M. Ed. Spl. Ed. (H.I. / I.D.

)
ODL Programme

AREA - B
B 9 H.I. : CURRICULUM AND TEACHING
STRATEGIES FOR CHILDREN WITH HEARING
IMPAIRMENT

A COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMME OF
NETAJI SUBHAS OPEN UNIVERSITY
AND
REHABILITATION COUNCIL OF INDIA
1
 AREA - B
DISABILITY SPECIALIZATION
COURSE CODE - B9 (H.I.)
CURRICULUM AND TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR CHILDREN WITH
HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Chairman Prof. Subha Sankar Sarkar, Vice Chancellor,
Netaji Subhas Open University, Kolkata-700 064
Convenor Prof. Atindranath Dey, Director,
School of Education, Netaji Subhas Open University, Kolkata-700 064
RCI Expert Committee
Dr. Jayanthi Narayan Former Deputy Director, NIMH, Secunderabad.
Dr. Varsha Gathoo Head and Reader, Department of Education, AYJNISHD (D), Mumbai.
Dr. Sanjay Kumar Assistant Professor, DSMNRU, Lucknow,
Shri Ashok Chakraborty Ex- Chairperson, ZCC, RCI & Secretary, SHELTER.
Dr. Hemant Singh Keshwal Assistant Prof. of Special Education and Centre In- Charge, NIEPID- RC, Kolkata.
Shri Suman Kumar Assistant Professor of Speech & Hearing, AYJNISHD- RC, Kolkata.
Professor A. N. Dey Director, School of Education, NSOU.
Smt. Antara Choudhury Assistant Professor of Special Education, School of Education, NSOU.

NSOU Expert Committee [Board of Studies (BoS)]

Professor A. N. Dey Director, School of Education, NSOU.
Professor Dulal Mukhopadhyay Professor of Education (Retd), NSOU.
Shri Ashok Chakraborty Ex- Chairperson, ZCC, RCI & Secretary, SHELTER,
Professor Debasri Banerjee Professor of Education, Department of Education, University of Calcutta
Dr. Hemant Singh Keshwal Assistant Prof. of Spl. Education and Centre In- Charge, NIEPID-RC, Kolkata.
Shri Suman Kumar Assistant Professor of Speech & Hearing, AYJNISHD- RC, Kolkata.
Professor Swapan Kr. Sarkar Head, SoE, NSOU
Prof. Sanat Kumar Ghosh Professor of Education, SoE, NSOU.
Professor Sumanta Chattaraj Professor of Education, SoE, NSOU.
Smt. Swapna Deb Consultant, SoE, NSOU.
Smt. Antara Choudhury Assistant Professor of Special Education, School of Education, NSOU.
Dr. Abhedananda Panigrahi Coordinator, B. Ed., SoE, NSOU.
Shri Prabir Naskar Assistant Professor of Special Education, SoE, NSOU.
Title : Curriculum and Teaching Strategies for Children with Hearing Impairment
Unit Name of the Unit Writer Name of the Editor
Unit-1 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 Ms Jignya Shah, Lecturer, Amarjyoti Rehabilitation Dr. Varsha Gathoo, Head and Reader, Dept. of
and Research Centre, TTC,Delhi. Education, AYJNISHD(D), Mumbai.
1.4, 1.5 Ms Kasturi Kulkarni, Asst. Prof, CCYM'S Hashu
Advani College of Special Education, Mumbai
Unit-2 Ms Kasturi Kulkarni, Asst. Prof, CCYM'S Hashu Advani
College of Special Education, Mumbai
Unit-3 Ms Punam Mhatre, Special Educator,Dept of
Education, AYJNISHD(D) Mumbai
Unit-4 Ms Sharmishta Oak, Academic Associate , YCMOU, Nashik,
Maharastra
Unit-5 Dr Gayatri Ahuja, Lecturer, AYJNISHD(D), Mumbai
General and Format Editing Smt. Baby Dutta Choudhury, Academic Consultant,
SoE, NSOU and Mandira Chakraborty, Academic
Consultant, School of Education, NSOU.
Programme Coordinator Smt. Antara Choudhury,Assistant Professor of Special
Education, School of Education, NSOU.
The Self Instructional Material (SIM) is prepared keeping conformity with the M.Ed.Spl. Edu.(MR/HI/VI) Programme as prepared
and circulated by the Rehabilitation Council of India, New Delhi and adopted by NSOU on and from the 2020-2022 academic session.

All rights reserved. No part of this work can be reproduced in any form without the written permission
from the NSOU authorities. 2 Mohan Kumar Chattopadhyay
Registrar
 Prologue
I am delighted to write this foreword for the Self Learning Materials (SLM) of M
Ed in Special Education (ODL). The M Ed in Special Education in ODL mode is a new
academic program to be introduced at this University as per NOC issued by the
Rehabilitation Council of India, New Delhi and subject to approval of the program by
the DEB-UGC.
I must admire the emulation taken by the colleagues from School of Education
(SoE) of NSOU for developing the Course Structure, Unit wise details of contents,
identifying the Content Writers, distribution of job of content writing, editing of the
contents by the senior subject experts, making DTP work and also developing E-SLMs
of all the 16 Papers of the M Ed program. I also extend my sincere thanks to each of the
Content Writers and Editors for making it possible to prepare all the SLMs as necessary
for the program. All of them helped the University enormously. My colleagues in SoE
fulfilled a tremendous task of doing all the activities related to preparation of M Ed in
Spl Edn SLMs in war footing within the given time line.
The conceptual gamut of Education and Special Education has been extended to a
broad spectrum. Helen Keller has rightly discerned that "Have you ever been at sea in
a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut you in and the great
ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and sounding-
line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship
before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding line, and no way
of knowing how near the harbour was. "Light! Give me light!" was the wordless cry
of my soul, and the light of love shone on me in that very hour." So education is the
only tool to empower people to encounter his/her challenges and come over being
champion. Thus the professional Teacher Education program in Special Education can
only groom the personnel as required to run such academic institutions which cater to
the needs of the discipline.
I am hopeful that the SLMs as developed by the eminent subject experts, from the
national as well as local pools, will be of much help to the learners. Hope that the
learners of the M Ed Spl Edn program will take advantage of using the SLMs and make
most out of it to fulfil their academic goal. However, any suggestion for further
improvement of the SLMs is most welcome.

Professor (Dr.) Subha Sankar Sarkar

Vice-Chancellor, NSOU

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 First Edition : December, 2019

Printed in accordance with the regulations of the Distance Education Bureau,

University Grants Commission, Government of India

4
 AREA - B
B 9: H.I. : CURRICULUM AND TEACHING
STRATEGIES FOR CHILDREN WITH HEARING
IMPAIRMENT

Unit 1 Curricular Needs at Different Levels

1.1 Paradigm shift in education: school, teacher, learner & curriculum for 21st century
1.2 Causes of learning difficulties in children with hearing impairment
1.3 Differential curricular needs of early and late intervened children with hearing
impairment
1.4 Curricular framework for early intervention & Early Childhood Education

Unit 2: Curricular Adaptations

2.1 Bases of curricular adaptations & decision making
2.2 Step wise curricular approach and its adaptation
2.3 Types of accommodations, modifications and its applications
2.4 Strategies of adaptation of text of different school subjects
2.5 Adaptation in evaluation

Unit 3: Differentiated Instructions

3.1 Relevance & Concept
3.2 Elements of differentiated instructions (Knowing the learner, assessing the learner,
school climate, instructional strategies, adjustable assignments)
3.3 Need assessment & Decision making
3.4 Learning pyramid
3.5 Mastery level learning

Unit-4: Literacy Development & Teaching Strategies

4.1 Deafness & literacy issues;
4.2 Theories of literacy development and their applications
4.3 Processes involved in reading & writing

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4.4 Processes involved in speaking, listening & signing in literacy development
4.5 Meta cognitive strategies & instructional practices

Unit 5: Research & Development in Literacy

5.1 Research in literacy: An overview
5.2 Priority areas of research
5.3 Identifying the gaps in literacy research
5.4 Readings in Researches on literacy development at different levels in the past two
decades
5.5 Evidence based practices in literacy development

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 AREA - B
Netaji Subhas Open B 9 H.I. : CURRICULUM AND
University TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR
CHILDREN WITH HEARING
IMPAIRMENT

B 9 H.I. p CURRICULUM AND TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR

CHILDREN WITH HEARING IMPAIRMENT

UNIT p 1 CURRICULAR NEEDS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS 09 - 43

UNIT p 2 CURRICULAR ADAPTATIONS 44 - 84

UNIT p 3 DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTIONS 85 - 100

UNIT p 4 LITERACY DEVELOPMENT & TEACHING STRATEGIES 101 - 133

UNIT p 5 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN LITERACY 134 - 156

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8
Unit 1 ❏ Curricular Needs at Different Levels
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Paradigm shift in education: school, teacher, learner & curriculum for 21st
century
1.3.1 From segregation to integrated education to inclusive education
1.3.2 From teacher centred to student centred
1.3.3 From heterogeneity to diversity
1.3.4 Curriculum for 21st century
1.4 Causes of learning difficulties in children with hearing impairment
1.4.1 Critical Period and onset of hearing loss
1.4.2 Degree of Hearing Loss
1.4.3 Speech Perception Ability (SPA)
1.4.4 Use of Assistive Device and audibility
1.4.5 Parental Support and Environment
1.5 Differential curricular needs of early and late intervened children with
hearing impairment
1.5.1 Early Identification and early intervention
1.5.2 Curricular needs of Early and late intervened children with hearing
impairment
1.6 Curricular framework for Early intervention & Early Childhood Education
1.6.1 Need of curriculum framework for Early intervention & Early
Childhood Education
1.6.2 The important domains in Curriculum Framework
1.6.3 Activities for ECCE Curriculum Framework
1.6.4 Teaching approaches as per Curriculum Framework for ECCE
1.6.5 List of materials for play
1.6.6 Role of Assessment in Curriculum Framework for ECCE programs

9
 1.6.7 Role of stakeholders:
1.7 Domains of development facilitating the school readiness for inclusive
education
1.7.1 School readiness: The concept
1.7.2 Child being made ready for school :
1.7.3 School being made ready for children :
1.7.4 School readiness of children with hearing impairment
1.8 Unit End Exercises
1.9 Let us Sum Up
1.10 References

1.1 Introduction
Education has undergone a paradigm shift. The United Nations Global Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) has enlisted goal no. 4 as quality education for creating
opportunities for inclusive, equitable, quality oriented and lifelong for ‘all’ by 2030.
Hence, inclusive education has emerged as a sustainable movement. It is a global appeal
that challenges exclusionary practices in education. Hence, the 21st century classrooms
are becoming more and more diverse and highlighting the need of implementing
curricular frameworks that foster instructional strategies and inclusive practices suitable
for every child in the classroom. The education of a child with hearing impairment is
also one of the likely challenges for the teacher. This is more so as the disability is
hidden and teachers may find it difficult to identify a child with hearing impairment.
Hearing impairment is not just the ability of not hearing well but it is also the difficulty
in understanding and using spoken language and literacy skills as well. The loss of
hearing at a young age causes delays in language and communication and that is a
major cause that leads to learning difficulties among the children with hearing disability.

1.2 Objectives
After completing this unit you will be able to:

10
 ● Discuss various Legislations and Provisions related to the Education of Disability
● Explain diversity and individual differences
● Enlist various causes of learning difficulties in children with hearing impairment
● Explain differential curricular needs of early and late intervened
● Outline the curricular framework for early intervention and early childhood
education
● Explain domains of development facilitating the school readiness for inclusive
education

1.3 Paradigm shift in education: school, teacher, learner &

curriculum for 21st century
The term “paradigm” means pattern. According to Ausubel (1968) pattern forming
is the way or an attempt to make meaning from our experiences. Paradigm shift is a
fundamental change in approach or underlying assumptions. According to Merriam
Webster dictionary a paradigm shift is an important change that happens when the usual
way of thinking about or doing something is replaced by a new and different way.
When a paradigm shift takes place, things are seen from a different perspective and
focuses on different aspects of the phenomena. Paradigm shift is seen to be happening
in many areas and the field of education is no exception to it.

1.3.1 From segregation to integrated education to inclusive education

The education of children with disability has undergone a shift and change in the
philosophy. This is primarily due to the change in the models of disability from charity
and medical to social rights based model. With the current shift to a participatory or
rights based model, the education of children with disabilities has moved from the
segregation to integration to inclusion. Segregated education endorsed providing a
separate day and residential schools which were often considered as places best meant
to suit to the needs of the children with disabilities. Traditionally and till a few years
ago, education of most of the children with hearing impairment has been undertaken in
the self-contained classrooms of a special school (Chakraborti-Gosh, 2017).As reported
in the Status of Disability in India (2003) the first special school for the deaf in India
dates back to 1885 in Bombay (Hull, 1913). The children attending these schools had
some homogeneous backgrounds in terms of certain factors like late identification and
intervention, degree of hearing loss or language levels and communication challenges.
However, these children were heterogonous in many aspects such as particular mode
and methods of communication depending upon the parental hearing status, usage of

11
hearing aids and devices and speech perceptual abilities. Nevertheless, inspite of these
individual differences the schools followed only one mode of communication be it
oral, manual or total communication. Given the number of limited special schools and
the restricted teacher child ratio, the parents had hardly any choice to opt for alternate
schools if their home language (mother tongue) did not match the school language for
instructions. Similarly, parents or the child’s preferences for communication options
were also not thought of. This was most of the times a case with many children as
schools were residential. Since acquisition of one language itself is a herculean task for
the children with hearing impairment, these issues were perennial.

Integrated Education
With the educational policies being changed due to Kothari commission (1964-
66) and schemes as mentioned earlier like the District Primary Education Program
(DPEP) in India, integrated education took roots (Balasundaram, 2005).The DPEP
through its project PIED focused on integration of children with disabilities by training
teachers, providing barrier free environment and distribution of appropriate aids and
appliances (Pandey and Advani.1995). These efforts however were based on the theory
of normalisation. This was prevalent and hence there was a gate keeping approach
where-in only the children who had acquired a certain level of expertise of
communication and literacy in special schools would be integrated.

Inclusive Education:
The right to education is stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
and also in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Children (1990), reaffirmed in the
World Declaration on Education for All (1990). Recently among the 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), goal four Education calls for creating opportunities for
inclusive, equitable, quality oriented and lifelong for ‘all’ by 2030. Hence, inclusive
education has emerged as a sustainable movement. It is a global appeal that challenges
exclusionary practices in education. It was originated from the Salamanca World
Conference on Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994). Ainscow and Cesar (as
cited in McMaster, 2012) referred Salamanca World Conference as ‘the most significant
international document that has ever appeared in the field of special education’. Inclusive
education has received a widespread recognition across the world and also in the Indian
context it has been embraced due to all major policies, frameworks and Acts related to
education in general and disability in particular. The inclusion as a movement has been
started with the early schemes such as the Integrated Education for Disabled Children,
(IEDC) in 1974 to the launch of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan [SSA] (2000) and later ratifying
the UNCRPD (2007). Also with Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage
(IEDSS) (2009), The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE)
(2009) and recently the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (RPWD) (2016) all
have endorsed inclusive educational practices. Inclusive education is well grounded in

12
the Indian educational system and children both with and without disabilities is being
enrolled as a part of the same classroom (NCERT Position paper, 2006). These aspects
of caring about learners in educational practices are embedded in the Invitational theory
by Purkey (1997). The said theory is applicable in the field of inclusive education as it
suggests modifying the educational system and practices (Martin, 2011). It aims to
erase the differences and pessimism that inhibits learners. The following Figure 1.1
provides the invitational theory.

Figure 1.1 Invitational Theory

From the five P’s the first ‘P’ stands for people. Education needs to build trust and
respect about the people. This means that learners and their preferences in learning in
the inclusive schools must be treated with reverence. The second ‘P’ stands for Places.
The inclusive school as a place must be caring, sustainable and welcoming to all learners.
The third ‘P’ stands for Policies. The policies of education in schools facilitating
inclusion, needs to be one that will create an ethos of mutual trust and confidence
wherein learners could perhaps freely express their desires and concerns. The fourth ‘P’
denotes programs that call for not only wellness and well-being, but also enrichment of
learners. The fifth ‘P’ stands f or processes. In inclusive schools the operational processes
should be democratic and support the learners the way they can learn.
A research conducted by Hossein et al. (2011) to study the role of Invitational
Education and Academic Performance. The research sample included 540 students.
The research instruments were the Invitational Teaching Survey (Amos, Purkey& Tobias,
1984). Students’ grade point average was used as an indicator of academic performance

13
during high school. Data were analysed using path analysis of direct and indirect effects
of Invitational Education on intelligence beliefs and performance of high school. The
result showed that the sub-components of Invitational Education, as described in the
Invitational Teaching Survey (Amos, Purkey& Tobias, 1984) have positive and
significant effect on incremental intelligence and performance. Findings show that
Invitational Education is necessary for enhancing performance of students.

1.3.2 From teacher centred to student centred

The larger paradigm shift has also seen in the centrality of the teaching learning
process in the class. The shift has been from the teacher as a centre of learning to the
student centered approaches to learning. The term ‘Student Centered Learning’
(SCL)wasadvocated in earlier times in the work of Carl Rogers and Jean Piaget. Malcolm
Knowles’ gave the notion of self-directed learning in adult education (Bernard, 1999).
Over the past century, a strong educational movement to shift away from an emphasis
on teaching to an emphasis on learning have occurred. This shift encourages the
movement of power from the teacher to the student. This paradigm change was founded
on the premise that students should be actively constructing their own learning. The
theoretical standing of SCL is primarily grounded in the constructivist view of learning.
(Landau, 2001).The concept of learner autonomy shows the overall paradigm shift and
emphasizes the role of the learner rather than the role of the teacher. It focuses on the
process rather than the product and encourages students to develop their own purposes
for learning and to see learning as a lifelong process.SCL is viewed as a progressive
approach to teaching that focuses to make students more aware of the material they are
learning and its importance. In this approach teachers want to make students more
active in the classroom, by encouraging them to interact with each other.

1.3.3 From heterogeneity to diversity

With the paradigm shift in the philosophy and policy of education and more so because
of the RTE ACT (2009) the classrooms have started becoming more heterogeneous in
terms of socio cultural differences, language and gender. Earlier the schools practiced
ability grouping i.e. children with same levels of ability in language, reading and maths
were grouped together hence were homogeneous. So the classrooms were sectioned in
a way that children belonging to a particular level studied together. However this notion
did not yield results as Diversity is an inherent part of the society. Hence schools started
to accommodate and facilitating learning, irrespective of the child’s socio-cultural
background or language levels and learning styles of children. Having diverse learner’s
needs is viewed in a positive way for all children, including children with disabilities as
it fosters inclusivity. It also helps the group in co-operatively learning as each student
brings a special and a different trait which others do not have.

14
 The diverse or heterogeneous classrooms have students with varying abilities,
disabilities, different learning needs and preferences. Inclusive education is built on the
premise that children who learn to together live together. It believes in protecting the
individuality and preferences of each child at the same time fostering collectiveness.
1.3.4 Curriculum for 21st century
The Common Core State Standards and Partnership for 21st Century Skills highlight
that education should focus on both core academic subject mastery and 21st century
skills development. These skills help students to be ready for college and career life.
Therefore the 21st century curriculum is prepared by the Partnership for 21st century
Skill (P21). P21 advocated integrating core academic knowledge, critical thinking and
social skills in teaching learning process. It helps students to master the multi dimensional
abilities that are required in the 21st century curriculum. The integrated P21 curriculum
helps to complement 3 Rs that is reading, writing and arithmetic which are core academic
contents. It also helps in integrating 4Cs that is creativity, critical thinking,
communication and collaboration (Partnership for 21st century skills, 2006). Hence the
21st century framework integrates cognitive learning and skills into curriculum. This
helps students to obtain through understanding of the subjects and also to solve problems
of the real world (Wagner et al., 2006).

The model of 21st century education

Figure1.2 The 21st century education
Paige (2009) highlighted that 21st century curriculum should merge knowledge,
thinking, innovation skills, media, Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
literacy and real life experience in the context of core academic subjects. Therefore 21st
century curriculum should focus on the construction of knowledge. it should also

15
encourage students to produce the information that are meaningful to develop new
skills. This kind of designed curriculum will allow students to master the knowledge
and understand core academic disciplinary knowledge. As stated by Ellis (2004) the
knowledge cantered curriculum is an academic curriculum. In such curriculum students
are expected to acquire knowledge of heir world which is foundation for the adult life.
The other domain identified was character domain. Character education was identified
not only to face the increasingly challenging world but also to benefit the civil and civic
society. The character education of 21st century basically focuses on how one engage in
the world. The character education was identified necessary for the development of
character learning. This learning is usually likely to happen in out of school settings.
That is in the areas of sports, scouting, adventure trips etc. which leads to enhancement
of facing challenges. The qualities of character framework include mindfulness, curiosity,
courage, resilience, ethics and leadership which are necessary to face increasingly
challenging world.
The solution for all above is the emerging best practice of Universal Design for
Learning mostly known by acronym UDL. Universal design for learning is an approach
to tutor minimizes barriers and maximizes learning for all students. Each learner in the
classroom has his/her own background, preferences, strengths, needs and interests. It
offers a new way of thinking about creating multiple learning opportunities in every
area of course design. It offers such a framework for designing educational environments
that enhance inclusive settings. There few principles of UDL framework are described
below:

Figure 1.2 Principles of UDL

Source:kikujata.weebly.com

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Principles of UDL:
i) Multiple Means of Representations - This is the ‘what’ of teaching and learning.
It is to support recognition learning which give learners various ways to acquire
information and knowledge. The teacher needs to present information and content
indifferent ways so that the content is comprehended by all.
ii) Provide Multiple Means of Engagement –This is the ‘why’ of the learning. It
supports affective learning to tap into learners’ interests, offer appropriate
challenges and motivate them to learn. The role of a teacher to stimulate interest
and create motivation for learning.
iii) Multiple Means of Actions and Expressions – This is the ‘why’ of the learning. It
is to support strategic learning which provides learners alternative of representing
what they know, Planning and performing tasks are executed here. The teacher
needs to differentiate the ways that learner can express what they know and
understand.

1.4 Causes of learning difficulties in children with hearing

impairment
Disabling hearing impairment at any stage and age of the life has a profound impact
on the quality of life, interpersonal communication and psychosocial well being of the
individual. Hearing impairment is hidden and outwardly not identifiable and hence,
referred as invisible. However, the hearing loss of any degree or type has effects on
language, speech and communication which results due to break down in auditory path
way. Students with hearing impairment are heterogeneous group which vary not only in
their hearing threshold but also the age of detection, type and degree of hearing loss,
use of assistive device and parental involvement. Let us discuss these factors

1.4.1 Critical Period and onset of hearing loss

There is a difference in a child’s brain and an adult brain. Though full development
of brain happens later, the primary brain development occurs by age two or three year.
The critical window for language learning occurs very early. Language learning occurs
from birth to approximately three years of age. At this age the neuroplasticity of brain is
the greatest (Sharma et al., 2002). Therefore initial years of life are considered as optimal

17
period for speech and language development. The onset of hearing loss also plays crucial
role in the acquisition of language and speech. The impact of hearing loss is greatest in
children who are born with or develop hearing loss soon after birth. This because the
critical period of the child is effected due to hearing loss and limited inputs.Those who
are born with this impairment or acquire it at a very young age may not hear any language
at all including their mother tongue. Hence they donot learn and use spoken language
automatically.

1.4.2 Degree of Hearing Loss

The degree of hearing loss may range from mild to profound. The higher hearing
loss that is the severity, the greater the impact. According to ASHA (2012) children
born with bilateral hearing loss that are severe (71–89 dB loss) or profound (>90 dB
loss) cannot hear conversational speech (approximately 60 dB). Consequently they do
not spontaneously learn to talk. The students with profound hearing loss have the hearing
thresholds greater than 90dB (ASHA, 2012) and their speech perception abilities makes
it difficult in learning speech communication (Erber, as cited in Hochbery, 1983). The
reviews by Goldberg and Richburg (2004); Moller et al. (2007) highlights that even
midland moderate hearing loss that is hearing loss less than 25 dB face significant
difficulties in communication, learning and social development in students with hearing
loss.

1.4.3 Speech Perception Ability (SPA)

In case of students with sensory disabilities like hearing impairment the development
of language and speech is delayed due to insufficient feedback from the sensory
modalities that is through the sense organ – ear which is important for hearing. The
severely and profoundly deaf children confronts with deficient in their knowledge of
verbal language. These student exhibits significant lag in language and speech
development because hearing impairment interferes with the child’s speech perception
ability. This results in delayed speech and language development (ASHA, 2012). In
turn, it affects communication, literacy skills and social, emotional development.
Language acquisition is an auditory activity. In spite of normal intellectual and
functioning ability, the auditory handicap of children with hearing impairment prevents
them from acquiring and utilizing the language that is effortlessly and naturally acquired
by the typical hearing children. Carney & Moller (1998) and Robbin et al. (1997) reported
that the average profoundly deaf child acquire language which is half of that expected
from normal hearing children. The next section provides how vocabulary learning is
affected in students with hearing impairment.

18
1.4.4 Use of Assistive Device and audibility
The child who is identified with hearing loss, he/she should receive support services
at the earliest. The continuous use of hearing aids or cochlear implant gives greater
opportunity for learning spoken language. Stiles et al. (2012) demonstrated that higher
levels of aided audibility were directly associated with better language outcomes in
school-aged CHH. Another study conducted by Tomblin et al. (2014) found that
preschool-aged Children with Hearing Handicapped who had stronger aided audibility
had better speech production and language skills than those with less aided audibility.

1.4.5 Parental Support and Environment

The environment including access to services that significantly influences the
development of a child with hearing loss. Children with hearing loss who have access
to hearing technology such as hearing aids and cochlear implants, sign language and
special education are often able to participate on an equal basis with their peers who
hear normally. Children who are early intervention can be benefited when parents
and family members get involved in their learning and development. Research study
conducted by Moeller (2000) found that the children who were enrolled in early
intervention and have highly involved parents performed significantly better on
vocabulary and verbal reasoning measures than children who were also receiving
services but did not have engaged parents. Research has shown that children in
impoverished environments have less stimulating environment, exposure to books,
magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences such as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc.,
have parents who are ineffective as role models. As a result of these conditions children
are at a disadvantage and have difficulties in learning. The environment in which the
child is born and brought up makes a difference in the development of the child. The
environment, exposure and experience of each child differs and hence the learning
and development. The theory of ecosystem coined by the Bronfrenbenner et al. (1994)
is provided below to understand the concept.
The contextual view of development given by Urie Bronfenbrenner’s (as cited in
Ormrod, 2012) emphasises on the role of environmental factors in the development of
an individual. Bronfrenbrenner gave four system viz microsystem, Mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem. The following Figure 1.2 provides the
information on ecosyatem and its importance for development of child.

19
 Figure 1.3 Ecosystem
Source: Ormrod el al. (2017)
The microsystem is the immediate environment in which the individual child lives
and directly interacts with social agents that is the family, peers, teachers, and
neighbourhood. The mesosystem consists of relations between these contexts the way
how a child’s parents relate to the teachers, or how the parents view the adolescent’s
friends, are experiences likely to influence an individual’s relationships with others.
The exosystem includes events in social settings where the child does not participate
directly, but the experiences of child are influenced in the immediate context. For
example, the transfer of father or mother may cause tension among the parents which
might affect their interactions with the child or the general amenities available to the
child like quality of schooling, libraries, medical care, means of entertainment, etc.
Macrosystem includes the culture in which the individual lives. The Chronosystem
involves events in the individual’s life course and socio-historical circumstances of the
time such as, divorce of parents or parents’ economic setback, and their effect on the
child. In summary, Bronfenbrenner views that the development of the child is
significantly affected by the complex world that envelops her/him. It can be the
conversations that the child has with her/his playmates, or the social and economic life
circumstances into which the child is born.

