nature. (b) Scale of CNMs [166]. Reproduced from Ref. [166] with
MDPI.
permission from MDPI.
Because
Because ofof the
the high
high impact
impact ofof the
the state
state of
of the
the resin
resin during
during the
the scattering
scattering of
of the
the fibers,
fibers,
the
the mechanical and electromagnetic properties of the composites fundamentally relyrely
mechanical and electromagnetic properties of the composites fundamentally on
on the
the
fiberfiber texture
texture and orientation
and orientation [170]. Imoisili
[170]. Imoisili et al. [171]et separated
al. [171] separated
two types oftwo types of
nano-fibers:
nano-fibers: CNFs made of cone-molded carbon layer stacking and by
CNFs made of cone-molded carbon layer stacking and by peeling carbon fibers, and another peeling carbon
fibers, and another type is the vapor-generated nanofibers [170,172]. The
type is the vapor-generated nanofibers [170,172]. The range is no longer the most effective range is no
longer the most effective in terms of morphology, despite
in terms of morphology, despite the addition of nano-substantial values. A few works the addition of
nano-substantial values. A few works have been carried out on nano-fiber
have been carried out on nano-fiber composites and their compounds, utilizing procedures composites
and their compounds,
including over-the-toputilizing procedures
double-screw including
pultrusion and over-the-top double-screw
low-shear in-situ pultru-
polymerization
sion and low-shear
and infusion formingin-situ polymerization
with diffusion. and infusion
CNF modification hasforming with diffusion.
been specifically carriedCNFout
modification has been specifically carried out through plasma polymerization,
through plasma polymerization, cleaning and coating, and corrosive and plasma oxidation, cleaning
and coating,
which resultsand corrosive and in
in hydrophilicity plasma oxidation,
the fiber surfaceswhich
and theresults in hydrophilicity
deposition in the
of non-graphitic
fiber surfaces and the deposition of non-graphitic carbon [173]. Development from an
external perspective of oxidized graphite nanoparticles through glycidol has been carried
out [168,174]. The hydroxyl center was promoted by CNF methods and this carbox-
ylic-added carbon nano-clay may be used to support dispersion of resources of CNFs or
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 11 of 29

carbon [173]. Development from an external perspective of oxidized graphite nanoparticles

through glycidol has been carried out [168,174]. The hydroxyl center was promoted by CNF
methods and this carboxylic-added carbon nano-clay may be used to support dispersion of
resources of CNFs or solvents [175]. Composites with oxidized CNFs have been arranged
by reinforcing untreated CNFs. The scattering of oxidized CNFs exhibited has good thermal
stability, shear moduli, and better glass transition temperatures, being the best situated for
nanocomposites.
Graphite’s properties make it a potential polymer filler, resulting in applications in
electromagnetic interference shields and thermal conductors [127]. During the manufactur-
ing of the GNP composites, a low similarity among graphene sheets was a major problem
during their manufacturing [82]; this is shown in Figure 9. Another related problem is the
issue of scattering GNPs inside the polymer to increase uniform mixtures [82,127]. As with
carbon fibers in the wake of assembly, graphite, in its layered structure, has little usefulness.
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 30
Different modification techniques have been adopted for carbon fibers, and most of these
systems can be actualized to GNP/epoxy nanocomposites [83].

Figure9.9.Covalent
Figure Covalentbonds
bondsofof(a)
(a)3D
3DGraphite,
Graphite,(b)
(b)2D
2DGraphene,
Graphene,(c)
(c)Bonding
Bondingstructure,
structure,(d)
(d)Graphene
Graphene
oxide, (e) Hydroxyl bonds arrangement, (f) Reduced Graphene Oxide [83]. Reproduced from Ref.
oxide, (e) Hydroxyl bonds arrangement, (f) Reduced Graphene Oxide [83]. Reproduced from Ref. [83]
[83] with permission from Royal Scoiety of Chemistry.
with permission from Royal Scoiety of Chemistry.

Duringthe
During theprocess,
process,plasma
plasmatreatment
treatmenthas hasbeen
beenutilized
utilizedto
tochange
changethe theGNP
GNPsurfaces;
surfaces;
powder volatility and plasma chamber contamination through
powder volatility and plasma chamber contamination through vacuum venting and vacuum venting and si-
si-
phoningare
phoning arethethemost
mostprominent
prominentissues.
issues.Ultra-sonication
Ultra-sonication and and UV
UVtreatment
treatmentof ofgraphite
graphite
powders and epoxy-based nanocomposites containing GNPs
powders and epoxy-based nanocomposites containing GNPs improve the forming and improve the forming and
scattering of graphite into the matrix [81]. Permeable multi-layer graphite
scattering of graphite into the matrix [81]. Permeable multi-layer graphite has enabled has enabled
superiorelectrical
superior electricalconductivity
conductivityand andreduced
reducedmechanical
mechanicalcharacteristics
characteristicswhen
whencompared
compared
with pristine graphite [82,83], which is described to enhance modifications
with pristine graphite [82,83], which is described to enhance modifications in graphite in graphite
surfaceand
surface andmorphology.
morphology.The Theinclusion
inclusionof ofmodified
modifiedGNP GNPin inepoxy
epoxyresin
resintransformed
transformedthe the
directionof
direction of loading
loading into
into the
the opposite
opposite of ofthat
thatofofthe
thefilm’s
film’sdirection.
direction.This
Thisdemonstrated
demonstrated an
advancement
an advancement in in
the
theconveyance
conveyanceofofthe thegraphene
graphenecomposites
composites in in the frequency range
the frequency range of
of
400–750 nm [85].
400–750 nm [85].