1.5 Differential curricular needs of early and late intervened

children with hearing impairment
1.5.1 Early Identification and early intervention
Hearing screening programmes for infants and young children can identify hearing
loss at very young ages. For children with congenital hearing loss, this condition can be

20
detected within the first few days after birth. Research suggests that children who are
born deaf or acquire hearing loss very early in life and who receive appropriate
interventions within six months of age are at par with their hearing peers in terms of
language development by the time they are five years old (in the absence of other
impairments). Those children who develop hearing loss at a later age, regular pre-school
and school-based hearing screening can effectively identify hearing loss soon after its
onset, thereby limiting its adverse impact. Hence early identification of hearing loss in
children and when it is followed by timely and appropriate interventions minimizes
developmental delays and facilitate communication, education and social development.
Early Intervention is a foundation to improve not only the life of the child but also to
offer greater opportunities for the development. According to research, birth to five
years is more crucial for the child as learning and development are at their highest rate
in the preschool years. Some children, due to conditions noticed at birth, special needs,
or developmental delays which occur in the early years, risk of missing some of the
most important learning and developmental milestones. Early intervention helps keep
these children on a path to making the most of abilities and skills developed during the
early years. Early intervention services support the parents and siblings of children with
special needs. Families having children with special needs repeatedly experience
frustration, stress, disappointment, and helplessness. This can have impact not only on
the well-being of the family but it further affects the development of the children with
special needs. Hence early intervention helps the entire family to build a nurturing and
supportive environment.

1.5.2 Curricular needs of Early and late intervened children with hearing
impairment
The way humans perceive their world is mediated through sensory experiences.
Among all the senses, hearing fundamentally facilitates communication and fosters
social interaction, allowing individual to form relationships, participate in daily activities,
be alerted to danger, and experience life events. Cole & Flexer (2015) coined the term
‘Developmental Synchrony’ which means that when the brain is “developmentally”
ready, a child develops certain skills and abilities at the specific moment. The goal is
for all developmental domains of the skill that a child can develop at the same time and
at the same rate (Mellon, Ouellette, Greer, & Gates-Ulanet, 2009). The research

21
highlighted that the critical opportunity for language learning starts from birth to
approximately 3 years of age when brain neuroplasticity is the greatest (Sharma, Dorman,
& Spahr, 2002). When a child learns language during this critical period, learning
capitalizes on the flexible neuroplasticity of the growing brain.
When the child is early intervened the pedagogical practices must include activities
and experiencesfor the development of all domains such as-physical-motor and creativity,
cognitive, socio-emotional,language and literacy. To develop these domains, the
stakeholder that is teachers and parents must provide opportunities to explore, understand,
experiment, experience and transform information into meaningful content. The aim of
education of early intervened children with hearing impairment is to facilitate
optimumdevelopment of child’s full potential. This lay the foundation for all
rounddevelopment of the child and lifelong learning. The early years are of the children
are very important years for motor development. Motor development refers to elements
related to gross motor, fine motor and bilateral coordination including spatial awareness.
It includes body image, health and nutrition. When these children are given the right
opportunities and encouragement, it will not only strengthen their larger and finer bones
and muscles but also their eye hand coordination. This is one of the prerequisites for
being able to write. Children can be given different activities like making different
shapes out of play dough, playing with colors and painting. Cognitive domain refers to
a range ofelements related tothinking and makingsense of the world. It includes lateral
thinking,problem solving, planning, predicting, investigating, processing information,
deductive thinking, reasoning, questioning, relationships betweenfactors and concepts
of time. Language domain refers to elements ofexpression and articulationin
communication which includes clarity of articulation, grammar, vocabulary, speech,
volume of voice, intonation, expression throughlanguage, oral language experiences.
These are important for expression and communication. The sense of identity and social
skills are important domain. Children ofteninitiate others and also engage in more and
more play based activities with other children. Initiallychildren play in pairs. Gradually
they mix with smaller and then larger groups. They also work and live with others in
harmonious ways. They start begin to appreciate each one of them is different and how
these differences need to be not only accepted but respected. Emotional domain refers
to a range of elementsof maturity centered onthe individual relates intentions
withingeneral stages ofdevelopment expectations. It is an ability to question, ability to
reflect on self,strengths and challenges, self-concept, self-esteem, self-competence.

22
 On other hand the curricular need of late intervene children may demand different
mode of communication. Students with hearing loss find difficulties to hear the
conversation speech at a prescribed level. As a result of which they find it difficult to
keep pace with others in the inclusive class with respect to their content knowledge and
learning (Marschark & Waulters, 2008). The late intervened children with hearing
impairment have difficulties in the development of receptive and expressive
communication skills. Hence the communication difficulty leads to the poor social skills
and self concept which impact on vocational choices.
Children who are late intervened develop vocabulary slowly as compare to their
counter parts. Children with hearing loss and intervened late have difficulties in
understanding with multiple meanings. The sentence structure of these children is simpler
and shorter and also has problems with comprehension. Children face problem in
understanding and writing complex sentences. Children with hearing loss find difficulties
in hearing words ending with‘s’ and ‘ed’. This leads to misuse of words, verbs, and
tenses etc. Children with hearing loss who are late intervened have difficulties in the
areas of reading and mathematical concepts. The children who are late intervened need
more exposure to visual clues along with auditory mode. Sometimes some children
may need sign language as a mode of communication to develop language along with
the development of above mentioned domains.

1.6 Curricular framework for Early intervention & Early

Childhood Education
Early intervention and early childhood education represent early years in a young
child’s life. The period from birth to 6 years is especially important because the
development progresses at a faster rate than any other period in life. During early years,
the critical periods of development enable the child to acquire the skills at a faster rate
and the baby is most receptive to learning encounters during these periods. Mundkur
(2005) highlights the importance of early years and states that the brain is most receptive
during first 3 & ½ years of life. This period is characterized by rapid brain development
and is characterized by plasticity or flexibility during the early years. Greater the quality
and quantity of experiences the child gets, the faster is the neural networking and hence
the development.

23
 Loss of a vital sense may lead to a disability and handicapping conditions as it may
interfere with the developing of brain and the subsequent learning. This is because lack
of stimulations gives rise to secondary and tertiary handicaps. For example the primary
impaired sense of hearing if not early identified may lead to a secondary handicapping
condition of language and communication issues and this if not taken cognizance of
may lead to further sub normal achievement of literacy and educational attainments.
Research shows that starting the intervention at an early age for developmentally delayed
children is also cost effective as it produces effectiveresults and leads to improvement
in a wide range of skills. Mauro (2018) states that early intervention is highly beneficial
as it addresses the delays in development at a much younger age and so a lot of efforts
and resources spent at a later age are saved. Nobel Laureate Heckman also observes
that there is a high return on investment at a young age So for children with sensory
disabilities like hearing impairment, early intervention holds the key. With the use of
amplification devices, their hearing can be restored and the neurons in the brain will be
stimulated there by strengthening the neural wiring. This will enhance their development
and narrow the gap between them and the typical children and this will ultimately help
them in enrolling and sustaining in a mainstream inclusive school environment and
progress like all other children to achieve greater educational levels. It is also to be
noted that early intervention and early childhood care and education of children with
disabilities is essential because it leads to family empowerment and societal benefits.
It develops to develop a positive attitude in all stakeholders. Therefore considering
the importance of child development during the early years, the Indian Government’s
Ministry of Women and Child Development has launched the National Early Childhood
Care and Education (ECCE) Policy (2013). It consists of the National Curriculum
Framework and Quality Standards for ECCE.

1.6.1 Need of curriculum framework for Early intervention & Early Childhood
Education
The curriculum designed for the period of early childhood growth and development
plays a very important role because it provides opportunities for overall growth and
development. As every child is unique, ECCE program also needs to be designed as per
the individual needs of the students. Every child is born in a different culture and family
environment and grows up in a different background. There are many factors which

24
affect the child’s development. Hence, one cannot develop a single or common
curriculum for early intervention and early childhood education. However there has to
be a minimum level of achievement which is common for all children across various
developmental domains. So the curriculum framework needs to be contextualised. The
same is suggested in the Early Childhood Education Framework Draft (2012) that
although the early intervention programmes need to cater to the individualistic needs of
young children, yet they need to be following the developmentally appropriate for young
children and should not be just a downward extension of primary stage curriculum or
inadequate curricula focusing on only few developmental aspects thereby ignoring
majority of the factors. Another important point that mentioned is that the Curriculum
Framework provided in the ECCE Policy (2013) needs to be open ended. So that local
contextual and culture specific aspects could be added. Taking into account the variation
in the child rearing practices and the contextual needs of children, the Curriculum
Framework thus broadly mentions the basic principles and developmentaltasks that
will work for all children in a unique way making use of the local resources, language
used and socio-cultural background of the community.

1.6.2 The important domains in Curriculum Framework

The following domains of holistic development should be included in the curriculum
of ECCE programs. Since, ECCE deals with children, these domains should be addressed
using play based approaches which make learning an exciting experience for children.
The skills that need to be targeted under each domain are given below:
Physical-motor development: It covers skills like Gross and fine motor skills,
coordination of muscular movements, balancing, eye-hand coordination, special
knowledge and knowing directions, health and nutrition.
Language development: Receptive and expressive communication skills,
development of vocabulary, a range of emergent literacy skills like phonemic awareness,
print awareness, letter-sound association, letter recognition, spellings and sentence-
structure construction, emergent writing skills. It marks transition to kindergarten.
Cognitive development: Basically, involves concept formation which includes skills
like classification, comparison, serration, counting numbers, numerical operations like
addition, subtraction, conservation of space and quantity, memory, thinking and
reasoning, problem solving, perception, development of age-appropriate language,
knowledge about one’s own environment.
Socio-emotional development: Social skills like empathy, compassion, social
interaction, accepting and expressing feelings, development of self-concept.
Sensory Development: Development of senses through visual, auditory and
kinaesthetic experiences.

25
 Development of Aesthetic and Creativity: Skills in music, performance arts like
dance, vocal, playing instruments, fine arts like painting, etc.

1.6.3. Activities for ECCE Curriculum Framework

● Activities for children below 3 years:
Activities need to focus on food, health, eating habits, disciplining children, scope
for socio-emotional skills through play-based activities and lot of support and interaction
with adults, especially parents. Plan activities in big spacious rooms with less furniture
and under adult supervision. E.g. games, nursery rhymes, group games, toys big in size,
games involving individual attention from parents.

● Activities for children between 3-4 years:

It is the period of language explosion. Hence, children should be involved in play
activities which involve social interaction and language development. They go hand in
hand. Children in this age-group love to listen to stories, poems, play interaction games
in pairs, small groups, and large groups. They should develop confidence that world is
a better place to live in and this will help to create positive self-image.

● Activities for children between 4-6 years:

As the children grow older and reach 6 years, they become toddlers and take interest
in doing activities with age-appropriate peers.The ECCE program curriculum framework
should focus primarily on developing school readiness skills among children which are
discussed in greater detail in next unit (1.5).

1.6.4 Teaching approaches as per Curriculum Framework for ECCE

The curriculum framework for ECCE programs strongly believes that children learn
the best through play way methods. Children are able to construct their own knowledge
through the range of experiences they get in their daily life. Adults play role of a facilitator
rather than instructor. A variety of methods can be used for delivering the ECCE program
curriculum. They are presented below:
Montessori Method: This method was given by Maria Montesori. It focuses on
making children independent. They learn new skills through hands-on training and

26
collaborative play. It gives scope for child’s natural psycho-social development and
emphasizes on sensory training. Hence, it is useful for children with hearing loss too.
Regio Emillia: Based on the work of Loris Mallaguzi, this is a constructivist approach
which focuses on creation of a learning environment that enhances and facilitates
children’sconstruction of their own thinking through the combination of communicative,
expressive and cognitive languages as they engage actively with people, material and
environment. This method follows constructivist approach. It was based on the work of
Loris Mallaguzi. The aim is to create learning environments with will stimulate creativity
in children and help them to think through a combination of three factors: development
of language and communication, skill of making materials and social interaction.
Thematic curriculum: This method uses iintegrated themes and projects to transact
the curriculum. These themes are the building blocks which allow the child to form
meaningful links among different concepts and develop a broader understanding of the
world around them. This curriculum is flexible and can be modified to suit the needs of
the children belonging to different social, linguistic, cultural, contexts in the society.

1.6.5. List of materials for play

Indoor play material:
● Blocks
● Toys
● Material for imaginative play like dolls
● Material for language development like books and pictures
● Material for cognitive development like visual discrimination cards, items for
sensory stimulation, mazes, puzzles, jigsaw, etc
● Musical instruments
● Art material for creative expression

Outdoor play material:

● Play equipment for balancing, climbing, jumping, etc.
● Different types of balls, rings for throwing and catching,
● Sand play
● Water play

27
1.6.5 Role of Assessment in Curriculum Framework for ECCE programs
Assessment is an important component in the process of teaching and learning. It is
actually the starting point of teaching. Teachers first assess the child’s current or existing
level of performance before introducing a new concept or a skill. On the basis of this
baseline assessment data, the teacher plans the new activities. Assessment is also done
during the teaching and done later towards the end of teaching session. It helps the
teacher in determining the extent to which the teaching was successful and how much
content needs to be revised again.
The main purpose of conducting assessment is to give important information about
the child’s progress in different domains of development to the family members. Based
on the assessment, the professionals refer the child to appropriate support services and
also guide and counsel the parents about the rehabilitation measures. The following are
the main areas of assessment in ECCE programs:
● Interests of child

● Extent of child’s participation in social activities

● Skills

● Abilities

It is important to assess children in ECCE programs on a regular basis. Formative

assessment is always better than summative assessment as far as young children are
concerned. Because formative assessment gives continuous feedback and has greater
scope for improvement. Formative assessment is ‘assessment for learning’ to take place.
However, the aim of summative assessment is to make a judgement about whether a
student has cleared an exam or has failed. It has limited or no scope for improvement.
Hence, summative assessment is ‘assessment of learning’ that has already taken place.
Fig. 1.6.1. Types of assessment

List of activities for Formative Assessment:

28
 ● Routine classtests
● Surprise tests
● Open Book tests
● Quiz competitions
● Semester exams
● Group projects
● Teacher made tests (TMT) which are based on a specific content taught in the
class. This includes fill in the blanks, true or false, match the following, answer in
brief, give reasons, oral tests, other forms of paper pencil tests made by the class-
teacher on a periodic basis.

List of activities for Summative Assessment:

● Final year exam
● Competitive exams like UGC-NET, SET, CSIR, etc
● Online tests with multiple choice questions
● Entrance exams for different courses
● Written tests taken for a particular job

1.6.6. Role of stakeholders:

Teachers in ECCE programs:
● Observe the child’s behaviour and help to identify any behaviour problems and
disabilities.
● Plan age-appropriate developmental activities.
● Create environments for stimulating social interaction and development of social
skills of young children.
● Facilitate friendships among peers.
● Help in early identification and intervention of children with special needs
● Establish partnerships with parents

29
Parents in ECCE programs:
● Parents are the real-life teachers for children. Child spends most of the time with
parents. Hence, it is essential to discuss the role of parents in ECCE programs.
The curriculum framework values the participation of parents in ECCE activities
and suggests that parental involvement has produced enhanced learning for
children. When the children are young, the responsibility of taking decisions on
child’s behalf lies on parents. Hence, need to be empowered about the domains of
child-development and activities that promote growth and development.
● Parents create conducive home environment for children.
● Provide numerous opportunities of learning in day to day life.
● Work in collaboration with the teachers
● Participate in the range of school-activities for the children.

1.7 Domains of development facilitating the school readiness for

inclusive education
The transition from preschool to formal school is one of the most important events
in the life of a young child. This transition is often especially challenging for families
of children with special needs (Hanson et al., 2000; Janus, Lefort, Cameron, &
Kopechanski, 2007). When the child in question is deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH),
the transition may have additional or unique complexities and challenges. Due to
incomplete or absent access to reciprocal language, D/HH children are at high risk
for delayed language development, which can permanently affect communication,
academic, and social skills in early childhood and later in school (Marschark &
Spencer, 2011). All of these factors demand school readiness.

1.7.1 School readiness: The concept

School readiness is the foundation of equity and quality education (UNICEF, 2012).
In majority of the countries, including India, the chronological age is the single most
criterion used for starting school for inclusion. But the question that arises is – are the

30
children ready for school when they are enrolled in the school simply because they have
crossed a particular age? Most probably they are not. Globally, the concept of school
readiness has a wider
scope. The concept of school readiness has 2 dimensions. Child being made ready
for school and vice-versa. The same is represented in the figure given below:
Dimensions of school readiness:

Child being School being

made ready made ready
for school for children
School readiness

1.7.2 Child being made ready for school :

School readiness typically refers to the child’s attainment of a certain skills needed
to learn, work, and function successfully in a formal school. These skills may include a
wide range of domains like communicative, self help, emotional, behavioural, cognitive,
etc. However, it burdens the children by expecting them to learn the skills for which
they are not biologically ready. Thus, readying children for school is almost similar to
integration. We try to provide early intervention to minimize the negative impact on
development so that the children are ‘readied’ for school at par with the age mates
without disabilities.

1.7.3. School being made ready for children :

This dimension of school readiness highlights that schools are to be ‘readied’ for all
children with diverse needs. This implies the concept of inclusion wherein the school
systems provide for access, equity and participation under one roof. This is an underlying
premise of RTE (2010) as well which emphasizes that irrespective of the fact whether
or not the child is ready, all children are entitled to go to a neighbourhood school which
should make provisions so that educational needs of all children are addressed. The
same is represented in the figure given below:

31
 Source: Guralnick (2011). The Developmental Systems Approach

The neighbourhood schools need to make preparations in 3 areas to facilitate smooth

transition of children with hearing impairment to regular mainstream schools.

1.7.4. School readiness of children with hearing impairment

We are aware about the difficulties faced by children with hearing loss with respect
to language, literacy and communication skills. Hence, special educators and parents

32
need to work on these skills for making the children ready for an inclusive school.
Research by Gathoo (2009) indicated that a center based approach of early intervention
is followed in the ECCE centres for children with hearing impairment in India. Each
centre has its own unique curriculum-framework for children with hearing loss. Although
parental involvement in early intervention is highlighted, yet, there is no uniformity in
the curricular activities selected for empowering young deaf children and their parents.
As a result, when these deaf children enter an inclusive school, all are not able to sustain
in the new educational set up for a long period of time. This is because most of the
children do not possess the school readiness skills essential to sustain in the mainstream
school set up. Hence, it very important to get detailed information about the domains of
development that will lead to school readiness for inclusive education among children
with hearing loss.
National School Readiness Indicators Initiative (2005) specifies five domains of
school readiness namely -,-,-,- and -. In the Indian context Gathoo (2009) designed a
curricular framework of school readiness for children having hearing loss that would
facilitate their inclusive education. This curricular framework provided guidelines for
teachers of the deaf to develop, implement and assess the school readiness curricula. It
consists of a total number of 10 domain areas of school readiness. Some of these are
congregate and given below:
1. Physical-motor development: This domain focuses on health and safety measures,
identification of disabilities, functioning of muscle movements, gross and fine
motor skills, and conditions which affect physical development during the pre-
natal, natal and post natal period. While discussing this domain Gathoo (2009)
indicated that since the children with hearing impairment face serious limitations
in language and communication as a result of their sensory handicap, teachers
should take good care of their other senses and physique. They should be provided
opportunities for regular
Physical exercises and also good physical health and hygiene. Outdoor activities
like running, cycling, swimming, increases stamina of children and indoor activities
such walking on a straight line etc helps in balancing.
2. Socio-emotional development:
This domain incorporates two aspects. First aspect is the child’s capacity to interact
with people around them. Second aspect is the child’s ability to control his/her own

33
emotions. This is also known as self-regulation. It involves whether the child is able to
maintain a balance of his emotions and is able to express right emotions in right place.
This includes child’s self-concept. How good he / she is in forming social relationships,
are they able to give and receive affection are few features covered under this domain.
Gathoo (2009) had included this as one of the domains of school readiness in her
curriculum framework for school readiness. She indicated that hearing children learn
social behaviour and appropriate language structures through listening. Because children
with hearing loss miss this opportunity, special attention needs to be given to the
development of their social skills and communication. Communication is the link which
connects an individual to the society. Majority of the children or adults with hearing
loss face isolation because they find it difficult to establish communication link with
the hearing individuals around them. Hence, teachers and parents of deaf children should
emphasize of on development of socio-emotional skills like turn taking, initiating
communication, participating in group activities, conflict resolution, forming and
maintaining relationships.
3. Approaches to learning
This domain highlights on the learning preferences, use of knowledge and skills
demonstrated by the children, and their involvement in learning. It states that curiosity,
generating enthusiasm and persistence are the three keys to good learning. Gathoo (2009)
names this domain as ‘dispositions’ in her curriculum for school readiness. According
to her dispositions are mental tendencies, or preferences indicated by children for doing
certain things. These dispositions are thought to be inborn. Children are born with the
disposition to learn certain things. Inability to hear actually makes children with hearing
impairment more curious. Because they are not distracted by noise, they are able to
concentrate a lot on the task at hand. However, hearing loss has a negative impact on
child’s disposition towards social interaction and communication with others. Hence,
activities need to be planned on the domain of disposition.
4. Development of language:
As per the National School Readiness Initiative (2005), this domain includes
development of communication skills and emergent literacy. Communication includes
receptive and expressive language skills. Emergent literacy is one step ahead of
conventional literacy skills which includes reading and writing in script form. The emergent
literacy behaviours include scribbling, drawing on walls, trying to hold a newspaper, etc.
Such rudimentary literacy skills gradually held the child in learning formal literacy skills.
In case of children with hearing impairment, early intervention for language should begin
early in life. Immediately after the child is diagnosed with hearing loss, the next step has
to be early intervention. Intervention before the age of 2 years is called as early intervention

34
while that which starts after 2 years is called as late intervention. Early years are
characterized by neural plasticity. The critical period of language acquisition like between
birth to 3 years. If the child receives appropriate amplification device during this period,
then there are greater chances that the milestones of language development may be achieved
and one can predict entry into a mainstream school. In a mainstream school, reading,
writing, lecture, taking notes, all tasks revolve around comprehension of language. Hence,
this is one of the most essential domains of development that needs attention as far as
school readiness of children with hearing loss are concerned. As you are aware, for young
children natural environment is child’s home and the familiar adult. Hence, the parents
should be empowered with simple techniques of developing language in every day routines
of the child.
5. Cognitive development:
This domain involves a range of mental processes like thinking and reasoning,
memory, problem solving, perception, language development, concept formation. All
these cognitive processes are linked with one another. Hence, inadequate functioning
in one mental process has a negative effect on all other related mental processes. For
children with hearing loss, inadequate language further affects the child’s ability to
remember things, form concepts and perceive the world as it is. Teachers of the deaf
need to repeat the activities, avoid distractions, associate newly learnt concepts with
the child’s previous knowledge for better retention, and use such other techniques for
the cognitive development of children with hearing loss.
6. Mathematics
This domain in the curricular framework for school readiness among children with
hearing loss emphasises mathematical language and concepts besides numerical abilities
and opertaions. As compared to other subjects, mathematics consists of language which
is more abstract. Symbols are used that stand for something else. There are two types of
symbols. The symbols like ‘+’, ‘-’, ‘x’ etc are iconic. The child is able to comprehend
the type of mathematical operation that he / she is supposed to perform just by looking
at the symbol. However, mathematics also involves another type of symbols which are
not iconic. These are the word problems. Mathematics has its own language. Children
have to comprehend the words ie, the code or symbols like remainder, gross, estimate,
value, mean, how many left ?, etc for solving the sums. Children with hearing impairment
find it very difficult to deal with the mathematical language. It is important to expose
children with hearing loss to these complex language structures of mathematics when
they are young. During the critical period of language acquisition, learning is faster.
Hence, this domain needs to be included in the curricular framework for school readiness
of children with hearing loss.
7. General Knowledge:
This domain is closely associated with the domain of language development. Once,
efforts towards development of language are on its way, general knowledge of children

35
with hearing loss will develop automatically. This is because with developed language
base children with hearing loss will be able to communicate, express their needs, form
healthy social relationships and thereby increase their general knowledge about people,
events and things around them.
8. Arts and Creativity
For young children with hearing impairment, every activity becomes a language
learning experience. If the language concepts are introduced through play based activities,
then children learn it faster. Different types of arts like fine arts, dance, dramatics provide
greater scope for involvement of children and hence, language learning becomes natural
and meaningful. These activities stimulate creativity. Creativity involves creating
something new and unique. These activities make the children think and perform
differently. They realize that there are multiple ways of self-expression. Hence, this
domain should receive attention while planning school readiness activities for young
children with hearing impairment.

1.8 Let us Sum Up

The paradigm shift has been seen in the education of children with hearing impairment.
The segregated education in which children with disabilities are taught in different or
special settings specifically designed for the children. The integrated education where
the children with disabilities were trained toacquired a certain level of expertise of
communication and literacy in special schools and then would be integrated to the
normal schools. The philosophy of inclusive education emphasized on equal
opportunities, equity and full participation in the class irrespective of disabilities. Whether
the child with hearing impairment intervened early or late has difficulties in learning
due to various reasons. Therefore it becomes important to provide curriculum which
facilitate the developmental domains of cognitive, socio-emotional,language and literacy,
physical-motor and creative and aesthetic.
● Now let us review our learning. First, we studied the importance of early

intervention and ECCE programs. During early years, the critical periods of
development enable the child to acquire the skills at a faster rate and the baby is
most receptive to learning encounters during these periods. Human brain is
characterized by plasticity or flexibility during the early years. The greater the

36
 number of experiences the child gets, the faster is the neural networking. Hence,
the curriculum framework for early intervention and early childhood care and
education programs of children with special needs need to be designed with lot of
care. Considering the importance of child development during the early years,
Indian Government’s Ministry of Women and Child Development has launched
the National Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Policy (2013). It consists
of the National Curriculum Framework and Quality Standards for ECCE.
● After this, we went through the need of having a curriculum framework for
developing school readiness among children with hearing impairment It is not
possible to develop a common and uniform curriculum for all children because of
their unique diverse needs. Hence, there is a need to develop a broad curricular
framework which will act a guideline for developing school readiness skills for
children with hearing impairment facilitating inclusive education.
● We discussed the important domains in curriculum framework given below:
Physical-motor
Language
Cognitive development
Socio-emotional
Sensory development
Aesthetic and Creativity
● Then we studied about the activities for children in ECCE programs provided in
three groups:
For children below 3 years
3 - 4 years
Children between 4-6 years
● Montessori Method, Regio Emillia (a constructivist approach) and thematic
curriculum were the few types of methods of teaching provided by Curriculum
Framework for facilitating school readiness of children with hearing impairment.
● This was followed by the list of indoor and outdoor play material to be made
available for children in ECCE programs.
37
 ● The main purpose of conducting assessment in ECCE programs is to give important
information about the child’s progress in different domains of development to the
family members. Based on the assessment, the professionals refer the child to
appropriate support services and also guide and counsel the parents about the
rehabilitation measures.
● Then we discussed the role of parents and teachers in ECCE programs.
● After discussing the old and modern concept of school readiness, we studied the
domains of development for facilitating the school readiness for inclusive
education. They are given below:
✓ Physical-motor development
✓ Socio-emotional development
✓ Approaches to learning
✓ Language development
✓ Cognitive development
✓ Mathematics
✓ General knowledge
✓ Arts and creativity

1.9 Unit End Exercises

1. What do you mean by ‘paradigm?’
2. How education of disability evolved?
3. State the international mandates that lead to foundation of inclusive education.
4. State various legislations and mandates that lead to inclusion movement in India.
5. Write a note on 21st century curriculum
6. State various degree of hearing loss
7. What do you mean by critical period? Why is it important in the intervention?
8. What is Speech Perception Ability?
9. Importance of parental support in the development and learning of children with
disability.