3.3.Properties
Propertiesof
ofPNCs
PNCs
3.1.
3.1.Mechanical
MechanicalProperties
Properties
Nanofillers
Nanofillersareareincorporated
incorporatedinin
composites
compositesto to
enhance
enhancetheir mechanical
their mechanicalcharacteristics,
characteris-
including immovability
tics, including and quality,
immovability by processing
and quality, methods
by processing [133]. Specific
methods results can
[133]. Specific be
results
explained explained depending on the addition of treated silicon oxide in the
can be explained explained depending on the addition of treated silicon oxide in the nanoparticles,
including effectsincluding
nanoparticles, on their dissipating area,dissipating
effects on their poly-dispersity,
area, organo-change,
poly-dispersity,etc. [134,136]. It
organo-change,
etc. [134,136]. It is particularly endeavored that well-spread and aligned nano-platelets
can overhaul the immovability of the matrix material. Increasing the Young’s modulus
results in imbuement-formed composites with similar moduli and a pure polymeric
amide cross-section [137]. Their properties are according to the 10–15 µm diameter of the
glass fibers. This outcome is noteworthy for a composite formed by using a thin film
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 12 of 29

is particularly endeavored that well-spread and aligned nano-platelets can overhaul the
immovability of the matrix material. Increasing the Young’s modulus results in imbuement-
formed composites with similar moduli and a pure polymeric amide cross-section [137].
Their properties are according to the 10–15 µm diameter of the glass fibers. This outcome
is noteworthy for a composite formed by using a thin film stacking or injection molding
process [138–140]. The characteristics of polymers are influenced by the size and properties
of the nano-sized particles, e.g., modulus of rigidity and thermal conductivity [141]. Besides,
it was shown that even once the compound lattice advances from the cleaned stage to the
polyanile stage, a lot of energy must be contributed to yield the mechanical properties and
moduli which are tabulated in Table 2.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of graphene and CNT-based nanomaterials.

Nanoparticles
Young’s Tensile Strength
Nanocomposites Concentration Fabrication Method Refs.
Modulus (MPa) (MPa)
(wt.%)
Epoxy/graphene 0.62 Sonication 0.8 1.09 [79,82]
Graphene/nano-cellulose 10 In-situ 1.11 1.13 [83]
Polyaniline/graphene 1.6 Solution casting 0.87 1.16 [127]
PMMA/graphene 2–6 Melt blending 0.93 1.21 [82]
Natural rubber/graphene 3.8 In-situ 1.02 2.10 [83,85]
Epoxy/SWCNT 0.5–4 Melt blending 2.04 1.47 [83,84]
PMMA/SWCNT 0.5 Solution casting 1.06 1.9 [128]
Epoxy/MWCNT 0.25–5 In-situ 1.1 1.07 [134]
Polyurethane/SWCNT 0.7 Solution casting 0.6 1.0 [133]
PP/MWCNT 1 Ball milling 1.1 3.7 [140]
PP/SWCNT 0.75 Solution mixing 1.54 1.89 [176]
Polyurethane/SWCNT 0.38 Melt extrusion 1.4 3.6 [139]
HPDE/graphene 3 In-situ 1.05 2.3 [137,138]
LDPE/MWCNT 3–5 Melt mixing 1.56 1.89 [145,146]
Nylon/MWCNT 1 Melt blending 1.06 2.15 [141]
PVA/SWCNT 0.80 Solution casting 1.45 1.92 [139]
PI/SWCNT 0.56 In-situ 1.20 3 [128,133]
PI/MWCNT 1.50 Solution intercalation 1.12 2.47 [142,144]

Along these lines, the component of the inter-phase layer in nanocomposites is gener-
ally used somewhere near net-shaped products. Heat-added nano-phases were determined
to boost the inter-phase of compounds [144]. As considered, thermally blended depolariza-
tion loosened up the compound; a larger part of compound was then decided by the surface
zone. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is used to investigate chemical bonding along with
the particle surface and inspect the outcome of the medium among nanoparticles and
their compounds [143,146]. The third zone is the compound area of the coated nano-sized
particle, and it is an unprecedented material [147]. Consequently, it is feasible to depict
the surface first by tests, inside the resulting stage, by a common numerical model. Hence,
data regarding the third stage of the inter-phase could then be eliminated. In this way,
homogeneous nucleation shows up in region-disengaged blends [143,177]. Additionally,
limited quantum dots of particles in a medium are valuable to nucleation for nanoparticles
of 29–50 nm and at any rate of a dispersed method for 5–24 nm pores [143].
With larger nano-sized particles, less crystallization energy is required by virtue of
the upper viscousness. This is observable in various composites, including polycarbonate,
polymeric amide [167,169], polylactide/nanoclay [168], polymeric MMT [171], polymeric
amide multi-walled fullerene, polyester/nanoclay, poly (butyleneterephthalate)/nanoclay,
polypropylene/nanoclay, and polypropylene-multi-walled fullerene [174,175,178–180].
While nucleation is evident in the composites, the crystallization rate is routinely low-
ered. A change in nanocomposites is seen through the glass transition temperature and by
adding nanoparticles [181].
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 13 of 29

3.2. Flammability Properties

Many applications in the fields of construction, road transport, and aerospace need
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 30
increased fire retardancy properties [72]. Some automobile producers conjointly have
explicit guidelines identifying the flammability of vehicle components [74,77]. This becomes
a critical analysis for property alternatives in line with safety standards, particularly relating
tolarly relating tocompounds.
halogenated halogenated Consequently,
compounds. Consequently, a few examinations
a few examinations are applied to aredevelop
applied
to develop
new new agreeable
ecologically ecologically agreeable
halogen halogen retardant
flammability flammability retardant
additives or toadditives
expand theiror to
expand [76,86].
strength their strength [76,86].
The issue The issue
emerging for emerging for some
some standard fire standard
retardantfire retardant
mixes is that mixes
they
is that
have they have extraordinary
extraordinary requirements,requirements,
which together which together
influence theinfluence
mechanical the properties.
mechanical
properties.
The inclusionThe inclusion ofallows
of nanofillers nanofillers allows the improvement
the improvement of fire[68,70–74]
of fire retardancy retardancy [68,70–
and the
74] and theproperties
mechanical mechanicalatproperties at theas
the same time, same
showntime,
inas shown
Figure 10.inThe
Figure 10. The examina-
examinations were
conducted
tions werewith respect to
conducted the respect
with consequenceto theofconsequence
muds into different
of mudspolymers, demonstrating
into different polymers,
an increment of the
demonstrating fire retardancy
an increment of the[71,74]. While nanofillers
fire retardancy are normally
[71,74]. While nanofillersinsufficient
are normally to
satisfy guidelines
insufficient for fire
to satisfy retardancy,
guidelines formajor reinforcingmajor
fire retardancy, methodologies
reinforcingare usually applied
methodologies are
for the mixing of conventional fire-retardant substances and nanofillers
usually applied for the mixing of conventional fire-retardant substances and nanofillers [182]. The effect of
scattering
[182]. Theoneffect
the combustibility
of scattering on nature is driven by thenature
the combustibility obstruction of component
is driven pervasion,
by the obstruction of
which will stop
component the ignition
pervasion, compared
which will stopwith the nanoparticles.
ignition compared with nanoparticles.

Figure10.10.PNC
Figure PNC properties:
properties: (a) shape
(a) shape ofnanopowders;
of the the nanopowders; (b) dispersion
(b) dispersion mechanism;
mechanism; (c) mor-
(c) morphology
phology of the nanopowders; and (d) external stimulus used for dispersion [73]. Reproduced from
of the nanopowders; and (d) external stimulus used for dispersion [73]. Reproduced from Ref. [73]
Ref. [73] with permission from MDPI.
with permission from MDPI.

3.3.Characterization
3.3. CharacterizationofofPNCs
PNCs
Thecharacterization
The characterization of any
of any substances
substances is a requirement
is a basic basic requirement for Recent
for its use. its use.studies
Recent
studies showed how materials behave in common applications [23,24].
showed how materials behave in common applications [23,24]. These include the tech- These include the
techniques
niques required
required to characterize
to characterize the materials,theformaterials, for alloys,
example, steel, example, steel, alloys,
semi-conductors,
semi-conductors,
polymers, polymers,
nano-structures, etc.nano-structures,
The characterizationetc. is
The characterization
dependent is dependent
on mechanical, on
electrical,
mechanical,
optical, electrical,
and thermal optical, and
properties andthermal properties
the synthesis and the synthesis
of materials [25–29]. of materials [25–
Morphological
29]. Morphological
investigations investigations
demonstrated demonstrated
that the that the
increased content increased content
of nanoparticles of nanoparti-
conferred a high
cles conferred rate,
agglomeration a high andagglomeration
when the contentrate, and
waswhen the increased,
further content was it further
resultedincreased,
in higherit
resulted in higher
agglomerations thatagglomerations
directly affectedthat the directly
mechanicalaffected the mechanical
properties properties
of the resulting of the
nanocom-
posites. The
resulting major characterization
nanocomposites. The major techniques of PNCstechniques
characterization are compiled and presented
of PNCs are compiled in
Table 3.
and presented in Table 3.
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 14 of 29

Table 3. Characterization techniques of PNCs.

S. No. Description Characterization Technique Ref.

1. Confocal laser scanning Ultrafine microstructure determination [72,183]
2. Scanning optical microscopy Raster scan [72,100]
3. Two-photon fluorescence Biological materials and systems [100]
4. Dynamic light scattering technique Brownian motion and size of the particles [72]
5. Brewster angle Imaging technique for gas liquid interface [183]
6. Nano-sight Characterize nanoparticles from in solution [100,183]
7. SEM Particle shape, size, and morphology [72]
8. Electron probe microscopic analysis Local chemical analysis [72,100]
Molecular weight using the relationship
9. Static light scattering between the intensity of light scattered by [74,103]
a molecule
Transmission electron microscopy Particle size and shape and other images at
10. [104,183]
(TEM) very high resolution
Extensively used to investigate the crystal
structures, interfaces, and defects such as
11. High-resolution TEM dislocations, stacking faults, and grain [183,184]
boundaries of various types of
crystalline materials
Low energy electron
12. Adsorbate bonding of materials [103,104]
diffraction technique
13. Auger electron Analysis of chemical surfaces [100,183]
Forces between the probe and the sample
14. AFM [100,184]
as an element of their common partition
Measures the force of a magnetic field on a
15. Magnetic force microscopy [103,104]
tip to elucidate
Analysis of friction, surface roughness, and
16. Scanning tunneling microscopy [99,100]
surface defects
To measure adhesion strength, magnetic
17. Atomic probe microscopy [72,100]
forces, and mechanical strengths
To image the arrangement of atoms at
18. Field ion microscopy [103,184]
the surface
Nanoscale materials analysis technique
that provides 3D spatial imaging and
19. Atomic probe tomography [104]
chemical composition measurements with
high sensitivity
Measurement of kinetic energy spectra of
20. Ultraviolet photo-emission photoelectrons emitted by molecules on [100]
the surface
The absorbance spectra of a compound in
21. UV-visible spectroscopy [72,103]
solution or as a solid
Measuring the concentrations of metallic
22. Atomic absorption spectroscopy [100,104]
elements in different materials
Inductively coupled plasma Technique for trace multi-element and
23. [99]
spectroscopy isotopic analysis
24. Fluorescence spectroscopy Analyzes fluorescence from a sample [100]
Localized surface plasma resonance
25. Analysis of nanoparticle [103,104]
technique
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 15 of 29

Table 3. Cont.