38
 10. Write down the causes of learning difficulties in children with hearing impairment.
11. What do you mean by early intervention?
12. What is early identification?
13. Write down curricular need of early and late intervenedchildren with hearing
impairment.
14. What do you understand by Curriculum Framework? Discuss the role of parents,
teachers and assessment prescribed by Curriculum Framework for facilitating
inclusive education.
15. Discuss the concept of school readiness. Explain the domains of development for
facilitating school readiness for inclusive education.

1.10 References
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Unpublished Instrument. University of Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC
ASHA (2012). In effects of hearing loss on development. Retrieved from
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Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt,
Rinehard, and Winston, Inc.
Balasundaram, P. (2005). The Journey towards Inclusive Education in India.Presented
at Seisa University, Ashibetsu Shi, Hokkaido, Japan.
Bronfrenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J., (1994). Nature and nurture re-conceptualized in
developmental perspective. A bio-ecological model. Psychological Review, 101,58-
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Carney, A. E. & Moeller, M. P. (1998). Treatment efficacy: Hearing loss in children.
Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 4(1), pp. S61-S84.
Chakraborti-Ghosh, K., Orellan, K. M. & Jones, J. (2014). A cross-cultural comparison
of teachers’ perspectives on inclusive education through a study abroad program in
Brazil and in the U. S. International Journal of Special Education, 29 (1), 4-14.
Cole, E., & Flexer, C. (2015). Children with hearing loss: Developing listening and
talking, birth to 6 (3rd edition). San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc.

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 Delors, J. (1996). Learning: The Treasure Within. Report to UNESCO of the
International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century. Paris: UNESCO.
Goldberg and Richburg (2004). Minimal hearing impairment: Major myths with
more than minimal implications. Communication disorders quarterly, 25:152- 60.
Hochbery, I. L. (1983). Speech of the Hearing impaired. Obberger M. J.
UniversityPark Press
Hossein, M., Asadzadeh, H., Shabani, H., Ahghar, G., AhadI, H., and Seadatee ,
A.Shamir, S. (2011). The Role of Invitational Education and Intelligence Beliefsin
Academic Performance, Retrieved online https://files.eric.ed.gov › full text.
Hull, D. (1995). Who Are You Calling Stupid?: The Revolution That’s
ChangingEducation: Cord Communications.
IEDSS, (2009). Inclusive Education of the Disabled at Secondary Stage. Retrieved
on 5/5/2019 fromhttp://mhrd.gov.in/iedss
McMaster, C. (2012) Ingredients for Inclusion: Lessons from the Literature.
Kairaranga, 13(2), 11-22.
Marschark, M. & Wauters, L. (2008). Language Comprehension and Learning by
Deaf Students. In book Deaf Cognition. Oxford University Press, Inc.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195368673.003.0012
Marschark, M., & Knoors H. (2012). Educating Deaf Children: Language,
Cognitionand Learning. Deafness & Education International, 14(3).
Mellon, N. K., Ouellette, M., Greer, T., & Gates-Ulanet, P. (2009). Achieving
developmental synchrony in young children with hearing loss. Trends in Amplification,
12(4), 223-240. https://doi:10.1177/1084713809356701
Moeller, M.P., Tomblin, J.B., Yoshinaga-Itano, C., Connor, C.M., & Jerger, S. (2007).
Current state of knowledge: language and literacy of children with hearing impairment.
Ear Hear. 28(6), 740-753.
Moeller, M. P. (2000). Early intervention and language development in children who
are deaf and hard of hearing. Pediatrics, 106(3), e43-e43. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.106.3.e43

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 Moeller M. P., & Tomblin J. B. (2015). An introduction to the Outcomes of Children
with Hearing Loss study. Ear and Hearing, 36, 4S–13S.
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Developing learners (9th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. England.
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special_ed_final1.pdf
Pandey, R. S., and Advani, L. (1995). Perspectives in Disability and
Rehabilitation.New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Purkey, W. (1992). An introduction to Invitational Theory. Journal of
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Right to Education, (2009). (27 October, 2017) Retrieved from
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Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, (2000). Manual for District- Level Functionaries - Level
Functionaries. Retrieved from
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development of the central auditorysystem in children with cochlear implants:
Implications for age of implantation. Ear and hearing, 23(6), 532-539.
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 Tomblin, J.B, Oleson, J. J, Ambrose, S.E. (2014). The influence of hearing aids on
the speech and language development of children with hearing loss. JAMA
Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery. 140:403–409.
UNESCO. (1994). “The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special
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Salamanca, June 7–10. Paris: UNESCO
UNCRPD, (2007). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).
United Nations. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/
convention-on-the-rights-ofpersons- with-disabilities.html
Witkin, H. A. & Goodenough, D. R. (1981). Cognitive styles: Essence and Origins.
New York: International Universities Press.
Early Childhood Education Framework Draft (2012). Ministry of Women and Child
Development. Government of India. Retrieved online on 1/12/2019 from http://
14.139.60.153/bitstream/123456789/130/1/EARLY%20CHILDHOOD%20
EDUCATION%20CURRICULUM%20FRAMEWORK%20%28DRAFT%29.pdf
Gathoo,V.S (2009). Curriculum and Teaching Strategies for Children with Hearing
Impairment. (MMDE 076).IGNOU: New Delhi.
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Guralnick, M. (2011). Why Early Intervention Works. Infants & Young
Children, 24(1), 6-28. doi:10.1097/iyc.0b013e3182002cfe
Hanson, M. J., Beckman, P. J., Horn, E., Marquart, J., Sandall, S. R., Greig, D., &
Brennan, E. (2000). Entering preschool: family and professional experiences in this
transition process. Journal of school for deaf and hard-of-hearing children. In M.
Marschark, V. Lampropoulou & E. Skordilis (Eds.), Diversity in deaf education (pp.
49–75). New York, NY: Oxford University Press
Janus, M., Lefort, J., Cameron, R., & Kopechanski, L. (2007). Starting kindergarten:
transition issues for children with special needs. Canadian Journal of Education, 30(3),
628–648. doi:10. 2307/20466656
Mauro .T .(2018). Early Intervention in Special Education. Retrieved online on 7/7/
2019 from https://www.verywellfamily.com/what-is-early-intervention-3105699

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 Marschark, M., Spencer, P. E., Adams, J., & Sapere, P. (2011). Evidence based practice
in educating deaf and hard of hearing children: teaching to their cognitive strengths and
needs. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 26(1), 3–16. doi:10. 1080/
08856257.2011.543540
Mundkur, N. (2005). Neuroplasticity in Children. Symposium on Developmental
and Behavioral Disorders.Indian Journal of Pediatrics, volume 72 (10) : 855-857
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Readiness. Retrieved online on 30/11/2019 online from http://old.uwbec.org/documents/
school_readiness/Five%20Domains%20of%20Social%20Readiness.pdf
National ECCE Policy (2013). National Early Childhood Care and Education Policy
and Curriculum Framework. Retrieved online on 1/12/2019 from https://wcd.nic.in/
sites/default/files/national_ecce_curr_framework_final_03022014%20%282%29.pdf
RTE Act (2010). Right to Education Act. Retrieved online on 25/9/18 from http://
mhrd.gov.in/rte
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12/2018 fromhttps://www.unicef.org/earlychildhood/files/Child2Child_Conceptual
Framework_FINAL(1).pdf

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Unit 2 ❏ Curricular Adaptations
Structure
2.1 Introduction:
2.1.1 Shifting trends towards Inclusion
2.1.2 Meaning of Inclusive education:
2.1.3 Need of Curricular Adaptation
2.2 Objectives:
2.3 Bases of curricular adaptations & decision making
2.3.1 The concept of curriculum adaptation
2.3.2 Understanding the bases of curriculum adaptations
2.3.3 Steps in decision making
2.4 The Step wise curricular approach and its adaptation
2.5 Types of accommodations, modifications and its applications
2.5.1 Difference between Accomodation and Modifications
2.5.2 Types of adaptations in the curriculum
2.6 Strategies of adaptation of textbooks of different school subjects
2.6.1 Need of Textbook adaptation
2.6.2 Strategies of textbook adaptation
2.7 Adaptation in assessments and evaluation
2.7.1 Do’s and Dont’s in evaluation
2.7.2 Strategies for formative evaluation:
2.8 Let us sum up
2.9 Unit End Exercises
2.10 References

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2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Shifting trends towards Inclusion

The service delivery of education for children with special needs in India has seen
shifting trends from segregation to integration and then to recent inclusive education.
Until 1970s Government policies supported segregation. Many special schools were
established for children with disabilities. As the time passed by, there was growing
awareness that students with special needs who can be educated in general schools
should be educated in general schools and those studying in special schools should be
transferred to general schools once they are ready to make the shift (MHRD, Programme
of Action, 1992). In 1970s India witnessed shift in the trend from segregation to
integration. The government launched the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Integrated
Education for Disabled Children (IEDC).The constant use of the medical model of
assessment in integration, wherein educational difficulties are explained solely in terms
of defects in the child, led to a re-conceptualisation of the special needs (SN) task as
requiring school reforms and improved pedagogy. This re-conceptualisation at the both
the international and national level helped in the emergence of an orientation towards
inclusive education. In the 1990s, inclusion captured the field after the World Conference
on Special Needs Education in Salamanca in 1994, with the adoption of the Salamanca
Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. Since then many
international frameworks supporting inclusion like Biwako Millennium Framework
(BMF) (2002), Incheon Strategies (2012) and UNCRPD (2006) were passed. India has
signed and ratified UNCRPD (2006). As a result of this Persons with disabilities Act
(1995) was replaced by Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPWD) Act (2016) which
supports inclusion. The provisions regarding inclusion find place in Article 16, Chapter
III of this Act. Article 17 represents the measures to facilitate inclusive education.
Right to Education (RTE Act, 2009) states that every child in the age group of 6-14
years, including children with disabilities will be provided free and compulsory
elementary education of 8 years in the vicinity of his/her neighborhood. RTE (2009)
which is implemented through Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and Rashtriya Madhyamik
Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) provides a base for making Inclusive Education a reality.
The following sub-unit explains the meaning of inclusive education.

2.1.2 Meaning of Inclusive education:

As per Advani and Chadha (2003) inclusive education aims to provide a favourable
setting for achieving equal opportunity and full participation for all, thus bringing children

45
with special needs well within purview of mainstream education. It recognizes the diverse
needs of the students and ensures equal education to all through appropriate curricula,
teaching strategies, support services and partnership with the community and parents.
In simple words it means that all children with or without disability learn together. The
focus is on restructuring the school both physically and attitudinally to accept and provide
for the needs of all students. In inclusive program specialized instruction and support
are provided to any student who is in need to support their learning without being
labelled. Schools welcome all children and they are treated with dignity. Arrangements
as per each one’s requirement will be made in the existing schools. In inclusion there is
commitment to educate each child, to the maximum extent possible, in the school and
classroom the child would otherwise attend. It involves bringing the support services to
the child (rather than moving the child to the services) and expects that the child will
benefit from being in the class (rather than having to keep up with other students).
(Gowramma ,2014). Inclusive education can be summarized as under:
● The main principle is placing all children in the education system
● Non-discrimination on the basis of disability for admission to school
● General education classroom in the neighbourhood school is the placement option
for a child.
● Inclusive education provides a right to the children with disability for being
educated with the non-disabled children without any differentiation.
● All children in the school will participate in the school programme.
● It brings desired educational opportunities at the doorstep of the exceptional
children rather than expecting them to move for themselves to avail these
opportunities.
Inclusive education recommends the education of children with disability in overall
general educational structure by adapting the entire education system which includes
the following:
● School structure
● Building
● Furniture
● Teaching
● Classroom management
● The curriculum-adaptation of text book, instructional strategies and also the
evaluation process. Let us study the need of curriculum adaption given below.

46
2.1.3 Need of Curricular Adaptation
National Curriculum Framework NCF (2005) which is continuously involved in
development and reforming curriculum stated that it very important that curriculum is
“an inclusive and Meaningful experience for children”. This can be achieved only if
there is a fundamental change in our perception of learners and the entire learning-
process. Although the theory of inclusion may sound easy and familiar, it is indeed a
very challenging task in practice not only for the teachers but also for the parents and
students with disabilities themselves. Shetty & Gathoo (2019), studied the perspectives
of stakeholders namely parents, teachers, school principals and students with disabilities
towards inclusive education. The results indicated that all the stakeholders were not
satisfied with the services offered in the inclusive schools. The mainstream teachers
expressed their inability in teaching children with disabilities because they were not
trained and felt that special teachers need to be appointed to deal with these students.
Parents were disappointed with the lack of resource support provided in resource room.
They indicated that the children did not show much academic improvement and were
only promoted to further grades with very less marks. The children with disabilities
themselves also gave a negative feedback about the services they received in an inclusive
school. Especially, they highlighted that they were not satisfied with the teaching learning
material and teaching process in the class. According to the school heads running an
inclusive school was very expensive as it needed appointing many additional staff like
special educators, para-professionals like psychologists, physiotherapists, speech
therapists, counsellors, etc and modifications in infrastructure as per the needs of the
diverse students.
This study pinpoints the need to bring about appropriate curricular modifications in
the inclusive class. Curricular adaptation will benefit not only children with special
needs but also the stakeholders associated with them. The need for curricular adaptation
has also been voiced by Jhulka (2016). She pointed out that rote memorization is the
highly preferred way of classroom practice in regular school even today. ‘Marks’ or
‘percentage’ are the two criteria of measuring outcomes in regular schools. Generally
regular teachers present information from different subjects in classroom and students
are supposed to remember it by way of rote learning from the text books. Sometimes
other activities and tasks may be used but the emphasis is on memorizing the content.
At the end assessments are planned to check how much students have understood. This
system is very rigid and there is very less scope to incorporate differential learning

47
needs of children with hearing loss. Children with hearing loss are physically present in
class. They use the textbooks which are actually developed for hearing students. Deaf
children lack the language base which the hearing counterparts have. Hence, they are
not able to cope up with the language complexity present in the text books that are
developed for hearing students. As such they are prone to academic failure. As a result
children with hearing loss remain out of the system because they do not fit within the
existing system.
Not only the students, Jhulka (2016) has indicated that even the teachers in regular
schools are not ware about the teaching strategies that would lead to improved learning
of students. Hence, teachers usually have very low expectations from the children with
hearing loss and they tend to remain out of the loop of teaching learning process.
Evidence based strategies which will work and prove to be beneficial for all students
are now available.Hence, as students of special education, it is essential to understand
the concept of ‘curricular adaption’ in greater detail and use these strategies for classroom
teaching. You must have studied about ‘curricular- adaptation’ during your B.Ed (Special
Education) program.
The aim of the present unit is to give you in-depth information about the concept so
that you are in a position to design an adapt curriculum set-up for any institution working
in the field of special education. Let us look at the objectives of the unit given below.

2.2 Objectives
After studying this unit on curriculum adaptation, you will be able to :
● Explain the Bases of curricular adaptations & decision making

● Discuss the Step wise curricular approach and its adaptation

● Define the Types of accommodations, modifications and its applications

● Use the Strategies of adaptation of textbooks of different school subjects

● Plan Adaptation in evaluation

2.3 Bases of curricular adaptations & decision making

Now let us have a look at the concept of curriculum adaptation.

2.3.1 The concept of curriculum adaptation

The aim of curriculum adaptation is not to remove difficult content or dilute the
standards of the curriculum. It is developed to meet the needs of diverse learners like

48
students with hearing impairment, autism, learning disability studying together along
with the non-disabled students in a mainstream school. Thus, curriculum adaptation
facilitates learning of all students and provides opportunity to learn and exhibit their
learnt skills. There are a range of strategies which are beneficial to the children with
hearing impairment and these can assist all students in an inclusive class to learn. As
indicated by Gathoo (2016), successful classroom teaching depends upon three factors:
Input, process and output. Adaptation is required in each of these factors. These factors
are shown below.

Source: Gathoo (2016)

Fig. 1.1 Factors that need adaption
1. The Input Variables: Conducive Environment in and around the Classroom
● Classroom environment:
Unwanted sound is called noise. This noise disturbs children, creates obstruction in
hearing, distracts attention and makes it difficult to have conversation with people in
classroom. Hearing aids are a kind of machine. They amplify even ‘noise’ along with
other speech sounds making it difficult for the students with hearing loss to hear teacher’s

49
voice. Hence, it is important that the classrooms containing children with hearing loss
be placed in a quiet place away from noise. Not only outside the classroom, noise is
produced also within the class. The voice of students, screaming and noise from banging
the furniture are the potential sources of noise within the class. The noise within the
classroom can be reduced by spreading a carpet on the floor, having thick curtains on
the windows, fixing rubber covers on the furniture to avoid the screeching noise that is
produced while shifting the furniture. Sometimes electronic items like air conditioners,
fans also create noise in classroom. They need to be fixed and maintained properly. It is
important that the deaf child is seated on first bench in-front of the teacher so that the
teacher’s facial expressions and speech reading is visible. Some children with hearing
impairment are sign language users. If an interpreter is available then the seating
arrangement may be such that the child sees the interpreter, the teacherand also the
black board. Generally a semi circular arrangement makes children with hearing
impairment more participative.
● Adapting Instructional materials:
A wide range of materials like textbooks, reference books, guides, supplementary
reading material which involves rapid-readers or workbooks, exercise books are primarily
developed and written for children without disabilities. Children with hearing impairment
may find to read and understand these due to the language load of vocabulary and
complex sentence structures. They may fail to comprehend the instructional material
and hence it will be beneficial to adapt it so that they get an equal opportunity to read
and learn from it. Adapting teaching materials involves making changes to the text and
lay out so that the student has access to information during the course of instruction.
Instead of having long sentences the same could be some times broken down into small
meaningful sentences. Presenting information diagrammatically or in a tabular format
could also be tried out for Science and Geography. History has a lot of written text.
There could be more illustrations and could also be supported by videos. As suggested
by Gathoo (2016) it is important that the textbooks that are developed for deaf children
with hearing contain glossary or foot notes and reading material for pre-school deaf
children should have speech balloons and think clouds. Content could also be adapted
by using flow charts or by presenting some information in the form of bullets. The
instructional material should be carefully designed so that it is interesting for the children
and suits their level.
● Adaptation of the content:
As per Jhulka (2016), this includes various methods of adapting the content of the
textbooks. It involves use of a variety of supplementary material like artifacts, calculators/

50
talking calculators, taylor frame, abacus, Brailler, geometrical kit, Geo – board, Tactile
board, Geometric shape board (for circle, graph, representation), Tactile graph sheet
(for bar-graph, histograph etc), 3-d blocksand figures, manipulatives, flash cards or
pictures on paper, posters, chalkboard, projection screens, computers, books on tape
and computerized text reader, screen readers, voice synthesis, scanners, daisy books,
multimedia gadgets like CDs, MP3s, talking watches and talking clocks,videos/movies,
modeling material like clay, textured objects/raised line paper, games and puzzles, etc,
can help all children learn.
2. The Process Variables:
● Adapting Instructional methods:
Method of teaching needs to be adapted. For regular children the teacher teaches in
the class before and then informs parents to take revision at home. For children with
hearing impairment the teachers should request parents to pre-teach the main concepts
at home well in advance. When the teacher teaches the same concepts in the class, it
will be a good repetition for students and it will facilitate their memory. As far as
possible the teachers should try to give direct instructions in precise language. The
important words should be repeated. Giving day to day examples and using new words
in varied contexts helps to concretize the concept. The more the information is presented
visually, the better is the comprehension of deaf students. Hence, try to present the
content with diagrams, charts, line drawings, PPTs, captioning. This will make the
material meaningful for children with hearing loss. Try to teach concepts by connecting
them with different subjects. E.g. the Concepts of vaporization of Science could be
taught along with the chapter of weather in Geography. Use of Demonstrations will
facilitate understanding of concepts in Science and Geography. For history and Language,
role playing or dramatization help a lot in making the subject interesting for students.
Few others tips for adapting instructional methods are given below:
● Ask students from back rows to repeat the comments and questions of other
students,
● Reinforce or provide immediate feedback to the students who gave an answer so
that students with hearing loss pay attention to the speaker.
● Assign a buddy or a hearing peer with every deaf student in the class who will
help the deaf child in taking notes and completing assignments in the class.

Other specific adaptations for instructional strategies may include the following:
During a lecture, the students with hearing loss may lose significant part of the
information. To overcome this loss, they may be provided with transcripts of lecute or
audio information.

51
 They may be allowed to use audiovisual material like computers independently for a
longer duration.
● Provide extra time for oral and written responses for a child with hearing
impairment in the class discussions and assignments. Give several short breaks
while completing assignments. These include strategies like verbal, visual,
kinesthetically, written, proceeding from simple to complex, concrete to abstract,
step by step, scaffolding, concept maps, projects, group work, peer tutoring, using
prior knowledge, brainstorming, dramatization, giving extra time, giving
alternative activities, drill activities, shortening assignments, organizing
excursions/ trips, using large fonts, Braille or tacitly coded material, toys or blocks,
carbon or xerox copy of notes, hand puppets, real life experiences, real objects,
multiple choice questions, children’s literature, magazines and journals, etc.
3. The Output Variables:
● Adapting the assessment procedures:
As per Gathoo (2016), evaluating children with hearing impairment is a challenging
task for the teachers. This is especially true while conducting the Continuous
Comprehensive Evaluation i.e. the CCE. Many of the assessments in CCE are either
oral tests or written exams. Hence, children with hearing loss are unable to attempt it.
Paper pencil exams should be substituted by performance based measures like projects.
Many children with hearing impairment actually attempt descriptive questions through
rote learning and face serious challenges in framing sentence structure. Multiple choice
questions can be used instead of descriptive type questions. The aim is not to simplify
the matter, but to stimulate deeper thinking in children. The Rights of Persons With
Disabilities Act (2016) provides for language exemption to deaf children. At SSC and
HSC, they are expected to study one language. In place of other two languages, they
can opt for other vocational. There are also concessions for Math and Science offered
by State Boards. It is advisable to check these policies so that alternate evaluations
could be planned. Additionally some children may need one to one instructions even
for evaluation and may require extra time which is permissible under the law.

2.3.2 Understanding the bases of curriculum adaptations

The bases of adaptation represent the justification in support of curriculum adaptation.
The bases are also an answer to the question ‘Why adaptation?’. The following are the
main principles of curriculum adaptation which justifies the need of having adaptations:

52
 (1) Learning requires active participation of the student:
Gathoo (2016) suggested that ‘learning’ takes place not only in schools but also
outside the school. For students with hearing loss every interaction with the environment
which involves the use of language is a new learning experience. Although schools are
not the only place where children learn, yet attending and participating in school helps
to promote learning.
TheNational Research Council (1992) stated that children are the real problem solvers
and, they generate questions and problems through their curiosity.Teachers can engage
the students in meaningful experiences, by playing, by representing in a variety of ways,
and by reflecting on their own learning.This will facilitate active classroom participation.
Some children may be able to participate in classr0om tasks because of their disability.
Their interested can be re-generated and their participation can be increased by
introducing small changes in routine classroom activities.
Generally it is observed that, in an inclusive class, children with hearing impairment
are remain silent and aloof as compared to other regular children. They try to avoid oral
conversation and verbal interactions as far as possible. The teachers may use some
strategies to increase their participation like the use of visual information like pictorial
material or symbol cards, repeating and highlighting instructions, pairing the pupil with
a hearing student, giving more time to listen to what the child is trying to tell you. Use
of simple strategies like these is making adaptations for participation which will help
all children in class.
(2) Students learn in a variety of ways and at different pace.
Intelligence is not uni-dimensional. It has many dimensions and a single ability is
not enough to catch hold of the entire range of these dimensions. A mainstream class
consists of students who have different abilities, preferences and learning styles. Basically
there are three types of learning styles. Auditory, Visual and Kinesthetic. They influence
learning process to a great extent. Teachers need to identify the learning styles present
in their students and use teaching styles which match and satisfy the learning needs of
all students especially students with disabilities. Children with hearing impairment also
exhibit variety in learning styles. Marschark et al. (2013) stated that often we assume
that because the children have hearing loss, these children will be visual learners. To an
extent it is true. Hence, most of the deaf students are inclined towards using sign language

53
instead of verbal language. Those who are early intervened are inclined towards oralism
and use speech, however, those who have deaf parents prefer to use visual manual
mode as the most preferred learning style.
(3) Learning is both an individual and group process.
‘Practice makes man perfect’ well bring about the importance of repetition in learning.
This repetition strengthens the bond between the previously learnt information and the
new information. Learners are not explicitly aware about this process and it happens
rather naturally. In this way learning is said to be individual in nature. However. Social
learning theory by Bandura (1978) claims that students learn through observation and
imitation of people in the environment. This theory adds the social aspect to learning
process and states that working in groups and actively engaging learners in activities
stimulates learning. Cooperative learning stimulates social learning. It increases
motivation, time on task, memory, improves reasoning ability and the empathetic
behaviour among students.
Benefits from small-group learning in a collaborative environment include:
✓ Welcoming diversity
✓ Reinforcing individual differences
✓ Development of interpersonal and social skills
✓ Importance to personal feed-backs and self reflections.

2.3.3 Steps in decision making

In Inclusive classrooms, teachers are confused while dealing with students having
disabilities. They are not aware about the special techniques used for teaching deaf
children. Hence, they are not able to take decision about curriculum adaptation. The
teachers widely assume that each child with a disability needs some form of adaptations.
They also seek advice on which is the best way to adapt a curricula. It needs to be
understood. One should understand that not all children with disabilities need
adaptations. The goal should be based on a funnel approach. Try the general curricula
first. If that is not working try small steps at a time and use the backtracking approaches
for adaptations. It also needs to be remembered that each child and the classroom situation
is unique and so is the child’s needs arising out of disability is unique and hence there is
no single recipe for adapting general education curriculum for all students.
Fisher and Frey (2001) stated that it is essential to remember that curriculum does
not always need to be modified. Adaptation is not the solution to all the problems. One
can use multi-level instruction in class. Using different adapted instructions and
assessment methods provides more flexibility to the students to express themselves in
the class. At other times, the curriculum can be made more accessible through

54
accommodations. In addition, supports for one student may not work for all other students
in all situations. e.g., a student who needs full time support from a paraprofessional for
math may only need natural supports from peers for English, and no support for art.
Disability label should not be used to determine the type of supports needed by the
child. They should be provided depending upon the student’s needs and preferences.
Thus, which supports need to be included while adapting the curriculum is a complex
decision. You may refer to the decision-making flowchart provided below to
conceptualize the process of selecting and implementing curricular adaptations. It should
be used as a tool by a team in determining an individual student’s need.
A curricular adaptation and decision making process:
This decision-making flowchart can be used to conceptualize the process of selecting
and implementing curricular adaptations. It should be used as a tool for a team in
determining an individual student’s need . The decision making process is presented in
Fig 1.1 below:

Identify the student’s individual educational goals and objectives to be emphasized

during general education activities

Articulate the expectations for the student’s performance in general education

activities

Determine what to teach?