S. No. Description Characterization Technique Ref.

Rutherford backscattering Elemental analysis using quantitative and
26. [100]
technique qualitative techniques
Small angle neutron Characterization of the surface of
27. [104]
scattering method the material
28. Nuclear reaction analysis method Thin solid films depth profile [100,183]
Determine the thickness of thin films and
29. X-Ray diffraction (XRD) atomic arrangements of [72]
amorphous materials
30. Raman XRD spectroscopy Vibration crystal structure analysis [103,183]
Energy dispersive X-ray
31. Elemental constituent analysis [100]
spectroscopic method
Small angle X-ray
32. Particle sizing in nanoscale [72,183]
scattering method
33. Cathodoluminescence technique Emission characteristics of materials [72]
Nuclear magnetic
34. Nuclear species analysis [100]
resonance technique
Relationship between temperature
35. Thermo-gravimetric analysis [74]
variation and weight loss
36. Differential thermal analysis Reaction heat capacity of the material [75,183]
37. Differential scanning calorimetry Thermal characterization of materials [90,104]
38. Nanocalorimetric method Measures latent fusion heat [183]
Specific areas of nanoparticles, including
39. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller technique [103,104]
pore size distribution
Obtaining the infrared spectrum of
Fourier-transform infrared
40. absorption, emission, and the [100]
spectroscopy
photoconductivity of all types of objects
Phase transitions of metals, determining
41. Differential thermal analysis the effect of oxidative or reductive [72,103]
atmospheres on materials
Loss of energy, change in momentum, and
42. Electron energy loss spectroscopy [72,183]
ionization potential of an atom
43. Sears technique Colloidal size [103]
Used for velocity determination and the
44. Laser doppler anemometry [104,105]
surface charge of the colloidal particles
Hydrophobic interaction
45. Surface hydrophobicity [100,183]
chromatography
46. Pycnometer The density of nanoparticles is determined [100]
Used to measure the molecular weight of
47. Gel permeation chromatography the polymer and its distribution in [76,103]
the matrix

3.3.1. Raman Spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy is an unprecedented technique for the characterization and
isolation of ordinary or possibly inorganic blends in composite substances. As light passes
through a model, a small portion of the image is dispersed. The majority of dispersed
light already the same extraordinary properties as the incident light, which is known as
Rayleigh scattering. Raman scattering occurs when a part of the light is dispersed at a
high frequency [32]. The Raman effect is the efficiency capacity between incident light
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 16 of 29

and Raman-scattered light [38,40,131]. The Raman spectrum is a plot of Raman depth
versus the frequency of the Raman shift [46]. It involves sharp peaks from PNCs, which
can be typical for determining the relationship between the nanoparticles and the polymer
matrices [47,48]. A Raman spectrum may be obtained from tests and can be as small as 1
mm [48,49]. The powers of a spectrum in a Raman range depend upon the affectability of
the specific vibrations to the Raman influence and can be useful for exploring the spectrum
between cellulose-based nanoparticles. As such, Raman spectra can be utilized for intensive
examinations of the spectral images of the PNCs [49,50].
By a wide margin, the most prominent portion of the scattered light is said to be
Rayleigh scrambling [81,82]. A part of the light is scattered at a high frequency; this is
named a Raman diffusion [84,129]. Raman effect signs can routinely be obtained via a
solitary model; each is related to a pivotal vibration or rotational movement of PNCs. In
each viable sense, since, in reality, the Raman effect is so effective, a laser is utilized as the
wellspring [130]. It includes sharp social occasions which can be common in the supportive
relationship of the mixes or substances [132,133]. Raman spectroscopy is a remarkable
strategy for the conceptual evaluation and seclusion of standard or potentially inorganic
mixes of carbon and cellulose-based PNCs [131,134]. In some studies performing PNC
characterization, this approach is utilized for its ability to affirm atoms, both in mass and
as character particles.

3.3.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used to examine the surfaces of the particles
and inner structures [54,56]. This is an important technique to visualize any surface that
can endure in a vacuum. The SEM images begin with a thin layer of gold coating applied
to the surface of the nanofiller or nanoparticles to falter it [59–64]. In some studies, it is
stated that if the surface of the PNCs is not effectively conductive, surface conductivity can
be increased by coating gold nanoparticles [65,66]. This incorporates a finely collimated
light emission that clears all through the outside of the examination. The pillar is centered
directly into a test that filters the outside of a sample [68,182]. The transmitted particles
accumulate in the proper locator to yield surface data. The assessment of the nanofiller
scattering in the polymer surface is significant since the thermal and mechanical behavior
of the materials is emphatically identified according to the morphology of the acquired
materials. Contingent upon the level of detachment of the nanoparticles, morphologies are
conceivable [69–71].