As a team, determine the content of the general education activity, theme or unit
study

Determine how to teach?

As a team, determine if, without modification, the student can actively participate
and achieve the same essential outcomes as non-disabled classmates. If the student
cannot achieve the same outcomes

55
 Select design appropriate adaptations

Select Select lesson Employ Select Engineer the Design Select natural
instructional format student- curricular physical and modified supports and
arrangement specific goals social material supervision
teaching specific to classroom arrangements
strategies the lesson environment

If the above adaptation strategies are not effective, design an alternative activity

Evaluate effectiveness of adaptations

Source: Gathoo (2018)

Fig 1.2: Steps in the decision making of curriculum adaptation

2.4 The Step wise curricular approach and its adaptation

Different authors have presented different steps of approaching the general education
curriculum and adapting it. Hooer (1990) presented a curriculum adaptation model
consisting of 5 steps: 1. determining why curricular adaptation is needed 2. identifying
the factors that need adaptation. 3. selecting appropriate behaviour management and
instructional techniques 4. Implementing the selected curricular adaptation 5. monitoring
how the adaptations work in practice.
King-Sears (2001) has presented a process which will enable the children with
disabilities to access the general education curriculum. This process has three steps.
Apart from accessing the curriculum, this process also provides scope for suggesting
changes into the general education curriculum so that the same curriculum and
infrastructure will be accessible for majority of the students. The three steps are actually
the guidelines for giving access and making curriculum adaptations. They are presented
below:
1. Analysis of the general education curriculum.
2. Enhancing the areas in this curriculum which are not designed to suit the needs of
children with disabilities.

56
 3. Develop ways to access the curriculum and initiating minor and major
modifications of outcomes.
Step 1: Analysis of the general education curriculum
First step is to analyse the curriculum and make it accessible to students with
disabilities. One needs to ask the following questions:
● What is the extent to which curriculum describes the amount of knowledge and
skills the students have acquired by the end of the program?
● Does the curriculum consists of resources that will help the teachers with materials
and evidence based practices for bringing about variation in the curriculum
included in the curriculum itself?
● How many factors of universal design are a part of the curriculum?
● Curriculum goals:
General educators are aware about the goals of the content from the curriculum
they are supposed to teach. Special educators should also take efforts to understand
the goals set by general educators while teaching a particular content. Knowledge
of goals will also enable special educators to frame IEPs with greater accuracy.
Following are the expected characteristics which should be considered while
forming goals:
● Goals should be clearly written and jargon free.
● Goals should specifically mention the list of knowledge and skills that will be
learnt by the students.
● Goals should be balanced. They should not allow students to get inclined towards
any particular idea/value.
● Strong verbs should be applied while forming goals like to apply, to analyze, to
identify, to explain, to use, to demonstrate.
● Goals need to mention some benchmark which would allow students to
demonstrate the mastery they have achieved in a particular skill.
● Goals are beneficial for teachers while developing teaching activities, teaching
learning material, and instructional methods.
Special educators should not only understand the goals of general education
curriculum, but they should be in a position to critique the draw-backs in the curriculum.
This will enable to identify the areas that need to be modified for children with disabilities.

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 ● Curriculum resources:
In India, the schools are governed by either of the three boards: state boards, central
board of education and international boards. The schools follow the curriculum which
is determined by the respective boards of education. Some boards have developed teacher
manuals or teacher guides. They are for teachers. They help in developing lesson plans,
planning activities for students, assessment activities, teaching methods for general
and diverse group of learners. McLaughlin (1993) developed a curriculum evaluation
guide that teachers can use to rate the general adequacy and content for how well the
curriculum meets the needs of students with disabilities. Such resources help the teachers
in modifying the curriculum as per the needs of the students with disabilities.

● Universal design features:

The idea of universal design has been borrowed from the field of architecture. This
type of design consists of features which incorporate the needs of all the individuals
including persons with disabilities. It consists of slopes, escalators, talking elevators,
etc for persons with loco-motor disabilities, visual impairment and such other challenges.
As a result, a vast majority of people can access such environments. The features of
universal design are also applied to the field of education of children with disabilities.
The curriculum is designed in such a way that it will be beneficial to all types of learners
including children with disabilities.

Step 2: Enhance general education curriculum:

The curriculum that are developed do not contain all the features which the educators
desire for. Sometimes it may happen that the general education curriculum is not well-
designed and it is not fit to be used by children with disabilities. We cannot call such a
curriculum as ‘inaccessible’. It other words such a curriculum has features which can
be further enhanced by the efforts put in by the teachers. Teachers may not use regular
curriculum for students with disabilities because they do not fit into its standards. Such
teachers are inadvertently undermining or degrading the potential of students to pursue
the education in regular school set-up. The teachers need to identify areas in the
curriculum which are poorly designed and reconstruct these areas for students with
disabilities. It can be anything starting from content to be taught to the teaching methods
and assessments which requires modification. Holding a dialogue on ‘what’ and ‘how’
of curriculum among general and special educators helps a lot. General educators may
be good in teaching geography. They may be familiar with concepts of location, maps,
names of places, etc. On the other hand special educators are experts in teaching these

58
concepts using diverse methods. If they join hands, it will certainly enhance the
curriculum and learning of all students.

Step 3: Accessibility through minor and major changes:

With the enhancements described in the steps one and two above, some students
with disabilities will be able to manage in the general education class. However, some
students with disabilities may find it difficult to sustain in a general education class
with these supports. King Sears (1997) indicated that for such type of students four
types of changes in the curriculum may be considered:
1. Accomodations
2. Adaptation
3. Parallel construction
4. Overlapping curriculum.
The extent of modification required in the curriculum depends upon a variety of
factors like student characteristics, IEP, teaching experience of teachers. Let us look at
each in greater detail:
1. Accommodations:
An accommodation to the curriculum neither changes the content nor the difficulty
of concepts within it. It only changes the input or the output method used by the
teacher and or the student related to the intended instructional outcome.
Eg: A student with challenges in reading skills accommodation in input would be
that he / she listens to the text played on tape recorder and teacher used a visuals,
graphic and organizers for explaining concepts to such learners.
An output accommodation for students would be that a student uses pictorial
representations that are verbally explained. The student follows the same curricular
standards that other students follow, only show the knowledge in a variety of
ways.
Eg : Some student with challenges in eye hand coordination may not solve all the
sums which other non-disabled students are asked to complete. They may solve
few sums. But, the difficulty level of the math sums is similar to the sums solved
by the regular children. All students may not require the accommodations such as
less number of maths problems or extra time in exam. It needs to be availed by
only those students who need it.

59
Adaptations:
In adaptation, the content is the same. However, the difficulty level of the concepts
changes to some extent. E.g all the students may be asked to define 20 definitions from
the memory. However, students with disabilities may be asked to match the terms and
the definitions from their memory. A student has accomodation when he solving maths
sums less than other students. However, he also has the same level of mastery on solving
sums like other students. A student with adaptation is not demonstrating same level of
mastery on solving sums. He/she is solving sums which are less difficult or conceptually
easy to solve. Adaptation is always made based on the outcomes set for the typical
students. Teachers need to have a clear picture of the set outcomes before going further
with their adaptation. Another example of adaptation includes most of the regular children
solving division sums with unlike denominators, whereas a student with special needs
is working on gaining mastery over division of mixed fractions with like denominators.

Parallel Curriculum:
In a parallel curriculum, the content for a child with disability is the same as that
of the other students. However, major changes are made in the outcome of that content.
E.g. When most of the non-disabled students are writing a lengthy essay on the analysis
of a novel, a student having mild intellectual disability is only describing the actions
of main characters in the novel. Like accommodation and adaptation, the outcome of
parallel curriculum designed for children with disabilities is also based on the outcome
that is defined for students without disabilities. The teachers must be very clear with
what they expect from the regular children, in order to apply differentiated outcomes
for learners with special needs. The parallel curriculum outcomes are often used for
students who are gifted. E.g. when all other students are working on analysis of a
novel, a gifted and talented child may be working on a parallel outcome which involves
analysis of the same novel and bringing about the similarities and differences among
two or more novels. Now a days many teachers are consider parallel curriculum a
equivalent to curriculum enrichment. The goals of the parallel curriculum are set on
the basis of current performance of students. Teachers take efforts to bring about
growth and development of each student. Whether the curriculum outcome is
adaptation (minor change) or parallel curriculum (major change) is determined by
the teacher and range of differentiation within the classroom. The eg of parallel
curriculum in case of children with disabilities is presented below:

60
 When all non-disabled children are solving word problems involving whole
numbers, child with hearing impairment may be working on identification of
numbers and one to one correspondence.
Most of the regular children are going to have an oral test on the content taught by
the class-teacher. However, the deaf child will be asked to point out the correct
alternatives based on the content.

Over Lapping curriculum

Parallel curriculum is not based on general education curriculum as such. The aim of
overlapping curriculum is only to involve children with disabilities in the activities of
the general education class. The curriculum goals of overall-lapping curriculum are
very different from that of the regular curriculum. Generally the decision for developing
outcomes of over-lapping curriculum is taken by IEP team. This type of curriculum is
used in case of children with severe to profound disabilities.
The e.g is presented below:

E.g. The curriculum for most of the students will be science, but the overlapping
curriculum goal for a child with profound hearing loss may be learning some
concept from environmental studies which contains more amount of graphics
and visuals.
Majority of the students may be appearing for second language theory exam.
However, student with hearing loss may have exam in sign language.

Many over-lapping curricula are very specialized and involve direct instruction from
the special educator. The child gets opportunity to practice these skills with the peers in
a regular class. The primary aim of overlapping curriculum goals is to provide an
opportunity to the children with disabilities to be a part of general education class and
learn with non-disabled peers.

2.5 Types of accommodations, modifications and its applications

In the earlier unit we studied about the concept of adaptation, its principles, different
degrees of adaptations that can be made in the curriculum as per the needs of the children
with disabilities. It has been observed that people often tend to use the terms

61
accomodations and modifications interchangeably. Whether these terms are one and
the same or they represent two separate concepts? In this unit we will study the difference
between the terms accomodations and modifications. The concept is represented in the
fig 2 below:

ADAPTATION

ACCOMODATIONS MODIFICATIONS

Fig 1.3: Components of adaptation

2.5.1 Difference between Accomodation and Modifications

Read the case studies below:
Case study 1:
A fourth standard regular class had two students with disabilities. Reema was
deaf girl while Pappu was a slow learner. Reshma teacher was worried about the
progress made by these two students and hence had approached special educator
for making curriculum adaptation for these two children. IEP was formulated for
both the children. The IEP of Reema mentioned the need for preferential seating
arrangement in the class infront of the teacher. This will enable her to hear the
teacher’s instruction clearly as well as speech read the teacher’s face. No changes
were introduced in the existing curriculum.
IEP of Pappu recommended the need to provide him with simpler reading material
and adapted text-books. There were no suggestions with respect to change in
place or preference in seating arrangement.
Can you find out the difference between the two terms ‘Accomodation’ and
‘Modification’?

What do you Think !!

In both the cases above, some amount of adaptations were made in the existing
curriculum. Reshma’s IEP did not involve changes in the curriculum content. This is

62
accomodation. She is expected to follow the same curriculum as that of the hearing
peers. While the IEP for Pappu, represents substantial changes in the curricular content.
This is an example of modification. According to Wright (2003) Accommodations and
modifications both refer to the changes in the course content, teaching strategies,
standards, test presentation, location, timing, scheduling, expectations, student responses,
environmental structuring, and/or other attributes which provide access for a student
with a disability to participate in a course/standard/test. In Accommodation these DO
NOT fundamentally alter or lower the standard or expectations of the course/standard/
test. While the changes made for Modifications DO fundamentally alter or lower the
standard or expectations of the course/standard/test.The difference between the two
terms is presented in the Table 1 given below:
Table 1.1: Difference between Accomodation and Modification

Sr. Accommodations Modifications

No.
1. Do not fundamentally alter Do fundamentally alter expectations
expectations or standards in or standards in instructional level,
instructional level, content content or performance criteria
or performance criteria
2. Changes are made to provide Changes are made in order to
equal access to learning and provide student meaningful and
equal opportunity to demonstrate productive learning experiences based
what is known on individual needs and abilities
3. Grading is same for all learners Grading is different according to the levels
in the class of functioning of learners in the class
4. Examples: Providing more visual Examples: Spelling support from a
aids or large size print, alternate computer spell check, word bank choice,
forms of assignments, peer support reworded questions using simpler language,
for note taking, tape recorded projects substituted for a written report,
lectures, highlighting key points, outline for writing an essay etc.
use of computer for writing etc.
The difference between Accomodations and modifications was well brought about
by Wood (1998) through his Rubber Band Theory of adaptations. The concepts of
accommodation and modification are represented in the Fig 1 given below:

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 Benchmark .................................................... ................................................
Accomodations

Benchmark.................................................................................... Modification
Students

Source: Gathoo (2018)

Fig 1.4: Interventions including accommodations and modifications

Schools set up objectives, ie, expected level of learning outcomes for the students.
However, all the students are not able to meet the expected level of criteria. Some
students find it very difficult to read the set level. The same is represented in the fig 1
above. Different figures represent different students. Majority of the students are able
to pass exams after direct instruction, ie, they are able to meet the set benchmark
(represented by square) in the figure 1. There are few students (represented by circle),
who not only meet the expected level but are able to achieve beyond it. There are a few
students (represented by a triangle) who cannot meet the benchmark. The rubber band
of benchmark needs to stretched for them so that they can meet the expected criteria.
One important point to be remembered is that the benchmark although stretched is the
same as that of the regular children. Apart from these types, another category of students
(represented by pentagon) may not be able to reach the benchmarks. Hence, benchmark
needs to be pulled down to their level, so that they can learn it. This is an example of
modification. In this case the an altogether different benchmark is set for those students
who are not able to reach the original set benchmark. Johnson, Seaton & Benson (1997)
gave a sample of accommodations and modifications for children with hearing loss.
The table 2 below represents it:

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Table 1.2 : Sample accommodations & modifications for children with hearing loss

Amplification Communication Physical Instructional Curricular

and assistive accomodations environment accomodations modifications
devices option accomodations
Personal devices Specialized Use of carpet Use of visuals Modifying the
like hearing aids sitting and sound and graphics length,
or cochlear arrangement reducing like charts, complexity of
implants with preference material for vocabulary lists, the content in
for first bench reducing the lecture outlines, the reading
noise etc. assignment

2.5.2 Types of adaptations in the curriculum

Wright (2005) presented nine types of curriculum adaptation for children with
disabilities. You may use any one or a combination of these types as per the needs of the
individual child. Table below explains the types of curriculum adaptation:
Table 1.3: Types of curriculum adaptations

Sr. Type of Explanation Example

No. Adaptation
1. Quantity Adaptation is introduced in If majority of hearing children
the number of items or have to finish entire chapter of
activities the student is Balbharti in 20 mins, then a
expected to complete or deaf child may have to finish
perform before the reading only two paragraph in
assessment. the same time.
2. Time As per the need of the student, If other students are completing
the time required for a theory paper in 3 hours, then
completing an activity can be children with hearing loss are
either increased or decreased. given extra time to finish the
same question paper.

3. Use of peer-tutoring wherein

Level of This involves provision of the regular students help
support extra support to the students children with hearing loss in

65
 in activities. This acts as a understanding activities,
reinforcement, and models instructions, completing home-
enhance development of work and providing much
expected skills. needed feedback. This can be
same-age or cross age peer
tutoring. Apart from peer
tutoring, one can use teacher-
assistants to support student-
learning. The models of
teaching like parallel teaching,
station teaching, etc also
provide greater support to
students with hearing
impairment in inclusive class.
4. Input The method of teaching or the Use of more visual aids,
way instruction is presented is graphics, sign language, hands
adapted. on activities, visits,
conversation, directed activity
to introduce language concepts

5. Difficulty The level of skill, the rules of Allowing the use of calculators
activity or the problem-type is while solving maths sums.
adapted. Children with hearing loss may
attempt 7th standard maths and
science subjects in SSC board
exams because it is
comparatively easier. When
other students are writing brief
answers, deaf child is circling
one correct alternative from the
options.
6. Output Adaptation is introduced in the When other students are giving
way students respond to the oral exam, deaf student is
questions. allowed to answer using sign
language. When other students
are writing brief answers, deaf

66
 child explaining answers using
sign language.
7. Participation The aim to enhance When other students are
participation of students with pointing out places on the map,
hearing loss in the classroom ask child with hearing loss to
activities. Hence, extent to
highlight those places on the
which learner is actively
involved in the activity is map.
adapted.
8. Alternate This is used for students with All the hearing students are
goals moderate to severe asked to point out the capital of
disabilities. The content/
material remains the same. states in India, while the deaf
However, the expected student is asked to colour the
outcomes are adapted. state which is his native place.
9. Substitute This is also useful for students When hearing students are
curriculum with moderate to severe learning Sanskrit, child with
disabilities. It is also known as
functional curriculum. A hearing loss is learning
totally different material and vocational skill of screen
instructions are used to meet printing.
individual goals.

2.6 Strategies of adaptation of textbooks of different school subjects

The entire teaching learning process in India is Book-centered. In the age of technology
when all of us are using 4G mobile phones and knowledge is available through screen-
touch, yet, textbooks remain the most important source of knowledge for students at
school and college level.
However techno-savy the world may appear to be, textbooks help to retain knowledge
in lasting form. They are commonly prescribed for all the students studying in a school.
This is because they provide the basic minimum information which is of utmost
importance to live independently in a society as responsible citizens. Textbook plays an
important role not only for the students, but also for the teachers. They are a guiding
light for the teachers. The question ‘what to teach’ is often answered by the textbooks.
Textbooks are widely used for teaching across rural and urban areas. Hummel(1998)

67
indicated that textbooks are the primary tool which deliver content knowledge and
determine the activities and teaching learning process in classrooms. Heyneman et.al
(1998) stated that textbooks play a very important role in predicting the academic
achievement in the class. Thus, we can conclude that textbooks still have a great role to
play in our classrooms and shaping the futures of our students. Their presence is as
indispensable as the classroom teacher.

2.6.1 Need of Textbook adaptation

The important fact in the development of textbooks is that they are developed
considering all children. This ‘all’ also refers to the ‘majority’ children which constitutes
regular hearing children. All the students belonging to a particular class, e.g. 5th standard
have to use the uniform textbooks that are developed and prescribed by a particular
board of study. The students do not have a choice but to study the prescribed textbook.
In some of the western countries, students have a choice. They have the freedom to
select the textbooks as per their reading level. Unfortunately such a facility is not available
for children in India and all children including children with special needs are supposed
to read and study the same textbooks. In a study by Wadekar & Mathew (2002) on
text-book adaptation, the teachers indicated that children with hearing impairment find
it difficulty to read textbooks because these textbooks are developed for hearing children
of similar age. The deaf students with their inherent challenges in language, find it
difficulty to comprehend the language present in these textbooks. These teachers further
recommended that adapted textbooks should be used for teaching subjects to children
with hearing impairment. They strongly opined that the language presented in the
textbooks is very complex in terms of grammar, vocabulary and sentence structures. In
the special schools, the children with hearing impairment are exposed to simple language
structures. They find it difficulty to apply the vocabulary acquired in one context to
other different contexts. E.g. the word ‘pupil’ means student, but, the same word ‘pupil’
is also used to refer to the ones part on an eye. The ‘bookish language’ or the language
from the textbooks is far away from the language structures which the deaf children use
in their day to day life. This is because the textbook language is attuned to the language
of hearing children. The organization of content in the form of paragraphs in the textbooks
does not provide conceptual clarity to the children with hearing impairment because of
the following factors:
● Vocabulary explosion: Deaf students are exposed to thousands of new words
when they read a small passage from the textbook. Hence, they are unable to
process the meaning of the sentences. As such they get bored and confused and
refrain from reading textbooks.
● Sentence structure is complex: The sentences in textbooks are very lengthy and
complex in terms of vocabulary. The children with hearing impairment by default

68
 communicate using small and short sentences. Hence, textbook reading is a
complex task for them.
● Exposure to many abstract words: In social sciences like History, Geography,
civics, they are exposed to many abstract words like ‘struggle’, ‘freedom’,
‘satyagraha’, etc. It is very difficult to represent these words using concrete
examples.
● Use of idiomatic language: Textbook content includes use of lot phrases and
idioms such as ‘caught between the devil and deep sea’. The children with hearing
loss read it in literal sense. They will visualize a man standing between a monster
on one hand and a deep sea on the other and fail to catch the underlying meaning.
Wadekar & Mathew (2002) opined that as a result of the above factors children with
hearing loss lose interest in reading conventional textbooks. They try to say aloud words
from the textbooks without understanding the meaning. While writing answers, they simply
match the target words from the question, pick up a sentence from the text which contains
those words and write it as an answer. This tendency is called as superficial visual matching.
Not only children with hearing loss, even hearing children may find comprehension of
vocabulary, idioms and phrases a complex task. Adaptation of textbooks will prove to be
beneficial not only to the children with hearing loss but all students. By adaptation we do
not mean removing complex vocabulary from the text. It involves a couple of strategies
which are explained the next sub-unit.

2.6.2 Strategies of textbook adaptation

Specifically considering the needs of children with hearing impairment, the textbooks
need to be adapted in following 5 areas. They are represented in the fig given below:

Areas of textbook adaptation

Language Knowledge Presentation Illustration Evaluation

Fig 1.5: Areas of Textbook Adaptation

● Language:
While adapting the content of textbook for children with hearing impairment,
lot of attention needs to be given to the parameter of language. Language level
needs to be simple.

69
How to do it?
Ø Instead of writing one long sentence, break it up into two small sentence.
Ø One should use simple conjunctions.
Ø Avoid using difficult vocabulary.
Ø Use only those technical words which are essential.
Ø Guiding questions should be used for highlighting facts, stimulating previous
knowledge and connecting it with real life experience.
Ø Cause and effect needs to presented in simple form.
Ø Use passive sentences, positive and negative sentences, idioms in a context of a
visual aid or a graphic. It aids comprehension.
Ø The use of Rhetorical language should be minimum.
Sample text is given below. It covers the above points.

Un-adapted text Adapted text

Source: Gathoo & More (1990)

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 ● Knowledge
How to do it?
Ø Limit the density of concepts in a chapter. Classify the concepts into several units.
Ø Knowledge needs to be presented step by step instead of passages.
Ø Direct information should be presented first, followed by indirect and general
information at the end.
Ø Do not delete the content from the original text.
Sample text is give below. It covers the above points.

ORIGINAL TEXT (Un-adapted)

Agricultural practices

Crops: The problem of food production is one of the innumerable problems the
country is facing. Growing more crops play an important role in solving the food
problem. The life of every one depends upon the crops the farmers grow.
Farm crops: The food producing crops are called farm crops. They can be
classified into four major groups. They are cereals,pulses, oilseeds and fodder
crops. Paddy, wheat, ragi, barley, and maize are the main cereals grown in our
country. Other than cereals many commercial crops are grown in our country for
monetory benefit. E.g. coffee, tea, sugarcane, cotton, silk, cashew nut and areca
nut. These are called commercial crops.
Vegetables, fruits and flowers are grown in large proportions in gardens. These
are called Horticultural crops.

Source: Gowramma & Nair (2011)

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 Adapted Text
Agricultural practices
Crops: Growing more crops plays an important role in solving the food problem
as it is one of the innumerable (many) problems.
Classification of crops

(a) (b) (c)

Farm crops Commercial crops Horticultural crops
(a) Farm crops: The food producing crops are called Farm crops
Four major farm crops

Cereals Pulses Oilseeds Fodder crops

Main cereals grown in our country:
● Paddy

● Wheat

● Ragi

● Barley

● Maize

(b) Commercial crops: Many commercial (marketable) crops are grown in our
country for monetory (money) benefit. They are also called Cash crops. Some
examples of cash yielding crops are as follows:
● Coffee

● Tea

● Sugarcane

● Cotton

● Silk

● Cashew nut

Cash Yielding crops- The farmers earn profit from these crops. Hence, they are
called cash yielding crops.
(c) Horticulture crops: Vegetables, fruits, nuts and flowers grown in gardens
belong to this group
Source: Gowramma & Nair (2011)

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 ● Presentation :
Organization of the content in the text also plays a very important. How the content
is presented in the text determines the level of comprehension of the readers. As we are
aware, children with hearing loss face challenges in processing language. They are not
able to comprehend the meanings of new words. Hence, reading paragraphs one after
the other in a running text is a time consuming and tedious task for them. This calls for
adaptation in the presentation of the textbook matter:
How to do it?
Ø Add tables and flowcharts
Ø Use bullets instead of paragraphs
Ø In the margins, write footnotes and explanations
Ø Put important terms or definitions in separate boxes or use color coding for
highlighting
Ø At the end of the chapter, provide a word bank which gives meanings of all the
difficult words in the text.
Sample text is give below. It covers the above points.
Un-adapted text Adapted text

Source: Palkar (2019)

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 Adapted text Un-adapted text

Source: Palkar(2019)
● Illustration:
Illustration as the name suggests involves use of images, graphics which help to
elaborate the content presented in the textbook. Many of the times it is observed that
the pictures in the textbooks are not printed properly, the diagrams are not clear or the
picture represents only few nouns in the passage but not the central theme. Hence, there
is need to adapt illustrations.
How to do it?
Ø Add illustrations such as picture, sketches and graphs in the content
Ø The illustrations need to be simple and clear
Ø Illustrations need to be placed near the relevant text
Ø Use pictures which are expressive
Ø Use pictures to represent the overall concept rather than few nouns.
Sample text is give below. It covers the above points.
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 Un-adapted text Adapted text

Source: Palkar(2019)

2.7 Adaptation in assessments and evaluation

Teaching learning process has three main components: Planning, teaching and
evaluation. Evaluation is a mid-point between planning and teaching. It is a part of
planning. Teachers evaluate the previous knowledge of students about a particular new
concept that is to be taught. The complexity of the concept is based on the results of
evaluation. Not only before teaching, teachers use evaluation during teaching and also
at the end of the teaching session. The aim of evaluating students during teaching is to
grab their attention and provide them continuous feedback. The evaluation at the end is
a kind of a summative evaluation. Apart from feedback to the students, it helps the
teachers to determine whether the students have understood the concepts explained in
class or there is a need to use some alternative teaching methods.

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 The Right to Education (RTE Act, 2009) introduced no detention policy till 8th
standard. As such Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) has been used in schools
to evaluate student-progress. CCE aims to keep check on students’ learning and makes
them study throughout the academic year. The same evaluation system is applicable to
children with hearing loss too. However, presence of hearing loss and corresponding
effects on language and literacy skills makes CCE a challenging task for these students.
Hence, there is a need for adapting the evaluation process for children with hearing
loss. Now let us look at Do’s and Don’ts in evaluation.