3.3.3. Environmental SEM

It is very expensive to use modern environmental SEM (ESEM) to modify a flowing
electron magnifying lens; to proceed with SEM [72,88], a magnifying instrument intended
for a double feature can work well in each mode [74]. One preferred position of utilizing
the ESEM is using a wet model, in which the need to make the non-conductive nanofiller
conductive is dispensed with. PNC samples do need not dried and covered with car-
bon or gold, palladium, and accordingly their characteristics can be saved for testing or
control [76,77]. In some studies, it was mentioned that dynamic examinations can be
finished with the ESEM in the sodden mode; one of the hot levels might be utilized to
heat carbon-based PNCs above 1500 ◦ C and picture them for the span of each progression
of the heating/cooling measure [78,86]. After a positive temperature is surpassed, over
1100 ◦ C, inclination should be acclimated to dismiss hot electrons [185], and this can be
performed without issues. The Peltier uses a heating/cooling stage, grants a working
interior temperature of 20 ◦ C above or under the surrounding temperature, and provides a
blend of low temperature and high water vapor pressure, allowing for the achievement
of a 100% relative humidity (RH) at the sample surface [91–93,101]. At 100% RH, tests are
characterized by drying all throughout the imaging strategy [101,186]. At a value that is
not exactly 100% RH, a wet sample continually loses water since the vacuum inside the
chamber siphons it; inside the degree, it shows up as a consistent development [112,187].
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 17 of 29

3.3.4. Rutherford Backscattering Theory

Rutherford Backscattering Theory impacts nuclear cores, and is the first theory to intro-
duce the possibility of cores in particles [99,100]. It includes estimating the dispersion and
quality of particles in a pillar, which subsequently reduces the close surface area of an example
into iotas where the bar has been focused. With these data, deciding the nuclear mass and
essential fixations versus power under the surface is possible. Rutherford Backscattering (RBS)
is appropriate for deciding the centralization of prime factors [186,188]. Its affectability for the
conduction of tests appropriately under the PNCs’ surface is negative [98–100,184,188,189].
At the point when the carbon or cellulose-based PNC samples are subjected to light emission,
the greater parts of the samples are embedded into the nanocomposite and do not move
away. This is because the distance across a nuclear core is approximately 1–15 m, though the
dividing among cores is around 2–10 m [103,183]. A small portion of the occurrence particles
go through an immediate crash with the core of the atoms inside the sample [104,105].
This impact does not just imply direct contact between the shot particle and target atom
energy, but happens because of Coulombic power between cores in close proximity to each
other [109,189]. Be that as it may, with the utilization of conventional carbon or cellulose-
based nanocomposite materials, the communication can be demonstrated precisely as a
versatile crash [78,111]. The force is estimated for molecule backscattering and the rays
pass through the sample, each when a crash [113]. Hence, this relies upon a material’s
ability to halt electricity [114,120]. A molecule likewise loses quality as the after-effect of
the crash. In some investigations, it was stated that the proportion of energy of the shot
upon crashing is known as the kinematic energy and this energy is influential in achieving
better characterization of images for carbon-based PNCs [112,115–117]. The quantities
of backscattering occasions that emerge from a given detail in an example rely on two
components: the grouping of the component and the large size of its core.

3.3.5. Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDAX)

Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy is an incredible methodology for measuring the
internal structures of a sample in terms of cubic micrometers [121,123]. In energy-dispersive
spectroscopy, the particles at the surface are energized by the electron beam by discharging
specific frequencies of X-ray beams, which may be normal for the nuclear state of the
components [102,118–121,123]. A power-dispersive identifier [124,190], a solid-state device
that separates among X-ray beam energies, examines the outflow X-ray beam [126]. In
most studies, the influence of the polymer matrix and cellulose-based nanofiller can be
determined using EDAX analysis. The presence of various elements can be ascertained
using EDAX and most studies identify the influence of the elements on the characteristics
of carbon and cellulose-based PNCs.

3.3.6. Transmission Electron Microscopy

TEM is similar to SEM, in which an inordinate voltage (80–200 keV), an engaged
electron beam, is emitted through a narrow, consistent case, ordinarily 100–200 nm in
thickness [96,125,126,190]. Electrons are subject to sound dispersion or diffraction from
grid planes inside the glass-like section of the substance. Ionized X-ray beams are identified
by using different indicators [79]. TEM is used in most studies to characterize the internal
characteristics of carbon- and cellulose-based PNCs.

3.3.7. Auger Electron Spectroscopy

After the surface of a solid has been flooded with electrons, Auger alludes to the
venture of a secondary electron [136,138]. This is a one-of-a-kind photoelectron radiation
phenomenon that occurs after a reliable surface is bombarded with low-energy X-rays.
The Auger electron’s electricity is determined by the chemical bonding of the elements
present in carbon and cellulose-based PNCs from which it was emitted. The intensity
of an Auger electron’s escape is much less than 1 nm, with metals having a low density
and the conducting cloth having the highest value. Auger electron spectroscopy (AES)
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 18 of 29

has a lateral resolution of about 1 mm. Auger spectroscopy characterizes the surface of
substances and represents the structure of substances in this way [137,140]. This method
employs low-powered electron energy beneath 5 keV to decrease the heating and decay of
the surface.