2.7.1. Do’s and Dont’s in evaluation

Evaluation is an essential component of teaching learning process. The is a set
pattern of evaluating hearing children involves writing answers and oral tests. However,
children with hearing loss due to the inadequate language and communication skills
find it very difficult to follow this set pattern. Hence, there is a need to adapt the evaluation
process while dealing with deaf students. Given below are a few strategies which one
should use while evaluating children with hearing loss:

Do’s in evaluation:
● While conducting exam, make sure that the classroom selected is having adequate
amount of light, so that sign language and facial expressions and facial expressions
are visible.
● While giving instruction to students with hearing loss, light should always fall on
teacher’s face.
● It is very important to ensure whether students have understood the instructions
given by the teacher. Many a times it is observed that students are not clear with
the instructions and hence they make errors in exam. Teachers need to repeat the
instructions not only verbally but also by writing on blackboard and also using
sign language if possible.
● Oral texts should be accompanied with additional strategies like role playing,
action songs, because children with hearing loss may not have issues in verbal
communication, speech intelligibility and clarity.
● Performance tests rather than paper-pencil tests should be used for evaluating
children with hearing loss. The student may get less marks on a question not
because he is not
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 ● having correct knowledge, but because he/she has not understood the question in
the written format.
● While children with hearing loss are attempting exam, the teachers should also
observe their behaviour and confidence level.
● Along with traditional assessment techniques, one should try to use modern
assessment methods like portfolio, open book exams, and presentations.
Don’t do the following while evaluating children with hearing impairment:
● Don’t use double negatives in a question. Children with hearing impairment find
it to be very confusing.
E.g. Which one of the following choices is not a correct option and is not a factor
that causes pollution?
● Oxygen
● Smoke
● Asbestos
This question could be re-framed as under:
Select one option from those given below which is not a factor that causes pollution.
● Oxygen
● Smoke
● Asbestos
● Don’t use idiomatic phrases like ‘Take to heart’ in exam questions. This only
creates confusion among children with hearing impairment as they take each word
in literal sense.
● Don’t use incorrect word order. E.g. Dinosaurs were an example of which kind of
animals? The more appropriate order would be What type of animals were
Dinosaurs?
● Don’t use words with multiple meanings and embedded clauses with same meaning
while forming questions.

2.7.2. Strategies for formative evaluation:

As you are aware, evaluation is of two types. Formative evaluation and summative
evaluation. Formative evaluation as the name suggests represents the ‘form’. This type

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of evaluation consists of periodic tests which helps to provide feedback to the learners
on a regular basis. There is another type of evaluation known as summative evaluation
which is held at the end. It has less scope for student-feedback. The main aim is to
declare whether the students are successful or they have failed to perform a particular
task. In this unit we are going to focus on adapting strategies of formative evaluation
for children with hearing impairment as per Gathoo (2016). They are presented below:
● Seminar: A teacher can hold a seminar within the class. It is a group of 8-10
students which also includes children with hearing loss. The group is asked to
work on a particular topic e.g internal organs and at the end they have to present
it in the class. Students with hearing loss may be asked to make the material,
enter data, explain few concepts using sign language. The areas of assessment
are: ability to search information, public speaking/signing, use of ICT skills and
leadership qualities.
● Symposium: Students of a class can be asked to present papers on topics of their
choice. The same activity can be performed by students with hearing loss using
sign language with the help of sign language interpreters. The areas of assessment
are: depth of the content, confidence level, comprehension of the topic,
communication skills, presentation skills, etc.
● Group activities: While planning group activities in class, teachers should see to
it that children with hearing impairment get the opportunity to participate in
majority of the activities with their hearing peers. In such a group, teachers need
to allot tasks to children with hearing loss as per their individual capacities. The
teacher can plan a wide variety of activities like projects, action plans, surveys for
facilitating the participation of children with hearing loss in classroom activities.
● Rubrics: Rubrics is a performance assessment tool which is widely used today
across all field. It involves two aspects. The first parameter is performance
descriptions and the second parameter is marking scheme. Each performance
description is assigned a defiant score as per the marking scheme.
It makes the performance quantifiable. Thus, rubrics represents the level of skill
achieved by each student. Since, for children with hearing impairment, emphasis is on
performance based evaluation rubrics can serve as a effective tool for evaluation.

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 Subject specific evaluation strategies as per Gathoo (2016):
● Languages:
Most of the students with hearing impairment have issues in language and
communication skills. Hence, teachers can use performance based measures in
assessment activities like signing, pointing, writing, sketching, for expressing themselves.
● Communication boards:
Communication boards are usually used with children having severe to profound
disabilities. When a teacher introduces new content, children with hearing impairment
are not familiar with the vocabulary of the content. Such vocabulary items may be
represented on a communication boards with the help of pictures or symbols. These
visual clues help children with hearing impairment in responding.
● Marking:
While conducting assessment of children with hearing impairment, teachers need to
mark the content or passages in the textbook on which assessment will be conducted.
This reduces the detractor items and students can arrive at the answers rather quickly. It
also acts as a visual clue during assessment. It reduces the time involved in searching
items and keeps children with hearing impairment within the communication loop.
● Sign language:
Although sign language is the mother tongue of deaf individuals, even children with
normal hearing can learn it and use it while communicating in the class. During oral
tests, quizz, story telling, etc, students with hearing loss may be allowed to use sign
language provided sign language interpreter is available in the class. The interpreter
will translate the student’s sign into speech and teacher’s speech into sign language for
deaf children .
● Open book tests:
As a result of inadequate language base and stereotyped sentence structure, children
with hearing impairment may find questions like answer in brief, give reasons, short
notes, essay-writing a difficult task. These are descriptive answers which require lot of
command on grammar skills. If children with hearing loss are allowed to keep the
textbooks open while writing answers, then it will be beneficial for these children.
● Multiple choice questions:
In order to overcome the challenge of writing descriptive answers, multiple choice
questions may be used for evaluating children with hearing loss. The aim of this

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assessment is crystal clear. The aim is to find out the exact level of knowledge among
the students. They are asked to select one correct option from among the many given in
the question.
● Computer based assessment:
Computer based assessment (CBA) is a kind of an alternative to traditional assessment
techniques. The questions appear on the computer screen and the students are supposed
to attempt it over the computer. The assessment items can be made more attractive by
inserting pictures, graphics, diagrams, signing avatars, etc. CBA provides instant
feedback and this is the feature which makes it quick and interesting for the students. It
also provides the much needed flexibility to the students during the assessment process.
● Mathematics:
Maths is full of abstract calculations and concepts. Further language issues faced by
children with hearing loss make even more complex. The class can be divided into two
groups. One group consisting of hearing children and other consisting of deaf students.
While other children are solving sums on a worksheet, children with hearing loss may
be asked to solve the same sums using visual material like objects, an abacus, or with
the help of calculators, role play of a buyer and seller for teaching profit and loss, etc.
They may be sent to market with money to buy certain things for revising the concepts
of addition and subtraction.

2.8 Let us sum up

Meaning of Inclusion
● This module discusses curriculum adaptation in inclusive set ups for children
with hearing impairment. The service delivery of education for children with
special needs in India has seen shifting trends from segregation to integration and
then to recent inclusive education. In keeping with the changes in the international
legislation like UNCRPD (2006), even legislation in India have supported the
policy of inclusive education. In inclusive program specialized instruction and
support are provided to any student who is in need to support their learning without
being labeled. Schools welcome all children and they are treated with dignity.
Arrangements as per each one’s requirement are made in the existing schools.
Need of curriculum adaptation for children with hearing loss:
● National Curriculum Framework NCF (2005) which is continuously involved in
development and reforming curriculum stated that it very important that curriculum

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 is “an inclusive and Meaningful experience for children”. This can be achieved
only if there is a fundamental change in our perception of learners and the entire
learning-process. Although the theory of inclusion may sound easy and familiar,
it is indeed a very challenging task in practice not only for the teachers but also
for the parents and students with disabilities themselves.
● Children with hearing loss are physically present in class. They use the textbooks
which are actually developed for hearing students. Deaf children lack the language
base which the hearing counterparts have. Hence, they are not able to cope up
with the language complexity present in the text books that are developed for
hearing students. As such they are prone to academic failure. As a result children
with hearing loss remain out of the system because they do not fit within the
existing system.
● Factors that need curriculum adaptation:
● As indicated by Gathoo (2016), successful classroom teaching depends upon three
factors: Input, process and output. Adaptation is required in each of these factors.
These factors are shown below.
● The following are the main principles of curriculum adaptation:
Ø Learning requires active participation of the student
Ø Students learn in a variety of ways and at different pace
Ø Learning is both an individual and group process
● Curricular adaptation and decision making process
The curriculum adaptations that are made for one student in any one subject
cannot be used for other students for all other subjects. The process of decision
making regarding curriculum adaptations involves 8 stages.
● Step wise curricular approach and its adaptation
The following are steps in the adaptation of curriculum
Step 1: Analysis of the general education curriculum
Step 2: Enhance general education curriculum
Step 3: Accessibility through minor and major changes
● Then we studied the major different between the terms accomodation and
modification. In accomodation the content of the student with disability remains

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 the same as that of the regular non-disabled peers. Changes are introduced in the
time allotted to complete the task or expression of response or the method of
instruction. However, in modification, the content of the student with disability is
modified to a small extent. It involves simplifying the concepts for children with
disabilities.
● There are nine areas in which curriculum adaptation can be made. They include
adaptation in quantity, time, level of support, input, difficulty level, output,
participation, alternate goals and substitute curriculum.
● Then we studied that it is important to adapt the textbooks for children with hearing
impairment. Since, they have inadequate language, they find it difficult to
comprehend the language from the textbooks. Hence, aspects of the textbook like
the language, knowledge, presentation, illustration, and evaluation need to be
adapted for children with hearing impairment.
● At the end, we studied different strategies for adapting the assessment and
evaluation process. As teachers we should be aware about certain Do’s and Don’ts
while adapting the evaluation process for children with hearing impairment.

2.9 Unit End Exercises

1. Why there is a need to adapt curriculum for children with hearing impairment?
2. Discuss the steps involved in decision making about curriculum adaptation.
3. Explain the step-wise curriculum approach and its adaptation.
4. How is accomodation different from modification? Explain with suitable examples.
5. How will you adapt the textbooks for children with hearing impairment. Give
examples.
6. Discuss the Do’s and Don’ts to be followed while adapting the assessments and
evaluation for children with hearing impairment.

2.10 References
Advani. L & Chadha. A (2003). You and your special child. New Delhi: UBS
Publishers.

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 Bandura, A. (1978). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral
change. Advances In Behaviour Research And Therapy, 1(4), 139-161. doi:10.1016/
0146-6402(78)90002-4
BMF(2002). Biwako Millennium Framework. Retrieved online on 22/9/2018 from
http://punarbhava.in/index.php/legal-instruments/international-instruments/united-
nations/bmf.html
Fisher,D & Frey.N (2001). Scaffolds for Learning: The Key to Guided
Instruction. Retrieved online on 1/12/2019 from http://www.ascd.org/publications/
books/111017/chapters/Scaffolds-for-Learning@-The-Key-to-Guided-
Instruction.aspx
Gathoo,V.S (2016). Adaptations for teaching children with hearing impairment in
mainstream schools. Confluence. Vol. 18. Retrieved online on 1/12/2019 from https://
mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/document-reports/Confluence.pdf
Gathoo & Shetty (2019). Perspectives of stakeholders towards inclusive education.
(Unpublished Doctoral Thesis). University of Mumbai. Mumbai: India.
Gathoo.V.S & More,R (1990). Making Inclusion Work. Retrieved online on 1/12/
2019 from https://seshagun.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication/module5.pdf
Gathoo,V.S (Ed.) (2018). Diploma in Inclusive and Special Education- DISE.
(Training Manuals). MauritiusInstitute of Education (MIE). Available online onhttp://
miemoodle.southindia.cloudapp.azure.com/
Gowrama I,p & Nair.P (2011). Curriculum and teaching strategies for children with
hearing impairment. IGNOU: New Delhi . ISBN No:978-81-266-5274-7
Gowrama .I.P (2014). Status of Integrated/ Inclusive Education & Evaluation for
Readiness for Inclusive Education in India. Curriculum and Teaching Strategies for
children with hearing impairment. (MMDE-076). Published by IGNOU: New Delhi.
ISBN- 978-81-266-5277-8
Incheon Strategies (2012). Incheon Strategy to “Make the Right Real” for Persons
with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved online on 23/9/2018 from https:/
/www.unescap.org/resources/incheon-strategy-%E2%80%9Cmake-right-
real%E2%80%9D-persons-disabilities-asia-and-pacific
Jhulka.A (2016). Concept of Curricular Adaptations. Confluence. Vol 18. Retrieved
online on 1/12/2019 from https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/document-
reports/Confluence.pdf

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 King-Sears,M.E. (2001). Three Steps for Gaining Access to the General
Education Curriculum for Learners with Disabilities. Intervention in school and
clinic. 37(2):67-76. Retrieved online on 1/12/2019 from https://
www.researchgate.net/publication/
249832830_Three_Steps_for_Gaining_Access_to_the_General_Education_Curriculum_for_Learners_with_Disabilities
Ministry of Human Resource Development (1992). Revised Programme of Action,
1992. New Delhi: GOI
NCF(2005). National Curriculum Framework. Retrieved online on 1/12/2-19
fromhttp://www.ncert.nic.in/rightside/links/pdf/framework/english/nf2005.pdf
UNCRPD (2006 ). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).
Retrieved online on23/9/2018 from https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/
convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html
RPWD Act (2016). Retrieved online on 9/6/2018 from (http://
www.disabilityaffairs.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/RPWD%20ACT%202016.pdf
RMSA(2009). Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan. Retrieved online on 9/6/2018
from http://mhrd.gov.in/rmsa
RTE Act (2010). Right to Education Act. Retrieved online on 25/9/18 fromhttp://
mhrd.gov.in/rte
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(2000). SSA Shagun. Retrieved online on 9/6/2018 from
http://www.ssa.nic.in/about_ssa.html
Wadekar,G & Mathew,S. (2002). Curriculum and teaching strategies for children
with hearing impairment. IGNOU: New Delhi . ISBN No:978-81-266-5274-7

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Unit 3 ❏ Differentiated Instructions
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Relevance and Concept of DI
3.3.1 Differentiated Instructions is based on the principles
3.3.2 Definition
3.3.3 Theoretical foundation of DI
3.4 Elements of Differentiated Instructions
3.4.1 Differentiation can be done on the basis of
3.4.2 DI and Universal Design for Learning
3.4.3 Strategies of Implementation of DI in the Classroom
3.5 Need Assessment and Dicision making
3.5.1 Need Assessment
3.5.2 What is Decision Making
3.5.3 Process of Decision Making
3.6 Let us sum up
3.7 Unit end exercises
3.8 References

3.1 Introduction
Inclusive Education is a drive where all children are welcomed in a school to get
access to equal opportunities of education. When it is said ‘all children’ it implies children
with diverse interest, abilities, styles, modalities, culture and socio-economic background.
This demands for refining inputs, processes and environments as per the learner’s
requirement for better learning.

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 UNESCO promotes inclusive education systems that remove the barriers limiting the
participation and achievement of all learners, respect diverse needs, abilities and
characteristics and that eliminate all forms of discrimination in the learning
environment.Education for All envisaged the need for differentiated instruction. So
differentiation is a part of inclusion schema.Differentiated instruction helps that the needs
of all students with different background knowledge, language skills, and learning styles
can be met regardless of the diversity. Starting from the fact that not all students learn in
the same way, Anderson (2007). Inclusion involves respecting the diversity amongst
children and also meeting there learning or special needs to help them to learn. Thus in
broadest sense, inclusion, differentiation and special educational needs are interrelated.

Before moving ahead let’s contemplate a typical class which has students with varying
abilities, interest…

Pause and think….

Let’s peep in a class where teacher is teaching lesson of geography by lecture
method by holding a textbook in her hand and reading out and explaining
the concept of ‘Biosphere’.
Do you think all learners must have learnt the concept just by listening the
explanation given by the teacher? If yes how and if no why? You will be able
to draw the answer to above question after reading the whole unit.

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3.2 Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to:
1. Understand and explain differentiation, and need of differentiated instruction
2. Explain elements of differentiated instructions and how this differentiated
instructions can be implemented in the classroom.
3. Explain need assessment for differentiated instruction.
4. Explain techniques of assessment and process of decision making.

3.3 Relevance and Concept of DI

Activity
List down the words that comes to your mind related to Differentiated instruction.
As it is said ‘One size fit all’ but it is not the reality when we go to any classroom, so
how can one type of teaching approach be suitable for all. Thus, differentiated instruction
is an approach which makes students available multiple options of learning new
information. As the term suggests DI means different instructions so the teacher
differentiates the classroom instructions according to learners need. It could be said
that same content in a same classroom is taught using varied teaching strategies.
Tomlinson (2014), the leader in the area of DI suggests, DI is a teaching theory
based on the premise that instructional approaches should vary and be adapted in relation
to individual and diverse students in classroom. This approach demands teachers to be
flexible in her teaching by adjusting the curriculum, using various presentation and
evaluation strategies so that no student is left behind and all are allowed to learn together.
Thus teachers are expected to modify the curriculum and not expecting the students to
modify themselves for the curriculum.
Differentiation has it’s roots in inception of education where all children are taught
in classroom irrespective of age or level. Then grading system was practiced where
students were grouped as per their age which also revealed that the gaps in achievement
of children in same group. Then the children were sieved as per special educational
need and were provided instructions as per their need. IDEA act (2004) promoted equal
access to education and then in 2000 with ‘NO child left behind’ policy inclusion was
promoted. ssa So taking review of gaps in achievement as per the ability, interest, styles
and socio-economic background stimulated the differentiated instructions.

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 DI is labeled as student centred or differentiation, and is also conceptualized as
‘individualized instructions’ (Hattie.2009), ‘adaptive instructions’, ‘personalized
learning’ (Waxman, Alford & Brown, 2013), ‘response to intervention’(Dalhouse et al.,
2009; Fox and Hoffman,2011) and ‘Universal Design of Learning’( Hall, Strangman &
Meyer. 2014). Though it is labeled or conceptualized in different ways it shares a same
idea of helping the differentiated learners to cope with the curriculum which includes
adopting specific teaching strategies, invoke variety in presentation and learning
activities, address individual’s leaning needs and monitoring the outcome.

3.3.1 Differentiated Instructions is based on the principles of:

Principles Description
Flexibility In differentiated instructions flexibility is the key. It can be
incorporated in modes of teaching, ways of presentation,
teaching learning material, grouping and assessment.
Grouping for instructionsAs per this principle groups should not be permanent. They
could be flexibly arranged or re-arranged depending upon
the skill sets or level of functioning of students in a particular
subject.
Ongoing assessment Ongoing assessment is a part of differentiated instruction,
wherein the learners are assessed for participation,
information processing, outcomes which is further used for
instructional planning.
Collaboration In differentiated instructions collaboration is beneficial to
bring learning outcomes amongst students.
Engagement Engaging children in a challenging task is an important goal
of the teachers. Teacher are expected to engage students in
interesting challenging activities which allows students to
learn and move to next task.

To sum up differentiation is responsive teaching rather than one size fits all teaching
(Tomlinson, 2005). This means that teachers proactively plan varied approaches to what
students need to learn, how they will learn it, and/or how they will show what they have
learned. By doing so they increase the likelihood that each student will learn as much as
he or she can learn, as efficiently as possible (Tomlinson, 2003).

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3.3.2 Definition
Differentiated instruction is defined as a flexible, equitable and intelligent way to
approach teaching learning.
-Fox and Hoffman, 2011
Differentiation refers to a wide variety of teaching techniques and lesson adaptions
that educators use to instruct a diverse group of students, with diverse learning needs,
in the same course, classroom or learning environment.
-The Glossary of Education Reforms, 2013
To draw out from definition differentiation is a democratic form of education where
every learner matter. It is a SMART (specific, measureable, attainable, realistic, timely)
educational approach.

3.2.3 Theoretical foundation of DI

1. Social Constructivist Theory:
Social Constructivist theory proposed by Vygotsky (1962) which has three themes
i.e. social interaction, more knowledgable others and zone of proximal distance.
According to Vygotsky learning happens through social interaction, from more
knowledgeable others which refers to one who has better understanding or higher ability
level than the learner about particular content and it could be adult or peer whereas
zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the zone where the learners under guidance
learn to perform task or solve problem independently. It is a zone where learners move
from known to unknown. Associated with this theory differentiated instructions allows
students learning to move from known to unkown through social interactions with the
support of more knowledgeable others.
2. Multiple Intelligences Theory:
The Theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Howard Gardner(1983) theorized
that individuals do not have just an intellectual capacity but they have 9 intelligences
namely
1. Verbal-linguistic intelligence (well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the
sounds, meanings and rhythms of words)
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence (ability to think conceptually and abstractly,
and capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns)

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 3. Spatial-visual intelligence (capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize
accurately and abstractly)
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (ability to control one’s body movements and to
handle objects skillfully)
5. Musical intelligences (ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber)
6. Interpersonal intelligence (capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the
moods, motivations and desires of others)
7. Intrapersonal (capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values,
beliefs and thinking processes)
8. Naturalist intelligence (ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and
other objects in nature)
9. Existential intelligence (sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about
human existence such as, What is the meaning of life? Why do we die? How did
we get here?)
These intelligences are the unique aptitude of an individuals, if instructions are
presented as per their preferences better learning can happen resulting in better outcomes.
Associated with the theory differentiated instructions also creates opportunities for
learning by offering various techniques and strategies addressing the individual learner’s
need

3.4 Elements of Differentiated Instructions:

Tomlinson have suggested 4 elements of DI which indicates 4 ways of by which
teachers can differentiate instructions.
1) Content:
Content is the knowledge and information that the students are supposed to learn or
gather as per their grade level requirements. Content means the knowledge,
understanding, and skills that students need to learn (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). But
time and again we realize that not all students master the content. This is because all
students differ in the way the receive and process the information due to their differing
ways i.e. styles, abilities, readiness, interest in the content matter. So teacher needs to
modify the content at different levels as per the learner’s needs.

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 Content can be differentiated by:
● Readable resource material with highlighted vocabulary which can be done by
using different ink markers or by underlining the words.
● Provision of audio and video recordings of the content.
● Use of illustrations of the or in the content.
● Provision of peer or adult mentors.
● Use of manipulatives and models to explain the concept.
2) Process:
Process is actually delivering the information so as to help students understand and
learn. Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010) define process as “how students come to understand
and make sense of the content”. As specified earlier each child is unique and so may
differ in the process of learning.
Differentiated instructions provides opportunities to bring in variations in the process
of delivering the content. This the teacher can do so by providing opportunities such as
asking questions, learn from mistakes and improvise, work at different speeds, access
support, and adjust themselves in different groups.
Undertake leveled or tiered activities
● Create interest centers
● Develop hands-on materials
● Vary the pace according to readiness
● Allow for working alone, in partners and small groups
● Allow choice in strategies for processing and for expressing results of processing
3) Product:
It is the final outcome and hence indicates accountability of learning. It happens at
the end of the lesson which reflects mastery of the content learned. According to Carol
Ann Tomlinson, “a synonym for a product is authentic assessment”. This provides
teachers real picture of what they have understood from the content.

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 Differentiation in product can be done by expecting children:
● To develop a graphic or diagrammatic representation of the learnt information.
● Give an oral report
● Prepare written report
● Make a model or use a manipulatives to demonstrate the learnings
4) Learning Environment:
Learning environment includes the environment conducive for learning, it has two
components physical and psychological environment.
Physical environment includes comfortable seating for both individual or group
instructions, classroom equipped with technological equipment’s for audio visual
learnings, hands-on resource materials, well-lit and noise free classrooms.
Psychological aspects involve maintaining the comfort zone of children and their
self-esteem while grouping. A conducive learning environment as an essential element
that motivates the children to learn and participate in the process of learning.

3.4.1 Differentiation can be done on the basis of:

a) Readiness:
Though children are learning in the same class but some-times their previous or
background knowledge about some concept is not complete which makes them unready
to learn the concept so differentiation is required. Readiness is not the ability; it is more
related to content knowledge which may differ from individual to individual.
b) Interest:
It refers to the child’s engagement in the content, process or product that helps the
child to become participative by being attentive, curious and productive. Interest enhances
motivation which in turn enhances learning outcomes. The interest of students is related
more to their strengths, cultural background, experiences and needs.
c) Learning Profile:
It refers to the ability, style, culture, socio-economic background which has impact
on learning. Differentiation in learning profile offers students a choice in which they
can learn best.

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 Figure. A Concept Map for Differentiating Instruction

3.4.2 DI and Universal Design for Learning:

DI and UDL are both are designed for inclusive education with a vision of EFA
(Education for All) under one roof. Though DI and UDL complement each other their
aim differs. UDL aims towards accessible education for all students irrespective of
abilities and needs. Whereas DI aims towards addressing the individual student’s needs
as per their interest, readiness and learning profile. So while UDL suggests a common
approach beneficial for all, DI on the other hand is more individualized catering to
learners needs.
For better understanding of DI and UDL, Novak (2017), explains these with example
of ‘dinner party analogy’. As per the dinner party analogy DI is something which offers
guest meals as per their choices ( sweet, spicy, less spicy etc), preferences ( veg, non-
veg, jain food etc) so the guest eat food which is customized ‘JUST FOR THEM’.
For explaining UDL framework, Novak (2017) uses the same dinner party analogy
but in this case the host has a buffet or what Gathoo ( 2019 ) suggests a cafeteria
approach with a wide variety of food which allows guests to choose food of their own
choice and need.

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 In educational context DI offers individualized lessons for each students which are
directed by teachers whereas UDL offers a platter of strategies where students are allowed
to choose the strategy best suits them. It encourages self- learning and monitoring.

3.4.3 Strategies of implementation of DI in the classroom

Differentiated instruction doesn’t mean cutting down the content for low level learners
or giving more information to high level learners. Each heterogenous classroom comprises
of various level of learners and teachers have to provide the challenges as per their
requirement. Various strategies that can be used in the differentiated classrooms are:
1) Tiered instruction :
Tiering the instructions means designing the instructions that challenges students of various
levels. The aim remains the same i.e. mastering the same content by varying process and
reporting it through various product. The process may differ in complexity, depth or level of
abstractions.Tiered instruction is a method that varies the level of assignments, so all students
have a chance to find success and make progress. The table below outlines features for a
tiered lesson with three groups that target struggling, average and advanced learners, this
tiering is done keeping in mind the ability and readiness of the learner.

Group 1 : Students who are struggling with a topic

● Requires less difficult independent reading.

● Has materials based on the average reading level of the participants, which is
usually below grade level.
● Has spare text and lots of graphic aids.
● Has a low level of abstraction (i.e., is as concrete as possible).
● Requires fewer steps to complete the assignment
● Converges on “right answers” to solve problems.
● Requires only knowledge and comprehension levels of thinking for independent
work.
● Includes supportive strategies, such as graphic organizers or teacher prompting
to help students infer and draw conclusions. (i.e., use higher level thinking
skills)

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 Group 2: Average learners

● Includes independent reading materials from the textbook or other on-grade

level sources.
● Uses concrete concepts to help students transition to more abstract concepts.
● Includes questions or problems that are a mix of open-ended and “right answers.”
Can have more steps.
● Expects students to infer and draw conclusions with less teacher support.
Teacher should count on being on hand if necessary to prompt students in
this area. Ensures that students can be successful with knowledge,
comprehension, and application on their own, and that with help they can
address some of the high levels of thinking.

Group 3: Advanced learners

● Includes reading materials from sources more complex than the textbook, if
possible.
● Requires more lengthy sources because students can read faster than lower or
average students.
● Focuses on abstract concepts as much as possible and uses open-ended questions
exclusively.
● Requires students to infer and evaluate.
● Assumes students have knowledge, comprehension, and application abilities,
and that they will be challenged only if you ask them to analyze, synthesize,
and evaluate.