3.3.8. Ion Scattering Spectroscopy

After one or more notable crashes with target iotas of the best couple of layers, a
portion of the rays will be returned into the vacuum when a light emission reaches a solid
surface. Estimation of the backscattered density may be used to determine the mass of
these iotas [147,176]. Low-emission ion spectroscopy (LEIS) refers to fundamental energies
between 100 eV and 10 keV, medium-emission ion spectroscopy (MEIS) refers to energies
between 100 and 200 keV [154], and high-emission ion spectroscopy (HEIS) refers to
energies between 1 and many MeV. The LEIS approach is often referred to as ion-scattering
spectroscopy (ISS), whereas the HEIS technique is referred to as RBS [143,177]. LEIS is
engaged as a story-explicit strategy and the spectra are usually collected using particle
radiation ranging from 0.5 to 3 keV. The probability of electron movement is extremely high,
even within the fundamental impact with a surface iota, due to the strong electron affinity
of inert-gas ions [161]. After the collision, the largest particles are destroyed, so a locator set
to investigate particles of a similar kind as the ones in the episode shaft identifies particles
that had just a single crash with an objective molecule [158,159,161]. Since rays entering
the solid need multiple scattering to return to the surface and exit, they are discarded.
The exceptional affectability of ISS to only the highest level layer or two mono-layers
dictates their proper use [160]. In many studies, ion scattering spectroscopy has been
used on cellulose-based nanocomposites for exposing surfaces, thin film coatings, and
attachment, just as iotas, along with the limitation of adsorbed molecules. Measurement of
surface texture and the utilization of low-quality particles, are according to the failure of the
inelastic materials and the balance rate, depending on particle directions [165]. Moreover,
covering tops and two or three dissipating must be contemplated, and will turn into a basic
apparatus [160,162].

3.3.9. Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy

Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) spectra for indistinguishable
substances are hard to fix, while structures will strengthen the polymers [95,162]. Because
of the smaller sampling intensity, the secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) technique is
used. In a standard evaluation, the surface of the sample is assaulted by a strategy for a
primary molecule at a low thickness, basically intended to confine the change of the model
surface by considering enlightenment. The surface produces nanoparticles, which might be
examined with the use of a mass analyzer [95,166]. The delayed consequences of explicit
evaluation give the compound its structure and create layers around the surface [162]. A
model is degraded and constantly attacked with electrons, splitting into pieces that can
be recognized through incomplete particles of a comparable essential mass. There are two
types of mass examinations: the first one is an objective that isolates between fragmentary
mass evaluations and the second one is a mass appraisal that isolates huge mass value.
The procedure calls for exceptionally low weight, and the parts should be eccentric [95,159–
163,165]. Charged fragments are ejected into a vacuum; this is not recommended, as they
may be unreliable. The goal relies upon the cracking of an ionized particle [162,165]. Mass
reach proposes the purposeful assessments of molecule powers [95,157]. There are different
methods for the ionization of typical blends: far-reaching atom attack, compound and local
ionization, electron influence, deposition, etc. [158,169]. For instance, in a laser, lower-than-
anticipated experimental steps include a mono-chromatic light that is utilized to pass on
the energy to volatilize a demonstration from the surface [156,157].
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 19 of 29

3.3.10. Gas Chromatography

A blend is separated into its additives using gas chromatography (GC), which are
analyzed by one of the detectors [167]. In GC, the pattern is passed through an appropriated
stable bed in a column at some point during vaporization. The vapor passes on using a regu-
lar scattering of a gas such as nitrogen or helium, which is heated by the evaporator [95,171].
GC insinuates the usage of strong springy or nuclear sifter segments [167–169]. Chromatog-
raphy isolates a mix into its added substances, which are then broken down [168,171]. In
GC, the example is given at some stage in the vapor fragment through appropriated stable
bedding set in a section. Heating substances heat to the segment, through which the vapor
is conveyed by utilizing a customary flow of a fuel which incorporates organic gases [168].
GC alludes to the utilization of solid retentive or sub-atomic strainer sections. This tech-
nique is used in studies to identify the fundamental elements responsible for the inherent
characteristics of carbon, cellulose, and their polymer nanocomposites. By identifying these
elements, the influencing factors for the properties of the PNCs can easily be adjudged.

3.3.11. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

This is a method that relies on the appealing idea of a couple of isotopic materials. In
reality, it is a concept relying on engaging solicitation with a continued identification of
the circle energy [171]. It is assaulted with recurrent electromagnetic waves at legitimate
concentrations to the engaging area. Precisely when the turning place and the signal recur-
rent become the same, reverberation occurs. The quality switch is described in the middle
and is surveyed and portrayed [155,170]. The resounding rehash at which the quality
absorption happened depends upon the substance of the model and the natural segments.
The properties in an atom might be seen by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [168,180],
with reference spectra and fuse assortments of substances.

3.3.12. Differential Scanning Calorimetry

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a thermal evaluation procedure and is
utilized to check the heat flow rate with temperature changes. This is one of the best
methods among the available thermal assessment systems [147,149]. These evaluations give
theoretical and substance changes that recall intense and extensive structures or changes for
heat limit [95,164]. In any event, the comprehensive non-appearance of dissolvable stage
advances, crystallization temperature, loosening up, and contamination of the polymers
achieves an adjustment in the temperature of the model. DSC structures give a broad limit
range from 80 ◦ C to 1600 ◦ C [172,173].

3.3.13. Dynamic Mechanical Analysis

This approach is usually a greater-sensitivity method for recognizing changes com-
pared with the DSC and DTA [173]. This is a direct result of the assessment in the dynamic
modulus and damping coefficient (Tan δ), the two of which trade while the glass-like shape
advances to the amorphous fragment. During the process, a moderately greater substitute
in the mechanical characteristics occurs in its uncommon heat ability. Dynamic mechanical
analysis (DMA) is the method for estimation of glass transition temperature and particular
minor region/shape adjustments of polymers [95,172]. It chooses loss modulus, storage
modulus, and Tan δ as a component of temperature or time. Values are taken at regular in-
tervals and Tan δ as the quality of substance weight. DMA can moreover be used to control
the temperature limits. A weight is finished to a model and the adequacy and portion of
the subsequent movement are assessed [181]. For every circumstance, the model is pushed
at a repeat of the experiments. Units typically have a repeat range of 0.001 to 1000 Hz. For
most indicative tests, any assessments below 0.01 Hz take an unreasonable amount of time,
particularly if the information is needed as a temperature property [175,179]. Resonation
habitually happens at frequencies more than 100 Hz, contingent on test robustness. These
utilize a straight actuator, which is settled from the data of magnetic impact analysis to the
electromagnetic waves as activated agents [94,181].
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 20 of 29