Source: https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/di/cresource/q2/p06/
di_06_link_tiered_ activities/
Instructions can also be tiered as per the styles of learning, Grouping will be done as
per learner’s preferences

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 Key concept: Developing understanding about scientific concept Magnetic field

Group 1: Auditory learner Group 2:Visual Learner Group 3: Kinesthetic learner

Watching vide Reading out the concept

Visually highlighted Experiment it
Content

Listen to the explanation content

Illustrations in and about
the content
Listening to the Demonstration of the Experimentation with
Process

explanation experiment magnet

Listening to the audio clips
Product

Provide oral report Sequencing Graphical representation

2) Compacting instruction: Compacting the curriculum means assessing a student’s

knowledge and skills, and providing alternative activities for the student who has already
mastered curriculum content. This can be achieved by pre-testing basic concepts or
using performance assessment methods. Students demonstrating they do not require
instruction move on to tiered problem solving activities while others receive instruction.
3) Learning centres: These are the corners or stations created in the classrooms or
in other rooms which contain a various material where students learn by exploring the
topics, practicing the skills. These centers are flexible and teachers canmodify as per
the students need.
4)Adjusting questions: Teachers can help student’s achieve the set goals by
adjustingthe discussion questions as per their readiness or ability or style. Teachers
adjust question’s complexity as per the particular child. Teacher’s here use Bloom’s
taxonomy to develop queries to prepare questions from basic to more advanced levels.
This motivates students in learning process.
4) Choice Activities: Choice activities is a strategy in which students choose activities
to learn. Here teachers provide options to the students to choose what they want to learn

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and how they want to learn. Options includes independent study, grouping, activity
based learning centres etc. Choice based activities improves participation and motivation
of the students.

3.5 Need Assessment and Decision Making

Assessment is a critical and essential part of teaching learning process. Assessment
is ongoing and individualized which happens at various stages with different goals.
Like, assessment is done before planning the instructions to know about the current
level of functioning, their readiness, interest. This kind of assessment may be called as
‘assessment for learning’. Assessment for learning helps teachers to set individualized
goals, choose teaching learning material and plan instructional and evaluation strategies
for the classroom.Another kind of assessment is ‘assessment of learning’ which could
be formative or summative type of assessment. It happens during the instructions which
gives feedback about whether the students are leaning the content or teacher needs to
modify the instructions. Assessment of learning can also happen at the end of the
instruction or unit or semester. It helps to monitor the progress and gives feedback
about achievement of goals set.
Assessment as learning is a kind of self-assessment where students themselves
monitor their own leaning. It is a high level assessment where students need to be
trained to assess themselves find out there gaps in learning and report about it to the
teacher. It enables students to acquire skills such as critical thinking and problem solving.
Thus assessment is just not gradingas it gives little information about student’s success
disregarding the process of learning, individual’s performance and learning outcomes.

3.5.1 Need assessment and Decision making:

Need assessment is an assessment for learning. It is a process which determines and
addresses the gaps between present status and the desired requirement or want. The
goal of a need assessment is to plan learning objectives and strategies. If learning
objectives are planned according the need assessment it helps to close the gap between
present condition and desired conditions. Need assessment is followed by decision
making, which means finding an alternative solution to achieve the goal.
Need assessment and decision making is a systematic process which proceeds through
3 phases:

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Phase I:
Explore ‘What is’: At this phase assessment is done to know the current level of
functioning of each individual student.
Phase II:
Planning: This phase requires planning is done about the instructional strategies by
finding alternative strategies, prioritizing the goals and identifying the possible solutions.
Phase III:
Making decisions: At this point as per the priority a solution is to be selected and a
plan of action is implemented.

3.5.2 What is Decision Making?

Decision making is a systematic and continuous process in instructions. In this process
teachers actively address to academic diversity in the classroom for better learning
outcomes. It involves ongoing analysis by teachers to make the decision. Teacher can
do this making a checklist or a questionnaire to analyses the outcomes and accordingly
make a report to take decision about modification, recapitulations, repetitions, and drill
and practice
Features of Decision Making:
● It focuses at student level.
● On the basis of decisions plans are developed appropriate for all students.
● Decisions made for instructions are most of the time customized.
● It allows immediate feedback regarding effects.
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3.5.3 Process of decision making:

3.6 Let us sum up

For implementation of inclusive education successfully various instructional practices
are instigated to address diversity in the classrooms. Differentiated instruction is one of
the instructional practices initiated to address differential needs of the children.
Differentiated instruction is based on the principle of flexibility, ongoing assessment,
engagement, collaboration, and grouping for instruction. Differentiation can be done
on the basis of student’s interest, readiness, learning profile. Differentiation can be
done in the information that students’ need to learn (content), process of teaching and
the evaluation(product).
For implementation of differentiated instruction assessment of need of students is
required which is followed by decision towards instructional practice.

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 Thus differentiation and need assessment, decision making is a crucial practice but
is very specific in serving the individual needs of the students.

3.7 Unit end exercises

1. Explain the concept and relevance of differentiated instruction.
2. Plan differentiated instruction to teach grammar lesson( tense) for std Ist.
3. What strategies you can use to implement differentiate instruction?
4. Explain process of decision making.

3.8 References
Algozzine, Bob & Anderson, Kelly. (2007). Tips for Teaching: Differentiating
Instruction to Include All Students. Preventing School Failure. 51. 49-54. 10.3200/
PSFL.51.3.49-54.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). Differentiatedclassroom: Responding to the needs of all
learners. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, P.L. 108-446
Tomlinson, C. A. (2005). Grading and differentiation: Paradox or good practice?.
Theory into practice, 44(3), 262-269.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom:
Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Novak, 2017, UDL VS DI-Dinner Party Analogy

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Unit 4 ❏ Literacy Development & Teaching
Strategies
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Literacy issues of deaf as per the parameters of literacy
4.3.1 Pre- requisites for acquiring literacy skills
4.3.2 Processes involved in reading comprehension:
4.3.3 Impact of deafness on language and literacy development and Issues
related to reading:
4.3.4 Issues related to writing
4.4 Theories of literacy development and their applications
4.4.1 The Top-down theory
4.4.2 Traditional or bottom-up theory
4.4.3 Constructivist or schema theory
4.4.4 Piaget's theory of cognitive development
4.4.5 Social learning theory and Bruner's scaffolding theory.
4.4.6 Behaviouristic theory
4.4.7 Cognitive Theory
4.4.8 Transactionalist theory
4.5 Process involved in reading
4.5.1 Process model
4.5 Models of reading:
4.5.1 Process model:
4.5.2 Componential model:
4.6 Meta cognitive strategies and Instruction Practices
4.7 Let us sum up
4.8 Unit end exercises

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4.9 References
4.8 Let us sum up
4.9 References:

4.1 Introduction
Language and literacy are major domains of early childhood development. These
are connected areas, but refer to different things. There are four basic skills which a
human being develops as per the age. In those skills two skills are primary skills on
which the language development occurs, i.e. listening and speaking.
Language development involves the development of the skills used to communicate
with others through languages. Language development occurs in two dimensions i.e.
receptive and expressive language. The literacy skills which we are going to study in
this chapter are secondary skills as these skills are learnt skills. Literacy
development involves the ability to read and write.
In the current chapter our focus is on literacy skills, in which we will study about
how the literacy development takes place in early years. What are the pre-requisites and
processes are involved in acquiring literacy skills. The other core aspect of the chapter
is the impact of deafness on the language as well as literacy development. We will
study on how the various frames of language affect reading. It will make you understand
the issues related to literacy in children with hearing impairment.
It is very important to understand that every aspect of learning has its own principals
and theories and processes, on that basis we can understand how the skill can be acquired.
Same way reading is a skill and there are various theories and models on reading through
which what are the various theoretical perspectives or views of various psychologists
and linguists. In this part we will learn about behaviourism, cognitivism, social theory
of reading development, constructivist approach of reading and transactionalism. In
models of reading you will learn about top-down, bottom-up, interactional and
transactional model of reading.
After knowing the basis of literacy development you will learn about the processes
involved in reading and writing. for understanding reading we have first seen the pre-
requisites and now we will learn about what exactly happens when we read and
understand any text, means we will learn about how our brain process the text and what
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are the processes takes place at metacognitive level which leads to actual comprehension
of the text.
when we are working in the field of hearing impairment you should know the
processes involved in the speaking, listening and signing, as these skills are the basic
skills for communication for children with hearing impairment.
As we are going to learn about how the metacognition is essential for comprehension
then as an expert you should know about how to enhance these metacognitive skills of
children with and without hearing impairment. In this area of learning we will learn
about what are the various strategies which teachers can be used in the classrooms with
children to enhance their literacy skills from early years.

4.2 Objectives:
After reading this unit you will be able to explain about
1. Literacy issues of deaf as per the parameters of literacy
2. Theories of literacy development and their applications in the process of reading
and writing
3. Various processes involved in reading and writing
4. Processes involved in speaking, listening and signing
5. Various meta-cognitive strategies and instructional practices for teaching literacy
skills

4.3 Literacy issues of deaf as per the parameters of literacy

4.3.1 Pre- requisites for acquiring literacy skills
Literacy is the key to success for life. For acquiring these literacy skills there are
some pre requisites which are essential for the development of reading and writing. We
will first learn about the pre requisites of reading and afterwards the prerequisites of
writing.
A. Pre requisites of reading :
1. Motivation for Reading in early years: In early years children tend to be very
curious about everything especially colourful objects, pictures, etc. In order to
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 learn reading, children need to be ready and have the motivation to read. Show an
interest in books and reading, read aloud and they should pretend to read the
same. It will increase their interest in the reading. For developing interest in reading
books parents or teachers can read to their children every-day with enthusiasm,
they should allow children to explore the books which they want to see. As writing
skill comes after reading it should also have motivation. For developing interest
and motivation for
2. Language Skills: Children need to have language skills before learning how to
read so they can describe things and share their knowledge and ideas, answer
simple questions about a story, Retell a story in their words, and describe elements
in a story such as the characters and setting. For developing language skills there
are lot of activities which can enhance receptive as well as expressive language
of children. Talking with children about anything which they are curious to know
about. Asking them open-ended questions like “what do you think will happen
next?” or encouraging them to retell the story using the toys or puppets by using
their own language structures.
3. Concepts of Print:
In order to learn how to read, children must understand how books work
or concepts of print. For understanding the print children should hold a book
correctly, should turn pages in the right direction and read from left to right in
most of the languages and top to bottom, children also should know that words
represent a spoken word and convey a message. The reader should understand the
correlation between the written symbol and spoken letter. for enhancing these
skills teacher should use the parallel strategy like they should use their finger
along with the child to track or trace the letters and words, teacher or instructor
should focus on the points to the parts of a book such as the front cover, title, and
author, and let the child hold the book, turn the pages, and point to the words as
you read.
4. Letter Knowledge: Every written languages have unique symbols to represent
the sounds called phonemes or letters. Letter knowledge means understanding
about the letters of the alphabet have different names and sounds. The main points
in recognizing letters are naming the letters of the alphabet, recognizing lowercase
and capital letters and naming each letter’s sound. To enhance or encourage children
about letter knowledge the instructor o parents should first introduce letters of the
child’s own name, reading of a big alphabet book, Ask children to identify letters
on things in the grocery store or on signs around town. This will help children to
understand and correlate with the letter knowledge.

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 5. Phonemic Awareness: Phonemic awareness is hearing and understanding that
words are made up of smaller sounds. Phonemic awareness can be developed
through small play way activities. like in kindergarten or at pre-school level with
the help of rhymes, counting the syllables in the words, blending various sounds
together, segmenting or breaking the words down in to individual sounds and
substituting one letter sound for another one to make a new word from it. These
fun activities will enhance the phonic sense of children in a play way manner.
After children develop these pre-reading skills, they will continue to learn and grow
as a reader. They will learn about phonics, sight words, and much more as they establish
the building blocks for reading success.
B) pre-requisites of writing :
1. Hand and finger strength: An ability to exert force against resistance using the
hands and fingers that allows the necessary muscle power for controlled movement
of the pencil.
2. Crossing the mid-line: The ability to cross the imaginary line running from a
person’s nose to pelvis that divides the body into left and right sides.
3. Pencil grasp: The efficiency of how the pencil is held, allowing age appropriate
pencil movement generation.
4. Hand-eye coordination: The ability to process information received from the
eyes to control, guide and direct the hands in the performance of a task such as
handwriting.
5. Bilateral integration: Using two hands together with one hand leading (e.g.
holding and moving the pencil with the dominant hand while the other hand helps
by holding the writing paper).
6. Upper body strength: The strength and stability provided by the shoulder to
allow controlled hand movement for good pencil control.
7. Object manipulation: The ability to skillfully manipulate tools (including holding
and moving pencils and scissors) and controlled use of everyday tools (such as a
toothbrush, hairbrush, cutlery).
8. Visual perception: The brain’s ability to interpret and make sense of visual images
seen by the eyes, such as letters and numbers.

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 9. Hand dominance: The consistent use of one (usually the same) hand for task
performance, which allows refined skills to develop.
10. Hand division: Using just the thumb, index and middle finger for manipulation,
leaving the fourth and little finger tucked into the palm stabilizing the other fingers
but not participating.
What activities can help improve writing readiness (pre-writing) skills?
● Threading and lacing with a variety of sized laces.

● Play-doh (playdough) activities that may involve rolling with hands or a rolling

pin, hiding objects such as coins in the play dough or just creative construction.
● Scissor projects that may involve cutting out geometric shapes to then paste them

together to make pictures such as robots, trains or houses.

● Making paper balls with crumpling of paper with fingers and pasting them on the

particular pictures mostly big - small.

● Scribbling or drawing or writing on a vertical surface.

● Coloring pictures with big crayons for development of finger grasp.

● Every day activities that require finger strength such as opening containers and

jars.
● Pre writing shapes: Practice drawing the pre-writing shapes (l, —, O, +, /, square,

\ , X, and ∆).
● Finger games: that practice specific finger movements such as ‘Incy wincy

Spider’.
● Craft: Make things using old boxes, egg cartons, wool, paper and sticky or

masking tape.
● Construction: Building with, lego or other construction toys.

4.3.2 Processes involved in reading comprehension:

What is meant by comprehension exactly?
‘Reading comprehension is a complex cognitive ability requiring the capacity to
integrate text information with the knowledge of the listener/reader and resulting in the
elaboration of a mental representation’.
Comprehension is the key to literacy learning. Although vocabulary or word
knowledge is a critical and basic component of reading comprehension, the process of
understanding text consists of complex sets of interrelated tasks that have yet to be
clearly defined. Pearson and Johnson (1978) define the comprehension process as

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“building bridges between the new and the known”. Comprehending the text depends
on the individual, the purpose or motivation for the reading task, and the individual’s
ability to think and feel with the author–that is, the “readers knowledge of the world
interacts with the message conveyed directly or indirectly by the text. The result is fully
developed communication between the reader and the author. (Durkin,1989) and
Carpenter(1987) defined comprehension as active cognitive process that begins with
information in the text, proceeds to the type of information applied during the process,
and ends with information the reader has acquired from the process.
When the reader reads a text he/she uses problem solving skills intentionally. The
skills are critical thinking and problem solving which occur during the reading of the
text. The content of meaning is influenced by the prior knowledge and experiences.
Reading comprehension is the construction of meaning through the interchanging of
ideas between reader and text. Thus reading comprehension is a very complex process
which involves understanding the word meaning and consequent verbal reasoning. While
reading any text for comprehending there are some cognitive processes occur
simultaneously during comprehension.
1. Micro-processes
2. Integrative processes
3. Macro processes
4. Elaborative processes
5. Metacognitive processes
1) Micro processes: The initial chunking and selective recall of individual idea units
within individual sentences can be called micro-processes. Micro-processes is
combination of two sub-processes i.e. chunking. It means grouping of words in to
meaningful phrases. It requires basic understanding of syntax and its use. The
other process is selection of idea units to remember. When we read any long
sentence we try to break it in to small parts for understanding it easily. At the
same time we comprehend the main idea of the sentence like we may try to
remember the nouns, verbs, adjectives, of the sentences rather than the grammar.
We do take help of grammatical aspects for comprehension but we try to select
idea of units to remember.
2) Integrative processes: Readers can recall what they read only if the individual
ideas are connected into a coherent whole (Kintsh and Van dijk 1978, Thorndyke
1976 and others). Relationship between clauses and sentences must also be
comprehended. This process is called integrative process. Integrative processing

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 requires the ability to identify pronoun, referents, inter-causation and sequence
and make other relevant inferences about the total situation being described.
3) Macro-processes: Ideas are connected and retained in memory more effectively
if they are organized around overall organizational patterns. The process of
synthesizing and organizing individual idea units into a summary or organized
series of related general ideas can be called macro processes. Sub processes
included in macro processes are summarizing the reading material and author’s
general organizational pattern to organize one’s own memory representation.
4) Elaborative processes: We may make a prediction about what might happen, we
may form a vivid mental picture or we may think about how the information
relates to something similar we have experienced. The process of making
inferences necessarily intended by the author can be called elaborative processing.
5) Metacognitive processes: Metacognition may be loosely defined as conscious
awareness and control of one’s own cognitive processes. The process of selecting
evaluating or regulating one’s strategies to control comprehension and long term
recall can be called metacognitive processes.

4.3.3 Impact of deafness on language and literacy development and Issues related
to reading:

Levels of languages

Figure 4.1 levels of language

The loss of acoustic perception impacts all the five essential levels referred to as
language frames vital for reading. The first frame i.e. phonology in reading refers to

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the children’s understanding of phonics which means having letter-sound association
(ASHA, 2019). According to Barca et al. (2013) adequate phonological abilities are
essential for developing reading skills at all stages; hence it is an important area of
language that is predictive of literacy development. Gruber (2003) emphasises that
theoretically phonological awareness is a precursor, a co-requisite, or a consequence
of reading acquisition. Fraser & Conti-Ramsden (2008) also accentuate that the
phonological skills and reading ability are co-related. With reference to hearing
capabilities and phonology, Grube et al. (2014) opine that any impairment in the
auditory process creates obstacles in acoustic perception leading to atypical
phonological representations of written words and letters, and this affects reading
proficiency in children.
Morphology is the next level of language. Morphemes are the smallest unit of meaning
which includes base words as well as the affixes and suffixes, hence is critical for
understanding and using language. According to ASHA (2019) Morphology is vital
for understanding grammar while reading. Fraser and Conti-Ramsden (2008) have
brought in a vital observation that the word knowledge crucial to the language
development of young children, later it directly affects child’s capacity to read in a
timely manner. Morphology also plays vital role in this as it helps in deriving words
from the phonemes. So morphemes are referred to as the tools to measure the language
quantity, and is said to be essential to be a successful reader. Deaf students experience
delayed morphological knowledge which negatively impacts their morpho-graphic
analysis and hence the decoding skills required for reading (Trussell and Eastbrooks,
2015).
Further to phonological and morphological skills, it becomes essential that the words
in a sentence are appropriately grouped together in order so that meaning of language
becomes clear and this in turn would facilitate communication. Hence the rules of
grammar of the pertinent language, termed as syntax is to be understood. Along with
this the description and core meaning of words and phrases including the figurative
language that adds to the nuance to our communication termed as semantics is also
critical to reading. According to Sauerland and von Stechow (2001) the two abilities
i.e. syntax and semantics are inter-dependant. While the syntax incorporates generating
sentences, the semantics helps in interpreting them. According to Schirmer (1985) a
research concerned with analysing language of hearing-impaired children has led to the
conclusion that the language of these children is deviant because of difficulties of syntax

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and semantics. Similarly Kallioinen et al. (2016) also opine that since reading is mostly
based on a spoken language environment, the loss or diminished hearing limits the
development of words and concepts leading to an underdeveloped syntax and semantics.
Another important language frame that assists students in reading especially the
stories or the narrative texts is the pragmatics. Pragmatic language refers to how language
is used socially to achieve some purpose in communication and is based on the socio-
cultural background. Children with hearing impairment show less clear pragmatic
communication functions due to their limitations in understanding the spoken language
which is not found age appropriate and hence they have difficulty in comprehending
reading (Pershey, 1997).
Fluency in reading and impediments due to hearing loss: Fluency is just like
prosody of a language. However as we have seen how hearing impairment affects
language and further affects the fluency of language. Now we will see how the hearing
impairment affects the fluency.
According to National Reading Panel (2000), fluency which is closely associated
with comprehension determines the success of reading. Fluency is the cement which
binds the two concepts namely word-reading and word-comprehension together (Trezek,
Wang & Paul, 2010). Earlier researchers have highlighted that reading fluency consists
of 3 factors: 1.Speed which involves quantity of words a reader is able to read in a
specified time, 2. Accuracy which includes reading without errors, 3. Expression which
consists of supra-segmental aspects like stress, rate of speech (Easterbrooks, 2010;
Bursuck & Damer, 2011).

Figure 4.2 Fluency Frames Source: Miller (2010).

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 As per Evanchan (2010), accuracy means correctness i.e. the ability to read words
correctly. With this skill children are able name words without many efforts. Hudson,
Lane, & Pullen (2005); Pikulski & Chard (2005) are of the opinion that phonemic
awareness, sound symbol correspondence, sight vocabulary and high-frequency words
helps students to become accurate readers. The other aspect of fluency is automaticity
which helps students in word recognition in the text automatically without decoding
them. National Early Literacy Panel reported as cited in Lonigan, & Shanahan, (2009),
the third factor essential for fluency is prosody which encompasses reading with proper
use of intonation, phrasing, and expression. Evanchan (2010) states that Prosody means
reading with expression almost sounding like speaking. This crucial aspect of fluency
actually helps students in reading comprehension.
Most typical children eventually become fluent readers and process the text
effortlessly. This provides their working memory with free spaces so that the cognitive
resources can focus on higher level reading skills such as using previous knowledge,
analyzing grammar or make links for comprehension. As opposed to this, the children
who encounter fluency problems such as those with hearing impairment, struggle with
the text and spend a lot of mental resources on understanding meaning of words in a
text. These are considered to be lower order skills of reading (Kelly, 2003). They also
tend to read the text slowly, word by word and hence they are not able to figure out what
the text actually means. Thus hearing loss affecting reading fluency is one of the key
determinants of their overall lower reading ability. Though fluency’s role is very important
in teaching reading-skills, still it is under investigated according to Luckner and Urbhach
(2012) and further needs to be investigated fully in case of children having hearing loss.
This is especially vital for providing them opportunities for developing reading
comprehension.
Many studies have noted that reading and writing are very hard, annoying activities
for many deaf individuals, and they are thus often reluctant to engage in those activities
for recreational purpose and consider reading as the biggest villain (Marschark, Lang,
& Albertini, as cited in Marschark & Hauser 2008). The reading skills of deaf children
at secondary level are not satisfactory and do not qualify the criteria to be called as
literate. (Mayberry, 2002). This situation has not changed for deaf students since many
years (Chamberlain and Mayberry, 2000). These statistics indicate that more than fifty
percent of the deaf children studying at the secondary level show reading skills that are
below the reading skills acquired by children belonging to 4th standard. Results of the
study by Traxler (2000) indicates the same results that about 50 percent of 18-year-old
students across USA who have hearing impairment read below the fourth grade level.

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 In the Indian context the ASER (2018) reports data from elementary school children
collected from five hundred and ninety six districts. A survey of five lakh forty six
thousand five hundred and twenty seven students indicates that only half i.e. about
50.3% fifth graders are able to read content developed for second graders. With this as
the state of typical students the reading levels of students with hearing impairment
though unreported cannot be expected to be better. The results focus on the fact that
many students need assistance in learning even the basic literacy skills. This is vital and
hence may have been set as a national goal. The draft National Policy on Education
[NPE] (2019) has specified that sustained efforts need to be undertaken for developing
foundational literacy and numeracy skills in children.
As per Kyle & Harris (2011) fundamental issues that are most importantly documented
for developing reading skills is that it affects the word recognition, that primarily affects
phonemics and understanding as well as comprehension of sentences including grammar.
However, according to Kyle and Cain (2015) besides these fundamental skills, reading
comprehension requires many deeper facets of cognitive abilities. This is because almost
all the information that the reader needs to comprehend the given content is provided in
the text-book. However, many times the reader has to infer from the text and needs to
possess the ability to read between the lines. The ability to infer along with its types, the
executive-functioning such as working memory and its limitations due to lack of
acoustics, the concentration fatigue due to over exposure to the visuals, and the resultant
attention deficits in deaf students are constituent factors of successful comprehension.

4.4 Theories of literacy development and their applications

Pearson and Kamil (1978) provide a fundamental description of the concept of the
term ‘theory’. According to them a theory is an abstract representation of an explanation
for a particular set of phenomena.
Realizing how important reading is for education as well as for acquiring knowledge
of the world, one should consider the importance of developing reading ability. For
improving the reading skills of children, it is essential that the teacher should first
understand the theories of developing reading. The results of the investigation about
how individuals learn to process textual information are put forth by contrasting theories.
The process through which one learns reading has been explained by three theories.
These three views can be seen in two perspectives as theories and as models of reading

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too. First is the top-down model of learning to read which is based on cognitive theory.
As per this theory while learning to read, not only the written text but also the background
information plays an important role. Second most important view, the bottom-up model
for ‘learning to read’ is focuses on the printed text in the book. It states that reading
process starts with the text in the book or the material that the reader is reading and
ends in the reader’s head. Third theory of reading explains the metacognitive view of
reading. It emphasizes on the way the reader thinks while approaching reading. This
model highlights the techniques the reader may use while manipulating the textual
information.

4.4.1 The Top-down theory:

1960s saw a drastic shift in the field of cognitive sciences. As new cognitive theory
was invented in the field of studies pertaining to learning the old behaviourism theory
became discredited. As per the cognitive view-point, human mind has an innate capability
of learning language naturally. This new view had an incredible impact in the field of
teaching reading comprehension. Admirer of the cognitive psychology explained how
one’s internal representation of the language develops within the learner’s mind
(Omaggio, 1993). The distinction between meaningful and rote learning was made clear
by the theory proposed by Asubel (cited in Omaggio, 1993). Asubel stated that role
learning involves simply by learning the word-lists or rules in isolation. As a result of
this, the information which is memorized, becomes temporary and can be forgotten
after certain time period. An example of rote learning is simply memorizing lists of
isolated words or rules in a new language, where the information becomes temporary
and subject to loss. On the other hand receiving or acquiring new information in
association of relevant context and readers’ previous knowledge is meaningful learning.
Same goes well with the reading process.
This is the way where the information can be easily absorbed into a person’s cognitive
framework that already exists. For learning to become perpetual, it is important that the
leant matter should be meaningful. On the basis of meaningful learning Human being
can develop long time memories in very well structured manner. Smith (1994) stated
that these novel subjective and top-down theories changed the way in which children
learn reading skills. This view-point highlights that, reading is not limited to pulling
out the meaning from the content, but it’s a procedure of association between unknown
knowledge and the known facts. According to Tierney and Pearson, (1994) reading is a
dialogue between the reader and the content which he or she reading. It involves an
active cognitive process where in background knowledge of the reader plays an essential
role in extracting meaning.