3.3.14. Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis

This is a system used for the measurement of the heat flow rate composites which
consolidates polymer matrices [103,104]. In this method, changes inside the model are
assessed at the same time as the temperature is increased. Moisture content and other
substances of a model can also be examined through TGA [105,117]. The robustness is set
over the radiator and is thermally remote from the light. TGA equipment is set up with
a smaller-than-expected heat, which may be immediately cooled [104,105]. An external
radiator with a heating focal point after the effect of a platinum and rhodium blend can
increase the temperature up to 1500 ◦ C. TGA is good for temperatures above 1000 ◦ C,
0.1 mg balance affectability, and a variable direct heating rate. The thermal capacity of
TGA may likewise change from 0.1 to 200 ◦ C/min [78,111]. In most of the studies, it was
stated that the thermal stability of the polymer matrices was enhanced by the addition of
nanoparticles based on carbon substrates and cellulose microconstituents.

3.3.15. Differential Thermal Analysis

The most critical temperature of differential thermal analysis (DTA) is in the abundance
of 1010 ◦ C [170]. A standard heat-up charge for DTA is between 13 and 22 ◦ C/min [166,173],
notwithstanding that more moderate articulations are possible by the use of an ordinary
ideal model of 50–100 mg load [172,173]. The dissolving of a semi-crystalline or glass-like
polymer showed itself as an endothermic reaction. The glass-like part of the model is
related to the region beneath the height, just as it is in DSC. Since the conditioning expla-
nations for polymers are usually unaffected by using the aggregate, DTA may be used
to represent blends of polymers [170,173]. Similar polymers, including superfluous and
low thickness, are discernable by DTA; however, IR proved unable to do this, and is now
set up to successfully resolve such issues, proposing the thermo-gram of a mix of poly-
tetrafluoroethylene and perfluoroalkoxy polymer [175,179]. The peak at an atmospheric
temperature (19 ◦ C) is an advancement factor for polytetrafluoroethylene and dissolving
factors [94,180].

4. Applications of PNCs
Carbon and cellulose-based PNCs are widely used in many application fields such
as energy storage, electrical and electronics fabrication, food packaging, biomedical, elec-
tromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, and so on. In some studies, it was stated that
the use of carbon-based nanoparticles such as CNTs and carbonyl powder in the polymer
matrix enhanced the EMI shielding properties of the nanocomposites. When the poly-
mer nanocomposites were manufactured with the assistance of magnetization curing, the
electrical conductivity of the PNCs was enhanced and this aids in the EMI shielding appli-
cations [191]. Some other studies developed electric heating composites based on CNTs
embedded in polymer matrix and the incorporation of silica gel was also examined. From
the results, it was seen that silica gel incorporation enhanced the dispersion of CNTs in the
polymer matrices, thus enhancing the electric heating ability and heat-induced electrical
stability of the PNCs. The addition of silica gel also increased the time of cooling, which en-
hanced the heat-storage capability of the composites. It was concluded from the study that
the silica gel addition increased the electric heating ability of the CNTs-based PNCs [192].
Cellulose-based PNCs are highly used in food packaging applications. These composites
possess better biodegradability, mechanical, permeability, barrier, and optical properties
owing to their nanoscale dimensions and high specific surface area [193–195]. Though
the content of cellulose increases the mechanical properties of the cellulose nanocompos-
ites, excessive content can lead to agglomeration. Food packaging applications demand
good permeability and barrier properties, which are exceptionally high for cellulose PNCs.
Hence, the use of cellulose-based polymer nanocomposites for food packaging applica-
tions is highly recommended in most studies [196,197]. Figure 11 shows the schematic
development of cellulose-based natural fiber into a biodegradable food packaging material.
Nanomaterials 2023,
Nanomaterials 13, 1803
2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2221of
of 30
29