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4.4.2 Traditional or bottom-up theory
Origin of this theory or approach to reading is rooted in to behaviourist psychology
in late 1950s. According to it learning was considered as a ‘habit formation’. It can be
enhanced by repetition and forming associations between stimulus and response.
Omaggio (1993) characterized language as the “response system that humans acquire
through automatic conditioning processes, where some patterns of language are
reinforced (rewarded) and others are not. Only those patterns which reinforced by the
community of language users will persist. Audio-lingual method was invented and further
called as a behaviour which is important to form the language habits of any new language.
This involves the use of drill, repeated practice and correction of errors. The reading-
method called as ‘phonics’. Phonics requires letter sound correspondence matching in
sequential manner which prominently used in this audio-lingual method. As cited in
Kucer, (1987) Gray and Rogers, stated that, reading is a linear-process where reader
decodes the entire text first starting with the words, then few words together which
makes the phrases and few phrases together that makes the sentences.
Lower level skills such as visual stimulus or printed text are accordingly concerned
with recalling and recognizing. Phonics is also focuses on repetition, drills using sounds
which make the words. Processing of visually received information begins with smallest
sound units, and ends on the sentences or discourse. Hence beginner readers attain a
group of sequentially planned sub-skills that is hierarchically built for improving the
comprehension-ability.
The second is the bottom-up theory that emphasizes on the printed text. (Stanovich,
1980). The process of the reading can be explained in a different way. If language is
viewed as a code, then identifying graphemes and converting them into phonemes is
the main task of the reader. There are several criticisms against this model. It is considered
to be incomplete and defective because it depends upon the basic and structured language-
features, mainly sounds and words. But it must be accepted that the basic features and
knowledge of the language are also equally important for basic comprehension process.
This model is useful at early literacy stage for developing foundation of reading any
new language. In order to overcome the dependency on the traditional models of reading,
the new cognitive perspective was highlighted. This is explained in the next section.
4.4.3 Constructivist or schema theory:
Constructivist theories such as the schema theory, the metacognitive theory, mastery
level learning and scaffolding theory are the part of constructivism. The features from

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schema theory where the brain forms new information on the basis of previous knowledge
and integrates into existing schemas was found very apt for developing reading
comprehension strategies. The other theories of metacognition which explains the
ways in which individuals create internal understanding and are aware about it, has an
important learning. Problem based learning and developing background knowledge are
the applications to this theory.
The Schema theory also belongs to the family of top-down processing and has greatly
influenced the research on how to teach reading skills to children. It explains the
association between background knowledge of the reader and the text, and point-outs
the importance of previous experience with the world for making sense of the text.
Background knowledge connotes as ability to use schemata has a prominent role to
play in the comprehension of the text (Pardede, 2006). Schema theory is based on the
belief that past experiences which create the mental frameworks are the important factor
in making sense of the text to the reader. Schemes are the broad representations of more
common patterns or regularities that occur in our experience. For example one’s common
scheme of the car will allow him or her in making sense of the car which he or she has
not driven previously Smith (1994). The knowledge of situations, things, events,
knowledge of procedures for retrieving, organizing and interpreting information are the
procedures which involved in relating past experiences to the new (Kucer, 1987).
According to the study of Anderson (1994) schemata of the reader is one of the
influencing factors to the information in the text. It explains that, a reader can comprehend
a message only when he is able to connect his previous schema to the objects and
events given in the text. On the basis of these results Anderson (1994) defined
comprehension as the process of activating or constructing a schema that provides a
logical explanation of objects and events mentioned in a discourse. Understanding the
text involves interplay between both, previous and recent knowledge (Anderson and
Pearson, 1988). Therefore, schemata are restructured and modified to accommodate
new information as that information is added to the system (Omaggio, 1993). Schemata
are of two types i.e. ‘formal schemata’ and ‘content schemata’. the first type of schemata
i.e. formal schemata are schemata referred to the knowledge about the text structure
and organizational pattern of the text and content schemata is all about knowing the
subject matter of the text. Example of formal schemata is, reading text like fiction, a
letter to the editor, or a scientific essay, the text can be expository or narrative, informal
or formal. Each of these categories will have a different organizational structure.
Information of these structures will help in comprehending reading. This is because, it
gives readers a reason for foreseeing what a content will resemble (Smith 1994).

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 On the other hand the second type of schemata i.e. content schemata are related to
the previous knowledge and experiences of the reader regarding the particular text which
s/he is reading. For example if a reader is reading about the information about pollution
and if he had already experienced the concept he will definitely comprehend it in a
better manner. Hence prior knowledge of both schemata of the reader enables him to
predict, meaning, events and as well as inferring meaning through wider context
(Anderson, 1994). As per the aforesaid theories, reading comprehension is deeply rooted
in to the psychological theories. Apart from these some other theories which are also
can be associated with the process of reading.
4.4.4 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and reading
Piaget explains how a child builds a mental model of the world. There are three
basic components of his theory. The first stage of the cognitive development is sensory-
motor stage where children explore the world knowledge through the senses and motor
activities. The second stage of Piaget’s theory it is called as pre-operational stage (2-7
yrs), where children begin to understand the concepts of past, future and sequencing.
The third stage of Piaget’s theory talks about the age group of 7-12 which named as a
concrete operational stage. In this stage children begin to acquire the skill for logical
and abstract thought.
Piaget’s three stages of cognitive development also are related to reading
comprehension. According to this theory children begin reading and language acquisition
parallelly by gathering sensory and motor information in the age of 0-2 yrs. By using
attractive and approachable reading material is always beneficial for increasing interest
and understanding importance of the reading in early years. The second stage the
importance of prior knowledge and drawing contextual meaning for reading
comprehension. These skills are very important to form the foundation for reading
comprehension. It means child needs to be able to read something and imagine of what
it means. For achieving this, reading aloud to children proved beneficial for enhancing
reading comprehension at the third stage.
4.4.5 The Social learning theory and Bruner’s scaffolding theory (1976)
The social learning theories such as those of Bandura or Vygotsky emphasize the
central role of social interaction in the development of knowledge and learning. The
role of MKO (more knowledgeable others) provide supports for developing and
enhancing the reading comprehension skills. Differentiated instructions are the
applications of the social learning theories.

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 Bruner’s theory of scaffolding was influenced by the Vygotsky’s social constructivist
theory. Vygotsky had a strong viewpoint that learning happens in social environment in
which the learners through the interactions of others construct meaning. The Zone of
proximal Development (ZPD) propagated by Vygotsky was the main frame work of
Bruner’s model which emphasised that supports are needed and that we learn with
temporary supports.
Based on the concept of ZPD of Vygotsky, Bruner also believed that when children
learn new words or build concepts, they need adult help constantly and vigorously.
Later on as they become proficient and independent in their reasoning these supports
are less required. Slowly then afterwards the supports start fading.
Therefore the young child focuses only on acquiring the new skill and knowledge.
Bruner’s overall idea of scaffolding is applicable to all fields and all areas of learning.
4.4.6 Behavioristic theory:
Behaviorists believe that learning to read is an observed change in behavior. In
conventional teaching methods the learners are conditioned to read and respond in a
particular way. The pedagogy of teaching reading comprehension based on behaviorism
includes a bottom-up approach from part to whole. The conventional approach which
roots in behaviorism uses direct instructions and line by line explanations. The
applicability is generally seen in the drill and practice and sequencing.
4.4.7 Cognitivist theory
The information processing theories have provided yet another strong framework to
understand reading. The learning that seek to describe the underlying mental processes
inherent in the act of reading and higher patterns of brain functioning are the features of
cognitivism theories. The applications of these theories that forms the framework is the
use of diagnosis and interactions at various stages so also the guided reading.
4.4.8 sTransactionalist theory
This theory is based on the view that all literacy activities are a transaction between
the writer and the reader in which both change and influence each other. The stance i.e.
stand taken by each is the key to the transaction which is either efferent or aesthetic.
Efferent means that the reader’s expectations are that the text will inform and provide
details, hence expository in nature. Aesthetic means the reader’s expectation is that the
text will deal with feelings, emotions and hence is usually narrative.

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4.5. Processes involved in reading
According to Urquhart and Weir (1998), models of reading can be classified into
two major classes: The ‘Process’ models and ‘Componential models’. Componential
models describe what factors are involved in the reading activity, whereas process models
try to describe how factors operate and interact during reading.

4.5.1. Process model:

Process models classified in to three types of models namely bottom-up, top-down
and integrated model.
1. The Bottom-up model of reading: It was recognized by the work of Philip Gough
(1972). Reading skills are treated as a sequential process in bottom-up approach. For
using this model students first need to learn the phonics and decoding words before
mastering reading comprehension. He theorized that reading is a sequential process
which starts from reading letters, decoding, assembling them into sounds, and those
sounds form words and phrases. Hence while using this approach for reading, Students
must first learn the basics of phonics and how to decode words before more complex
skills such as reading comprehension can be mastered. If using this approach for teaching
reading then teacher should teach reading by the sequence and teach from letters to
meaningful words, grammar, and eventually reading comprehension (Tustin, 2014).

Figure 4.4 Bottom-up models

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 2. Top-down model of reading: The term ‘top-down’ implies the opposite of the
term ‘bottom-up’. Top-down processing of language occurs when reader uses background
knowledge to predict the meaning of language they are going to read. They rely first on
the actual words or sounds (bottom up), they develop expectations about what they will
read, while reading they confirm or reject these predictions. Top-down processing is
considered to be an effective medium of language processing; it makes the most of
what the person brings to the situation. The top-down approaches are usually associated
with Goodman (1967).
3. Interactive model: this model of reading is the combination of both the models.
According to this model reading process is simultaneous. While using this approach all
the patterns and components from different sources interact simultaneously to synthesize
meaningful comprehension. This approach was accredited to Rumelhart (1977) and
Stanovich (1980)

4.5.2. Componential model :

As described above the process models describes about actual reading process, how
it occurs. On the other hand componential model describes the components which are
involved in the reading process. The componential model classified in to three sub
models. Those are two components model by Hoover and Tunmer (1993) where they
described about two components namely word recognition and linguistic comprehension.
Another model of reading is three component model by Coady (1979) and Bernhardt
(1991) who considered three variables involved in the reading process namely Conceptual
Abilities, Process Strategies and Background Knowledge.
1. Mastery learning model: Bloom (1968) invented an instructional strategy for
using feedback and corrective procedures and named it as ‘learning for mastery’. Later
this concept was replaced by its short name i.e. ‘mastery learning’ (1971). This is an
instructional model where teachers organize the concepts and skills of teaching in to
learning units and then following brief instructional session they administers a short
assessment based on the unit’s learning goal. The purpose of this assessment is to
provide feedback to the students about their current level of learning and to understand
what they need to learn better (Bloom et al., 1971). Wherever children need to learn
better, specific ‘corrective’ activities is planned by teacher. These activities used for
correcting learning of a student. Most teachers match these ‘correctives’ as per the

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individual’s needs means the correctives are ‘individualized’. These ‘correctives’ work
as scaffolds or supports for the learner to achieve mastery on the task. These ‘correctives’
includes additional sources of information on a particular concept, for example page
numbers in the workbook or textbook in which the concept is discussed. The other
correctives can be alternative learning resources. Those are special textbooks, extra
learning activities, alternative materials, digital lessons, CDs, or web-based teaching
(DeWeese and Randolph, 2011). Hence in Blooms ‘Mastery learning model’ the concept
given by Bruner (1978) was used as ‘correctives’ which emphasizes on the use of
supportive material for better learning.

Figure 4.2 Original and adapted model of mastery learning

2. Transactional model of reading: Transactional theory is given by Rosenblatt
(1986). This model talks about the equal, and reciprocal relationship between the reader
and the text. Transactional theory proposes that the relationship between reader and the
text is much likely is it between the river and its banks, each working its effects upon
the other. The theory emphasizes on the role of a teacher while using it with children.
He argues that the meaning of any text is depends upon the transactions between the
reader and the text and not on the text. The theory explains the important concept of
‘stance’ for discussing the act of reading. attention to the words, attention to the readers
and what purpose brought them to the text, their expectations about the text, and the
choices they make as they read etc. are comes under the concept of stance. Stance was
described in a two ways by Rossenblatt (1986). In these acts of stance the reader is

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primarily concerned with what he will carry away as information from the text which is
efferent stance, and where in the reader focuses primarily upon the experience lived
through during the reading is aesthetic stance. In other words efferent stance deals with
the information of the text and aesthetic stance deals with the emotions, feelings of the
texts.

4.6 Meta-cognitive strategies and instructional practices

Teaching reading is very intensive job for the teachers. Singleton (2009) emphasizes
the need for ‘instruction that is systematic and intensive’. Singleton goes on to define
systematic teaching more closely as, ‘structured, cumulative and sequential’. Lingard
(2005) also argues for ‘clearly focused intervention’ and demonstrates how this can be
done for students starting post-primary school with low attainments. For teaching reading
is regarding the teaching comprehension of reading which should be structured,
cumulative and sequential. Reading comprehension can be enhanced through the
metacognitive strategies which are essential to develop metacognitive skills of the reader
and so the comprehension. In the following section we will learn about what is meant
by metacognitive skills or processes and then will move on to various strategies for
development of these skills for development of reading comprehension.
Metacognitive processes are related to metacognitive skills. Meta-cognitive skills
include Examining, Assimilating, Previewing, Predicting, Monitoring, and Summarizing.
These meta-cognitive skills are important for the successful comprehension process. It
occurs before, during and after reading as explained earlier. These skills are the
application activity for meta-cognition. These higher level processes are essential for
reading comprehension. The application of metacognitive processes called
‘Metacognition’. ‘Metacognition’ is about ‘thinking about thinking’. Meta-cognition
forms the basis for the reading comprehension strategies. Fluent readers who are
continually able to monitor their own reading, connecting and controlling their experience
with the content which they are reading and adjust their understanding are said to posses
metacognitive skills. The concept given by Flavell (1979) about metacognition
comprising of two major components i.e metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
experiences, it is hence deduced that metacognition pertaining to reading comprehension
is associated with the reader’s prior knowledge and experiences and also to the mental
representation of the text in memory of the reader. In the model of cognitive monitoring

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of Flavell (1979) the metacognitive knowledge is considered as a combination of three
knowledge variables namely the self, the task, and the strategies that will be effective in
achieving the goal of reading. Metacognitive experiences on the other hand are said to
be items of metacognitive knowledge that have entered consciousness of the reader.
The use of reading strategies in language learning has a vital role to improve reading
skills and comprehension (Anderson, 2003; Cohen, 1998). There are various strategies
or approaches which teachers use to enhance the reading comprehension skill of children
with and without hearing impairment. Some of the strategies are given below. These all
strategies teachers use before, during and after reading session
Teaching methods: Teaching and learning process must be an easy and enjoyable
task in the classroom which makes the students not feel bored and depressed in the
classroom. The students should be interested and enthusiastic in learning process. A
visionary teacher creates the best classroom atmosphere and interesting teaching process.
Therefore, a good teacher must have a suitable strategy in teaching reading
comprehension. Wang (2007) also reported that explicit instruction in comprehension
strategies to third and fourth graders enhanced their comprehension for both narrative
and expository text. In another study, Dube, Dorval, and Bessette (2013) also reported
statistically significant improvements in reading comprehension following explicit
strategy instruction to third and fourth grade students with learning difficulties. There
are various strategies which are used by the teachers at various levels for teaching
reading. Following strategies are the strategies for teaching expository as well as
narrative texts.
Strategy 1: Question Answer Relationship (QAR) (Rapheal, 1982)
The Question Answer relationship strategy encourage students to use different kinds
of information in their reading to help them comprehend narrative texts. While involving
students in this strategy, teacher uses small units or passages and focuses on four levels
of questioning.
(1) Right there: questions that can be answered simply locating the words in a sentence
(Direct questions)
(2) Think and search: questions that can be found in the passage but not in one
sentence.(Indirect questions)
(3) On my own: questions that must be answered in reader’s head (Inferential
questions)

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 (4) The author and me: students need to think about what they know, what they have
learned from the author, and how these pieces of information fit together.
Skills covered in the thesis application, analysis, synthesis, Evaluation. These skills
are the higher level thinking skills which can be developed through QAR method.
Strategy 2: Reciprocal Teaching /Questioning (Re Questing)
This strategy is more effective with narrative texts than expository texts. In this
strategy teachers serve as a models for good questioning and answering by explaining
how they arrived at the answer they give to the children’s questions. Re quest involves
the Students and teacher in silently reading portions of a text and then taking turns
asking and answering questions.
Steps followed in the strategy:
● The teacher and the students read the first line silently.
● Then they take turns asking questions about the sentence. First the students ask
questions and teacher close the book and give answers.
● Then students close their books and the teacher asks questions
● Students may not answer with ‘I don’t know’ they must at least try to explain why
they cannot answer.
● If any question is not cleared; then it must be rephrased or clarified.
● The person who answers a question should be ready to justify the answer by
returning to the book or explaining the background knowledge that was used.

Strategy 3: Oral Comprehension Strategy

This strategy is used with familiar /unfamiliar stories, poems, songs etc. it includes
Read and Re-tell step in which Children read a section of a story and they then re-tell it
to the class or to a buddy if working in pairs/groups .it also includes Non-verbal
Interpretation of a Text where Children read a story and then draw the key points in that
story. After completing the story it comes to the sequencing step where children have to
re arrange the sections to re make the story. While involved in the strategy children also
involved in the skimming and scanning of the text. In this children have to identify the
key words in the passage. Skills covered in this strategy are before reading, during
reading and post reading skills. These skills are previewing, text analysis, and eliciting

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prior knowledge, skill of questioning, prediction, Skills of updating questions and
predictions, Visualization skill, Connecting skills, Skill of monitoring comprehension,
Skill of applying fix –it-up reading strategies, Skill of summarizing the text, Skill of
understanding Organizational patterns to recognize one’s own memory representation.

Strategy 4. Survey, Question, Read, Recite And Review (SQ3R)

SQ3R is a strategy for studying expository text that can be used with middle school
and high school students .the procedure includes five steps and is designed to help
students monitor their own comprehension and learning.
● Survey: Student surveys assignment, headings, skimming and reading
● Question: Students turn each heading into a question
● Read: Students read to find the answers
● Recite: say the answers aloud
● Review: Write notes to answer the questions. Review what they have read
Skills covered in this method are Analyzing, Previewing, Skimming.
Strategy 5: Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) Stuffer (1969)
DRTA is a strategy that involves previewing, predicting, monitoring comprehension,
and revising predictions. This strategy improves comprehension and promotes active
and critical thinking. It can be used with students at all levels with narrative texts and
conducted as follows
● Introduce story
● Ask students to make predictions
● Reject or confirm predictions
● Reflect upon their predictions
● Write key phrases on separate cards
● Students can compare/contrast the story with their own versions
This strategy covers the skills like Assimilation, Predicting, Judgment making,
Decision making, Critically thinking, finding purpose for reading and examining study
material.

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 Strategy 6: K-W-L
This strategy can be used with non-fiction texts. Can be used across the
curriculum i.e. History, Geography, Religion. It can be completed individually, in a
group or on a whole-class basis. Occasionally can be helpful for children with poor
reading skills. It incorporates before, during and post-reading comprehension skills
like making predictions, integration of prior knowledge, mental imagery, application,
analysis, synthesis, evaluation.
K -What I know, W- What I want to know, L – What I learned
Strategy 7: Anticipation Guides
This activity is suitable for older students and incorporates before, during and post-
reading comprehension skills. This includes metacognitive skills like comprehension
monitoring, study skills, skill of adjusting strategy. The steps followed in this strategy
are as follows
Teacher identifies several major concepts related to reading assignment/unit
● He/she develops 4 – 6 statements that are general enough to stimulate discussion
and can be used to clarify misconceptions
● The list can be placed upon a chart or individual sheets
● Students respond (i.e. agree/disagree) to the statement, working in groups, pairs
or individually
● This is followed by whole-class discussion
● Students read text and compare their responses to what is stated in the reading
material
This is followed by further discussion. Students cite information in text that supports/
defends their position.

Strategy 8. Scaffolding Strategy for enhancing reading comprehension:

Scaffolding is asserted as new method of supporting students’ learning and
development (Bedrova & Leong, 1998). Vygotsky (1978) proposed the concept of the
ZPD which he defined as the distance between the actual development level and the
level of potential development of child it is said that this difference can be minimize
through problem solving under the guidance of adult or guidance of MKO. Time spent

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in this area is best for children’s learning. It is the area between what children can do
independently and what they can do with assistance. While using scaffolding method
teachers become activator, facilitator for children’s learning. Scaffolding enhances
children’s academic achievement, social skills and self esteem. Scaffolding is very
flexible strategy because it can be used for every child as per their need and level of
achievement.
How to scaffold a reading lesson?
Scaffolding is breaking up the learning into small chunks and then providing a tool,
or structure, or support with each chunk as a support. Just like the under constructed
building need the support till the completion, reader need to get the support or scaffolds
till he/she achieves the mastery on the task. Various researchers had defined scaffolding
as follows
Reiser (2004) points out that if learners receive support and assistance, they will
successfully perform certain tasks and move to more complex ones. Without any support,
or prop, they will not achieve the task as it will be beyond their ability. Vacca (2008)
gave supportive statement about giving support to children for better learning, that
students become more responsible, motivated and successful in their learning, when
guidance and support has been provided with the task.
According to Collins as cited in Yu, (2004) Scaffolding is used to bridge between
what students can do on their own and what they can do with the assistance which was
explained by the Vygotsky’s concept of Scaffolding is temporarily provided support
and it is gradually removed bit as the learners become more independent (Cameron,
2001).
If scaffolding is administered properly, it will help students and act as an enabler,
and not as a disabler (Benson, 1997). In Vygotsky’s words, what the child is able to do
in collaboration today, he will be able to do independently tomorrow (Vygotsky, 1987)
because of the collaboration child will learn how to do the task, hence masters the skills
and will do it independently. According to Safadi & Rababah (2012) ZPD provides
educational experts a clear and simple guideline about how to support learners at each
learning stage. It suggests that the teacher should provide tasks that are at a level just
higher than the learners are currently able to do, and teach rules that will help them to
make the next stage without help. Like training wheels, scaffolding enables learners to

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do more advanced activities and to engage in more advanced thinking and problem
solving than they could without such help (NRC, 2000). Pearson (1996) points out that
scaffolding allows teachers to provide cueing, questioning, coaching, corroboration,
and plain old information to help students complete a task before tackling it
independently.
Sawyer (2006) defines instructional scaffolding as a learning process designed to
promote a deeper level of learning. Scaffolding is the support given during the learning
process which is tailored to the needs of the student with the intention of helping the
student achieves his/her learning goals
Puntambekar and Hubscher (2005) identified four features of scaffolds.
1) Inter-subjectivity: The first component necessary for instructional scaffolds to
be effective involves the joint ownership of the task between the student(s) and
teacher. This requires that the task be defined and redefined by the student(s) and
teacher such that the student(s) begin to understand the task from the perspective
of the more knowledgeable other. As Wood and colleagues (1976) note, this
involves making it worthwhile for the learner to risk the next step.
2) Ongoing diagnosis: The teacher must be continually aware of what the learner
understands and still needs to learn. This requires a deep understanding of the
task at hand, including the subtasks required for mastery, and a keen level of
knowledge about the individual learner.
3) Dialogic and interactive: A third feature of learning scaffolds relates to the
conversation that the student(s) and teacher have as part of the learning situation.
The teacher, by dialogue, monitors student understanding and progress. It requires
a fairly feedback system in which the teacher is regularly checking for
understanding and collecting assessment information.
4) Fading: The final theoretical feature requires that the teacher fade the support
provided to the learner(s). In Vygotskian terms, this occurs when the learner has
reached internalization. Vygotsky (1978) hypothesized that cognition first occurs
between people (inter psychological) before moving to intra-psychological (within
one’s own self). Without fading, this process of internalization cannot happen;
students become “prompt-dependent,” not independent.

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 Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching and can include modeling a skill,
providing hints or cues, and adapting material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).
According to Rewards Plus (2010) scaffolding reading comprehension has different
techniques which are clarified in
Techniques for scaffolding reading comprehension Pre passage reading

The scaffolding approach (from Billett, S. (1993). Cited in Athra (2010). Mentor’s
Guide. Generic version. P. 6.)
“Scaffolding Reading Experience/s SRE” is an approach introduced by many
researchers (Graves & Fitzgerald, 2004; Graves & Graves, 2003; Tierney & Readence,
2000). It is considered as a comprehensive reading program, that helps the children

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understand what they read, enjoy the experience of reading, and learn from what they
read.

Archer (2008) divides scaffolding reading comprehension into three phases:

Before Reading Teach the pronunciation of difficult words. Teach the meaning of
critical, unknown vocabulary words. Teach or activate any necessary background
knowledge. Preview the story or the article.

During Reading Utilize passage reading procedures that provide adequate reading
practice. Ask appropriate questions during passage reading. Teach strategies that can be
applied to passage reading. Use graphic organizers to enhance comprehension.

After Reading Engage students in a discussion. Have students answer written

questions. Provide explicit instruction on comprehension skills. Provide engaging
vocabulary practice. Have students write summaries of what they have read.

Many researchers (Pea, 2004; Lajoie, 2005) suggested three main characteristics
that are required for scaffolding: Contingency, Fading, and Transfer of Responsibility.
Contingency refers to the adjustments that must be made while the student is being
supported. Fading refers to the process of slowly decreasing the amount of scaffolding
provided by the expert. Transfer of Responsibility requires that, over time, the learner
gradually assumes responsibility for the task, so that the responsibility of learning
completely transfers from the expert to the student (Van de Pol, 2010).

Types of scaffolds

Alibali (2006) suggests that while achieving the goals of instructions and as students
perform well in the tasks teachers can use a variety of scaffolds to accommodate different
levels of knowledge of the students so also scaffolds can be based on the complexity of
the content. Frequency of using scaffolds in the instruction is depends upon the affecting
factors. Following are some of the commonly used types of the scaffolds which can be
used as per the need of the child as well as content.

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Type of scaffold Use of scaffolds for teaching reading
Advance organizers This is used to acquaint new content and tasks to learn about
the topic It include Venn diagrams for comparing and
contrasting information;Flow charts for illustrating any
processes; Organizational charts for illustrating the
sequential content;Outlines for representing the content;
mnemonics to assist recall; Statements to situate the task
or content
Concept and mind Maps that show relationships: completed or incomplete
maps maps, mazes for students to complete: Students develop
or complete this task by applying current knowledge of the
task or concept.
Examples and Samples, specimens, illustrations, problems: Real objects;
explanations illustrative problems used to represent something examples
can be used for activating prior knowledge. These type of
scaffolds are of two types human and non-human. Using
examples illustrations for explanation of concept or verbal
explanation of how a process works are human scaffold and
using written instructions for a task, direct samples, specimen,
objects for explanations are non-human scaffolds.
Hints Suggestions and clues to move students along: these are again
as a hints or orders to follow for given task. For the exami-
nation giving one solved question can be used as a hint
for solving other questions. Multiple choice questions are
of the same type of scaffolds, where student can choose the
correct answer from the given options which acts as scaffolds.
Prompts A physical or verbal cue to recall previous knowledge or
experience. Physical: Body movements such as pointing,
nodding the head, eye blinking, foot tapping. Changing
intonation patterns, gestures, hand movements, acting the
task,Verbal: Words, statements and questions such as Go,
Stop, It’s right there, Tell me now, Wh questions.

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 Type of scaffold Use of scaffolds for teaching reading
Glossary page Glossary page is developed for each new reading assignment
for using and improving monitoring or dictionary skills. It
include New concepts, words, phrases, and their meaning to
use during reading sessions for understanding meaning or
comprehending better.
Question Stems Incomplete sentences which students complete: Encourages
deep thinking by using higher level comprehension skills
such as What if....., what will happen next.... questions.
Visual Scaffolds Pointing, representational gestures, charts and graphs;
methods of highlighting visual or new information, puppets,
direct objects, actual procedure,
Stories Stories relate complex and abstract material to situations
more familiar with students: Recite stories to inspire and
motivate learners

The classroom is a vibrant environment where all students are together but from
different backgrounds and with different capabilities, personalities. To be a good teacher
s/he one should be implements creative and innovative strategies in order to fulfill all
students’ needs. These teaching strategies are the important tool for every teacher working
at any level. Teaching strategies refer to the structure, system, methods, techniques,
procedures and processes that a teacher uses during instruction. These are strategies the
teacher employs to assist student learning.
It is clear that students who learn about reading strategies can use the knowledge to
become fluent and skilled, to monitor and make efficient their own reading, and to
teach skills and strategies to others. This thoughtful and deliberate use of the strategies
may also provide a motivational advantage for students.