Figure 11. Application of cellulose-based PNCs in food packaging [193]. Reproduced from Ref.
Figure 11. Application of cellulose-based PNCs in food packaging [193]. Reproduced from Ref. [193]
[193] with permission from Springer.
with permission from Springer.
Different
Different uses uses of
of AgNPs
AgNPsininthe thebio-medical
bio-medicalfieldfieldinclude
include anti-microbial
anti-microbial action,
action, pro-
protein
tein recognition, malignancy treatment, clinical textures, anti-microbial
recognition, malignancy treatment, clinical textures, anti-microbial catheter, and natural catheter, and
natural measures [169,170]. This is because AgNPs confer novel
measures [169,170]. This is because AgNPs confer novel properties to nanoparticles, which properties to nanoparti-
cles, which
help with help with in
applications applications in terms of bio-compatibility
terms of bio-compatibility [174]. AgNPs exhibit [174]. nano-items
AgNPs exhibit and
nano-items and are commonly used in the form of pieces in
are commonly used in the form of pieces in therapeutic and other applications including therapeutic and other ap-
plications including filtration, optics, gadgets, and also in pharmacological
filtration, optics, gadgets, and also in pharmacological treatment processes. Yet, the size treatment
processes. Yet, the size and
and shape characteristics shape characteristics
of AgNPs may pose possible of AgNPs
threatsmay pose possible
to human threats to
life, and expansive
human life, and expansive exploration is required to address their
exploration is required to address their combination, depiction, and possible destructive- combination, depic-
tion, and possible destructiveness
ness [168,169,171]. [168,169,171].
CNTs are most generally CNTs
utilized, are most
which comprisegenerally
graphene utilized,
layerswhich
with
comprise
sp2 hybridized graphenecarbon layers with and
molecules sp2 covalently
hybridizedreinforcement
carbon molecules and adjoining
with three covalentlycarbon
rein-
forcement
atoms. The with three
broadest adjoining
utilization of carbon
3D-printed atoms. The broadest
nano-CNT utilization
can be found of 3D-printed
in hardware. All are
nano-CNT can be found in hardware. All are explicitly inferable
explicitly inferable from the extraordinary electrical conductivity of 102 S/m to 107 S/m at from the extraordinary
electrical
300 K, with conductivity
most compositesof 102 S/m to 107 S/m
experiencing at 300 K,electrical
enhanced with most composites experiencing
characteristics.
enhanced electrical characteristics.
The utilization of these composite materials incorporates energy-storing devices such
The super-capacitors
as micro utilization of these andcomposite
other partsmaterials incorporatesadaptable
such as transducers, energy-storing devices
conductors, re-
such
sistors,as and
micro super-capacitors
inductors. As a hugeand other partsinsuch
enhancement as transducers,
electrical conductivity adaptable conduc-
is seen when the
tors, resistors, of
concentration and inductors.
CNTs decreases, As 3D-printed
a huge enhancement
compositesincouldelectrical conductivityminimal
be a lightweight, is seen
effort, and profoundly successful choice for specific applications.
when the concentration of CNTs decreases, 3D-printed composites could be a light- High-level applications
that can assimilate
weight, minimal effort,the additional expenses include
and profoundly successful hardware,
choice particularly
for specific aviation hard-
applications.
ware (whichapplications
High-level requires lightweight, high-strength,
that can assimilate high-temperature-safe
the additional expenses include composites), and
hardware,
energy (for instance,
particularly aviationin nanotube-strengthened
hardware (which requires elastic seals for enormoushigh-strength,
lightweight, oil recupera-
tion stages). Be that ascomposites),
high-temperature-safe it may, moreand agreeable
energy interfacial
(for instance,connections may bring about
in nanotube-strengthened
elastic seals for enormous oil recuperation stages). Be that as it may, more polymer
a differential slip system to be used at the interfacial region between the agreeableand in-
terfacial connections may bring about a differential slip system to be used atinstruments
filler. Subsequently, finding the ideal mix of strengthening and deformational the interfa-
ought
cial to be deliberately
region between themeasured polymerfor the filler.
and planning of graphene-based
Subsequently, findingPNCs with extreme
the ideal mix of
mechanical properties.
strengthening Graphene-based
and deformational PNCs are
instruments precisely
ought to besolid, but alsomeasured
deliberately adaptable,forwhich
the
expands the
planning scope of their application
of graphene-based PNCs with areas.
extreme mechanical properties. Graphene-based
PNCs are precisely solid, but also adaptable, which expands the scope of their applica-
5. Summary and Conclusions
tion areas.
Cellulose and carbon-based nanocomposites are facing a strong challenge in terms of
5. Summary optimum
determining synthesis techniques lately. Many new approaches are being continu-
and Conclusions
ously developed by researchers to address the involved complexities. The wide application
Cellulose and carbon-based nanocomposites are facing a strong challenge in terms
spectrum of carbon- and cellulose-based PNCs makes them into an interesting material for
of determining optimum synthesis techniques lately. Many new approaches are being
research and motivates the development of these materials on a large scale [191,192]. Parallel
continuously developed by researchers to address the involved complexities. The wide
Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1803 22 of 29

efforts for synthesizing cellulose-based PNCs for various applications on large scales may
motivate the further development of the PNCs. When taken in terms of the future scope
of development, the need for finding an economic way method to synthesize cellulose-
based PNCs for various applications must be addressed. Pilot-scale implementation of
these nanocomposites is the next step. With these developments, the currently researched
synthesis techniques and the materials can be expanded for mass production to cater to the
ever-rising demand. Numerous applications of PNCs require high strength, subsequently
demanding the expansion of their mechanical properties and elastic moduli along with
material homogeneity. Mechanically strong cellulose-based composite membranes are often
used in water purification applications and the absorption of toxic gases. The application of
cellulose-based composites is also being promoted in wound healing and other biomedical
applications. The electrical conductivity of the optoelectronic devices can also be enhanced
using chemically modified cellulose-based PNCs.
This review summarized the ongoing endeavors on the material selection, processing
methodologies, handling techniques, hypothetical models, and properties of carbon- and
cellulose-based nanoparticle-filled polymer composites. These composites have better
characteristics in terms of toughness, but have not exhibited high mechanical characteristics
concerning the materials’ elastic moduli and other properties. They have numerous,
invaluable advantages, for example, low volume, lighter weight, and imperviousness to
temperature changes. These materials lack extensive investigations indicating the primary
ideas with respect to their possibilities for mechanical applications. PNCs can be utilized
in various applications, for example, biotechnology, nano-electronics, super-capacitors,
and bio-sensors. Their usage has been introduced in mechanical applications, including
solar cells, radar materials, etc. Subsequently, PNCs are enormously utilized in numerous
applications to enhance the electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties of the end
products. The interfacial adhesion between nanoparticles and polymeric matrices relies
upon the nature of the polymer, as the conceivable cooperation or linkage between the
polymer chains significantly influences their properties.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement: No associated data is available for this work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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