General Tips for teachers while teaching reading to children with hearing
impairment:
1. Speak slowly, clearly, and with adequate volume. Don’t use exaggerated lip-
movements and loud volume or very slow speed of talking.

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 2. Emphasize on silent reading.
3. Maximize the use of residual hearing whenever and wherever possible while
reading.
4. Provide text material that has clearly written instructions.
5. After pronouncing new words please provide written deposit of in through various
examples.
6. Use whole-word approach to word recognition rather than a phonics approach.
7. Pay special attention to teaching figurative expression as children with hearing
impairment tend to comprehend literally.
8. Use reading material as per the reading age of the children and not as the
chronological age of children.
9. Create narrative and expository texts to read by children with interest.
10. Check comprehension frequently by asking questions about reading material.

4.7 Let us sum up

After reading this chapter as teacher trainee you all have come to know the importance
of literacy skills in the whole educational system. We have learnt various areas of literacy.
we have learnt about the prerequisites for literacy development in children., processes
involved in reading and writing with examples. As reading theories and models of
reading we have come to know the psychological basis and what various theorists
explained about the reading and comprehension process and how we develop the reading.
lastly we have learnt the various instructional practices for developing reading in
classrooms.

4.8 Unit end exercises

1. Discuss briefly the pre-requisites skill for acqjuiring litteracy.
2. Write some activities which can help improve writing readiness skills.
3. Narratge the processes involved in reading comprehension.
4. Write a short note on fluency in reading and impediments due to hearing loss.
5. What do you understand by tradional on bottom-up theory of reading?

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4.9 References:
Alber, R. (Ed.). (2014, January 24). 6 Scaffolding Strategies to Use With Your
Students. Retrieved from https://teachreadingstrategies.weebly.com/reading-
comprehension-strategies.html
Aldridge, j. & R. L. Goldman (2007). Current Issues and Trends in Education. Boston:
Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
Alibali, M. (2006). Does visual scaffolding facilitate students’ mathematics learning?
Evidence from early algebra.
Ambrose S. E., Fey M. E., Eisenberg L. S. (2012). Phonological awareness and print
knowledge of preschool children with cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language,
and Hearing Research, 55, 811–823. 10.1044/1092-4388(2011/11-0086)
ASHA(2019) https://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Clinical-Topics/Spoken-
Language-Disorders/Language-In—Brief/
https://abcsofliteracy.com/pre-reading-skills-successful-readers/
Pardede, P. (2006). A Review on Reading Theories and its Implication to the Teaching
of Reading. UKI: ELT’n Edu. A cyber ELT & Edu service from Universitas Kristen
Indonesia [online].

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Unit 5 ❏ Research And Development In Literacy
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Research in literacy: An overview
5.3.1 Reading Achievement
5.3.2 Patterns of Reading Development
5.3.3 Trends in Literacy Skill Level
5.3.4 Higher Level Functioning in Literacy
5.3.5 Cochlear Implant and Literacy Development
5.4 Priority areas of research
5.5 Identifying the gaps in literacy research
5.6 Readings in Researches on literacy development at different levels in the
past two decades
5.7 Evidence based practices in literacy development
5.8 Let us Sum up
5.9 Unit end exercises
5.10 References

5.1 Introduction
As an educator, we have several questions for our class with learners with deafness
like;
a. How do children with deafness learn to read?
b. What is the best strategy or technique to teach children with deafness to read?
c. Can children with deafness learn the alphabetic principle?

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 d. What are the roles of signed language and spoken languages in literacy acquisition
in the classroom?
e. How do we improve literacy outcomes for children with deafness?
f. What should I as an educator do to improve these outcomes?
Educators of the deaf all across the country have been asking themselves these
questions for many years. Before answering these questions, let us first understand the
meaning of literacy. Census of 2011 defines literate as, “every person above the age of
7 years who can read and write with understanding in any language is said to be
literate”. According to this criteria, the Census 2011 survey holds the National Literacy
Rate to be 74.07 % in India. The youth literacy rate, measured by this census is explained,
within the age group of 15 to 24, is 81.1% (84.4% among males and 74.4% among
females), while in the age group of 10-19 , 86% of boys and 72% of girls are literate.
Within the Indian states, Kerala state has the highest literacy rate of 94.65% whereas
Bihar state averaged 63.8% literacy. The Census 2001 statistics indicated that the total
number of ‘absolute non-literates’ in our country was 304 million. As of 2011 statistics,
enrolment rates are 58% for pre-primary, 93% for primary, 69% for secondary, and 25%
for tertiary education.
The present unit on research on literacy is designed to provide reader as an educator
of deaf a conceptual understanding of the above statement pertaining to the student
with deafness (henceforth, SwDs) and ways to systematically address the literacy issues.
We know that literacy which means the ability to read and write forms an essential
component of our educational system. Without well-developed literacy skills, students
find it difficult to participate in the classroom teaching learning process. This is because
besides enhancement of language comprehension, reading from the textbooks also helps
in acquisition of content knowledge of school subjects such as History, Geography,
Environmental studies and so on.

5.2 Objectives
After completing the course teacher educators will be able to;
a. understand the scope of literacy development among the children with deafness
b. review the gaps in the research conducted in the literacy domain
c. discuss the patterns of reading development among children with deafness

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5.3 Research In Literacy: An Overview
As we have understood from the previous units of this paper, essential factor
contributing to literacy is ‘Language’. SwDs having deficient language find reading
and writing extremely challenging. However, early intervention hold the key and children
who undergo training in emergent literacy skills and are less likely to experience letdowns
in school.
Reading as you know, is a linguistic activity i.e. it is language based and needs a
good understanding of language in order to read, this is required to comprehend and
write as well as to express. Reading simply means text comprehension and is different
from pronunciationwhich is loud articulation with or without understanding. For
example, when we learn alphabets of a foreign language, we associate the sound symbol
correspondence and later we may also try to articulate or sign certain words. However,
to make meaning of the words pronounced, we should know or understand the language
that we are reading. Only when we make sense of the print, it will be termed as a true
reading comprehension activity.
According to Dorn (2011), the performance of writing is a cognitive process that
involves comprehension of ideas, expressive language, and mechanical skills. Writing
integrates both cognitive and motor capabilities occurring simultaneously. According
to the educationist,Gunning (2008) writing evolves from pre-speech gestures that children
make and from the language they hear and later use it in different settings. SwDs have
differing access to sound, which depends on many different factors. As access to language
(spoken/sign) is delayed so the development of written language is also impacted in
some way.However most SwDs would have the basic mechanical skills of writing that
includes scribbling and drawing. Tracing and copying would also not be aconcern for
them; however activities such as dictation or creative and independent writing always
poses a challenge forSwDs.
Literacy is a language based activity, as discussed earlier in the previous units of
this paper. Hearing loss hinders language development and this further creates reading
and writing difficulties in SwDs. However if intervened early, the language rooted reading
and writing techniques can help SwDsacquire age appropriate literacy skills. It is
suggestive that apart from the standard emergent literacy activities such as phonics,
sight vocabulary or spell games etc., and experience based literacy activities may be
undertaken in classroom. This may include reading and writing exercises based on
conversation, directed activities or visits (read techniques of teaching language).

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 Activity to do: Visit a special school and observe teacher teaching literacy skills to
children with deafness varying in standards.

As is known from the previous sections of this paper, hearing loss at a young age
severely affects language development, hence children with severe and profound hearing
loss lacks language. These children find it difficult to associate sounds to written symbols
so reading becomes difficult and sometimes tortuously slow and frustrating for them.
In the sub section, we will review researches in literacy in the areas like;
Let us understand and discuss each sub section now.
5.3.1 Reading Achievement
In this section, we will discuss few researches in reading achievement domain. There
are various research studies and frequently documented difficulty of learning to read
may result from the requirement of pre-existing language for literacy. To succeed at
learning to read, the SwDsmust have a strong language foundation to base it upon.
Moreover, communication difficulties with the educator him/herself can impair reading.
Children who begin language acquisition at older ages and/or have limited language
(oral/sign) input during early childhood have underdeveloped language skill, which, in
turn, affects their short-term memory development. However, with the linguistic element
covered, SwDs performance is equivalent to age-appropriate hearing children on short
term memory tasks.
Literacy is often viewed as emerging from a child’s (oral/ sign) language development.
The linguistics approach to language development is formed on the notion that children
do not need to be taught directly how to speak; language development and its pragmatics
are learned from conversations near children indirectly. Expressive language acquisition
then forms the foundation for written language comprehension as the ability to decipher
the common phonemic sound system of language is enhanced. This underlying principle
of connecting sound to print relies upon the established knowledge of the spoken
language in order to aid in the reading process. Unfortunately, SwDs are placed at a
disadvantage by not having complete access in developing the ability to deduce the
phonemic sound system. According to National deaf children’s (2004), with 90% of
children with severe-profound hearing impairment being born to adults with normal
hearing, the majority of children do not develop adequate understanding of any language
modality ( oral/sign) to assist in the process of comprehending written language.

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 As highlighted by Kyle and Harris (2010), learners born with severe-profound hearing
impairment may fail to develop a fluent system of communication as well as fail to
develop phonemic decoding abilities necessary to become proficient readers. They
found that children with normal hearing sensitivity and children with severe-profound
hearing impairment utilize slightly different reading strategies over the first 2 years of
schooling. Despite both groups of children exhibiting similar levels of reading progress
in the early stages of reading development, their reading trajectories diverged after the
second year of reading instruction. Reading delays in beginning readers with severe
profound hearing impairment were not as severe as that typically observed with older
learners with severe-profound hearing impairment; however, the severity of delay
increased with age.
Many researchers proclaim that, students with severe-profound hearing impairment
have consistently displayed poor reading comprehension abilities. The average student
with severe-profound hearing impairment leaves high school scoring the same reading
level as that of third or fourth grade student. Researchers and educators consider what
factors contribute to the let-down ofchildren with severe-profound hearing impairment
to advance in reading comprehension.
Pause and think; Investigation of current literature in literacy research reveals
conflicting reports as to how literacy skills are developed in children who are both
deaf and hard of hearing. What is your say on this?
Researchers like Goff, Pratt & Ong (2005) suggests that readers with normal hearing
decode words in two ways. Decoding depends upon the sound-based relationship between
the letters of a word and the sound that corresponds with each letter. Basis being the
phonological skills alsoreferred to as sounding out a word. This approach allows children
to read words that they havenot seen in print before. The second approach, or lexical
approach, depends on whole word recognition. Also known as print-based reading, this
approach works with words that do not follow phonological rules but require that the
child has had previous exposure to the word in its printed form. The general assumption
is that children with normal hearing use the phonological approach for unfamiliar words
and the lexical approach for familiar words.
5.3.2 Patterns of Reading Development
Research supports memory, spelling, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, and other
cognitive and language based skills as evidence for reading predictors in children as

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highlighted in the research conducted by Goff, Pratt & Ong (2005). Research is
inconsistent in determining predictors of reading success in SwDs. However, research
studies have contributed information toward the understanding of the reading acquisition
process by identifying factors that appear to impact reading success. In the research
study conducted by Harris & Beech (1998) , the most prominent of these is phonological
awareness or the ability to access and manipulate speech sounds. Phonological awareness
has been shown to be a strong predictor of reading outcomes in various research studies
(Weinrich& Fay 2007). Another factor is a student’s orthographic processing skill, there
is increasing research evidence of a relationship between orthographic processing skill
and reading ability (Deacon, Benere, & Castles, 2012).
Orthographic knowledge is a key area that many researchers propose as a foundational
skill and predictor of reading ability in students who are deaf or hard of hearing (Miller,
2005). According to the American Speech-Language Hearing Association (ASHA, 2011),
orthographic knowledge refers to, “the information that is stored in memory that informs
us of how to represent spoken language in written form”. As described by the researcher
Apel,( 2011), orthographic knowledge depends upon the understanding of both mental
grapheme representations and orthographic rules of a language. He further explains that,
mental grapheme representation applies stored mental representations of specific written
words or word parts and orthographic rules are the laws that govern how speech must be
represented in writing .
Paul Miller (2006) have conducted various research studies in the filed on deafness,
one such study was to determine the nature and efficiency of the strategies used by
learners with pre-lingual deafness for the recognition of written words with reference
to an orthographic self-teaching concept. Each student was asked to make categorical
judgments for real words and pseudo homophones of the real words. Pseudo homophones
(phonetically identical to a word) are considered words that are phonetically identical
to a word. Participants were native signers between the grade of 7th and 10th. Students
met the criterion of hereditary deafness and had parents who were deaf (DCDP). Due to
the low prevalence of hereditary deafness, students were chosen from different grade
levels. The findings of the study showed that the participants with deafness were impaired
in their phonological decoding abilities; however, their efficiency in recognizing and
categorizing written words was similar to that of their peers with normal hearing. The
research finding suggests that these students developed strategies for the acquisition of
orthographic knowledge which does not rely on phonology (Miller, 2006). These findings
areconsistent with the author’s previous study in 1997. In studying the effects of

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communication mode on the development of phonemic awareness in learners with pre-
lingual deafness, Miller (1997) found that older children performed above chance level
on a picture rhyme-matching task involving both orthographically congruent and
incongruent items. Their performance was similar to that of their peer group with normal
hearing sensitivity only when items were orthographically corresponding. Many other
researchers, suggested that adolescents and learners with deafness are heavily influenced
by or rely upon orthography when making judgments of phonological similarity.

5.3.3 Trends in Literacy Skill Level

According to Martin &Clark (2012), the language and learning impairments found
in children with normal hearing are also common in SwDs. One factor to these
impairments is the child’s degree of hearing loss. Depending on the degree of loss and
benefit from amplification, certain features of the speech signal may be unidentifiable
to the listener with hearing impairment. As we know that speech is generated when air
is forced between the vocal folds causing them to vibrate and in turn transforming the
vibrations into a fundamental frequency which is then filtered through the vocal tract to
produce the speech we hear It is the intensity, frequency, and duration (segmental, non-
segmental and supra segmental aspects of speech) of this air flow that shapes the
articulators that produces the phonemes of speech. A significant phonetic identifier is
the separation of vowels, which are a lower frequency, and consonants, which are high
frequency (Halliday& Bishop, 2005). The strongest sounds in speech are the central
vowels which resonate at low frequencies. We as special educators should know that
these vowels are responsible for the sound volume of speech. Vowels cycle at a frequency
range between 250-2,000 Hz. In contrast, the weakest sounds are those that restrict the
breath flow or the consonants (for example, fricatives, stops, affricates). These high
frequency phonemes are responsible for carrying the information of speech which vowels
cannot. Voiced consonants cycle at a frequency range of 250-4,000Hz, while unvoiced
consonants cycle around 2,0008,000Hz (Halliday& Bishop, 2005).
Researchers Kyle and Harris (2010) conducted a threeyear longitudinal study to
identify predictors of reading development in children with deafness. At the beginning
of 7-8 years of age, learners in the study were given a battery of literacy, cognitive, and
language tasks every 12 months. The authors determined that children who had the
most age-appropriate reading skills had less severe hearing losses, earlier diagnoses of
hearing impairment, and also preferred to communicate through speech. These research
findings were consistent with earlier research studies of Paul & Quigley (1990) in which

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writing and reading achievements were significantly and negatively correlated with the
degree of hearing loss. Even the research study of Aram, and Andom (2006) found that
negative relations emerged between learners’ degree of hearing loss and performance
on general knowledge tasks in kindergartners who were transitioning to first grade.
Not all research studies agree regarding the relationship between degree of hearing
impairment and reading ability, you will also agree the same and must have experienced
the same while doing practice teaching in special schools. Even researchers like Tymms,
Brien, Merrell, Collins, and Jones (2003) did not find a correspondence between hearing
thresholds and composite reading scores among children of 5 and 6 year olds. Tymms
et al. (2003) even assessed learners with deafness ( sample size 962) upon entry to
school between 4-5 years of age. Learners were assessed using the Performance Indicators
in Primary Schools Broad Baseline Assessment and were retested one year later in
mathematics and reading to develop data for the prediction of academic achievement of
learners with varying degrees of hearing loss. The researchers concluded that learners
with mild to profound hearing impairment and learners with normal hearing (with the
same levels of language-free attainment on starting school) generally made the
similarimprovement in reading and mathematics during their first year of school.

5.3.4 Higher Level Functioning in Literacy

Many SwDs continue to struggle with lower-level literacy skills. Consequently,
reading techniques such as self-questioning, activating prior knowledge, summarizing
the main idea, constructing representational images, predicting what text will follow,
drawing inferences, monitoring for misunderstanding, and re-reading difficult passages
of text are missing (Andrews & Mason, 1991; Strassman, 1992). Researchers like
Marschark and Wauters (2008) debated that one reason for the lack of progress in this
domain might be that the reading challenges are not specifically related to reading. The
researchers suggest that an overall deficit in general language comprehension and
cognitive factors are the source of poor literacy achievement. Marschark and Wauters
(2008) observed that weaknesses shown by SwDsin many of the sub-skills involved in
reading are paralleled by similar weaknesses in understanding sign language. In their
view, SwDswould benefit from a focus on reader variables and considering differences
in higher-level language and cognitive processes, lexical knowledge, metacognition,
and information-processing strategies and habits in the context of language.

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 Now let us understand the concept of function of reading level from the perspective
of Brown and Brewer (1996). They investigated whether implications about predictable
events aredrawn in similar ways by readers who are hearing and readers who are deaf,
and whether this drawing of inferences varied as a function of reading level. Despite
the research finding no qualitative differences in inference processes or in the encoding
of information for hearing and deaf skilled and less skilled readers, a quantitative
difference was found in both the speed and accuracy of the task focusing on lexical
decision. The skilled readers (deaf) were not differentiated from readers (hearing) and
were in fact faster and more accurate in rejecting non-words. Less skilled (deaf) readers
were slower and made more errors. This researchfinding supports that SwDsare capable
of becoming skilled readers. It also highlights on the differences in cognitive processing
between those who are quick, fluent, and accurate readers and those who are not.
Researchers summarized their research by statingthat good readers who were deaf
were quicker and more correct than readers who were hearing and that their somewhat
effortless word recognition may serve to free up cognitive resources for higher level
processing. In contrast, the less skilled readers place a higher demand upon resources
toward text-driven processing as opposed to pre existing conceptual processes. In turn,
these learners allot less attention toward tasks such as handling difficult linguistic contexts
or integrating a text with world knowledge. These research studies support the idea
that the root issue surrounding the poor literacy skills of SwDs may not be the direct
result of reading itself. Other factors such as higher level language and cognitive
processing play a dominant role in early literacy development prior to school age.

5.3.5 Cochlear Implant and Literacy Development

There are many contributing factors that influence both language acquisition and
literacy development in children who are deaf. Amplification device is a traditional
option for individuals who are deaf. The cochlear implant provides access to the speech
signal for those who are severe to profoundly deaf.
Geers and Hayes (2011) conducted a study with aim to study the outcomes of
implanting children early in life. These researcherswanted to a. document the literacy
skills of early implanted deafadolescents, b. determine whether students who
demonstrated age-appropriate reading skills in elementary school were able to keep up
with their hearing peersin high school, and c. determine the degree to which phonological
processing skills and demographic characteristics play a role in literacy achievement
among high school students withcochlear implants.Students with cochlear implant of

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the high school scored within or above the average range for hearing peers on two tests
of reading (Between 47% and 66% ). 36 % of the students read at the 9th grade level or
above on the test named - Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised (PIATR) with
only 17% reading below the 4th grade barrier that characterized the performance of
SwDs before the advent of the CI. The researchers stated that the students with cochlear
implants performed better on literacy measures while phonological processing tasks
were not as high. They concluded that there are various strategies ( extraneous variables)
provided an alternate route to successful reading acquisition.
Research study conducted by Geers,(2002) showed that students with cochlear
implants had higher levels of phonological awareness than peers who were deaf without
cochlear implants, but they remained lower than that of peers with normal hearing
sensitivity. He concluded by stating that some factors affecting the reading of cochlear
implant users were important to children with normal hearing sensitivity as well, such
as general knowledge, parent education, and family income. Whereas researchers like
Marschark, Rhoten, and Fabich (2007) restraints that while cochlear implants have
improved the reading ability of SwDs, their skills are not proportionate with their peers
where in the United States of America a 10th -11th grade reading ability to be a functional
participant in society.

5.4 Priority Areas of Research

According to the National Association of Educational Progress and National
assessment report (2014) to be a proficient reader, a learner must be able to read at
grade level and also be able to synthesize, explain, and analyse what s/he read (i.e.,
comprehend and make reasonable inferences of written material). As you must have
understood by now after reading all the four units, reading is related to cognitive
development, language development, and emotional development. Reading is a
fundamental skill necessary to function successfully in today’s society, this has been
highlighted in various researches by researchers namely Kirsch, Jungeblut, Jenkins
&Kolstad, (2002). Reading comprehension helps in the development of ideas, exploration
of new knowledge, and the exchange of information.
In one of the research conducted by Goff, Pratt & Ong, (2005), the ability to
comprehend written language is a greater framework that stems from the development
of literacy skills by the time learners reach their school age years.The purpose of this

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research was to identify the problematic areas surrounding reading comprehension within
the school (age range 6-11 year old) population of SwDs and to explore the aspects of
literacy that are the most challenging for this group of learners. The patterns of reading
development for SwDs were reviewed and compared with peers with normal hearing
sensitivity.
In this research various factors which predict reading include: phonological awareness,
cognitive ability, and the primary mode of communication and its level of complexity
were indicated. It is important to note that in their research phonological skills did not
hinder overall reading achievement as deficits can be overcome by other cognitive
processes. Furthermore, phonological skills can be developed as a byproduct of improved
reading, and thus cannot be considered a reading prerequisite as they are in learners
with normal hearing sensitivity. This research is also supported by Koo, Crain, LaSasso,
and Eden, (2008) that some learners with deafness rely upon phonological awareness,
while others use an alternate method.
Orthography(conventional spelling system of language) is a strategy that some SwDs
use to make judgments of phonological similarity. Other findings suggest that learner’s
ability to perform orthographic processing tasks is acquired through their reading
experiences rather than it being an underlying skill for reading development (Deacon,
Benere, & Castles, 2012). Phonologic or orthographic, processing may be preferential,
use driven by the learner’s language and educationalhistory and the instruction provided
for reading skills. No significant relationship was found between hearing thresholds
and reading performance in the research studies conducted by Tymms, Brien, Merrell,
Collins, and Jones (2003) even similar results were found in researchers conducted by
Convertino, Marschark, Sapere, Sarchet and Zupan(2009). Instead, few researches
suggests an overall deficit in general language comprehension and cognitive factors to
be the reason for poor literacy achievement (Marschark and Wauters 2008).
Brown and Brewer (1996) considered higher level language and cognitive processing
as the main influencers in early literacy development prior to school age. The lack of
complex language and cognitive skills places a higher demand upon resources toward
text-driven processing as opposed to pre-existing conceptual processes. This textdriven
process may result in learners allotting less attention and cognitive resources toward
handling difficult linguistic contexts or integrating a text with world knowledge.
A key area that distinguished skilled readers from poor readers is the strength of
their primary language (Mayberry, delGiudice, and Lieberman 2011). When there is a

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mismatch between parent and child primary language it can be difficult for the child to
develop fluent language (DCDP and DCHP). Even when children receive amplification
phonological awareness and reading profiles may still fall below that of peers with
normal hearing sensitivity (Geers, 2002). Deaf children of Deaf parents who were
raised in an sign language environment and develop ASL as a native language were
found to possess stronger reading skills than children who are deaf with parents who
are hearing (DCHP) and who do not develop ASL as a native language (Freel, Clark,
Anderson, Gilbert, Musyoka& Hauser, 2011). These findings emphasize the need to
appropriately match a child’s communication modality and educational program to suit
the child’s needs and family’s resources, as a master trainer one may consider need
based assessment to be performed to choose the best possible communication option
for the child. As a whole, these research findings suggest the need for openness to
instruction and intervention for SwDs. An underlying theme that emerged from the
research was that other strategies provide an alternate route to successful reading
acquisition, and that there may be multiple ways to achieve these fundamental reading
skills. Understanding that the course of literacy development for SwDs is altered from
that of children with normal hearing sensitivity will support the transition from traditional
intervention that is phonology based to other alternate interventions. Research evidence
supports that higher-level language and cognitive processes as well as information
processing strategies strengthen reading and reading comprehension skills in students
who are deaf or hard of hearing.
As a master trainer, one can think on various research domains. Future research
investigating literacy abilities in SwDs could be geared toward intervention strengthening
these alternate routes to reading comprehension. In addition, developing a fluent, primary
mode of communication( oral or manual), could support the bridge to written language.
Identifying cognitive influences could possibly provide strategies or techniques for
students to decode and code multiple features of written language.

5.5 Identifying The Gaps In Literacy Research

This can be done in accordance with priorities in research area highlighting literacy
development. As a researcher and years of experience in the field of deaf education,
author feels that there are still gaps in literacy research in India. In this sub unit, we will
be discussing on few gaps in the area of literacy research.

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 The gaps are as follows
1. Level of literacy
a. reading and writing
2. Intellectual functioning and world knowledge
a. verbal
b. Performance
3. Academic achievement
4. Knowledge of language proficiency
5. Taking into consideration the background variables like student characteristics
and family characterises
The research evidence in literacy suggests that the problems that children with
deafness face in mastering written language are more challenging than those they
encounter in developing reading skills. An individual with deafness can resort to
compensatory strategies to understand a message when grammar and vocabulary skills
are limited. It is much more difficult to express oneself clearly in writing in the face of
such limitations. Although its benefit may not be as immediately obvious as that of a
compensatory approach to reading, a compensatory approach to writing is called for.
One concern is that research on writing in children with deafness has lagged significantly
behind research on reading.
Much of the research work in literacy has been conducted, reflects a primarily a
concern with grammar and vocabulary much as the traditional research on reading did.
Whereas recent research has addressed meaning and comprehension of narrative there
is still a paucity of work investigating how deaf writers express meaning.
The development of holistic, meaning based approaches has been somewhat slower
in the field of writing than in speech and reading so some of our projections will have to
be tentative. In the past generation however most research conducted on the teaching of
writing to children with deafness has had functional, semantic orientation suggesting
that in all aspects of communication both written and person to person the trend in
education of the deaf is clearly towards an acceptance of the primacy of meaning and
away from the importance of mechanics per se.
Many research studies on the reading skills of children with deafness have focussed
on these children’s low reading achievement relative to hearing children. Unfortunately,
researchers in the field of education of the deaf offer no insight into what children with
deafness can do but instead present an unbroken and perhaps invalid picture of failure
and underachievement. Their still lies a gap in research in appreciating learners with
deafness skills which had not been identified previously.

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5.6 Readings in Researches on Literacy Development at Different
Levels in the Past Two Decades
For most of us, learning to read and write seems to be a relatively straightforward
process, although writing might seem to be more difficult than reading. Fluent writing
seem to follow fluent reading.

Remember;Reading has been characterised as simply training the eye (visual mode)
to do the work of ear. Writing simply means training the hands to do the work of
tongue.

We know that most children acquire the basics of their native language by three
years and that they have impressive conversational capabilities. By the time children
with deafness start formal reading instructions they have developed pre reading skills.
Typically they know that language print proceeds from left to right and top to bottom
(refer to initial four units of this Paper). They can decode environmental signs (
McDonald …..) at an early age. Adults have read to themand they know that print can
tell stories. Despite this learning to read a language that one has already mastered
conversationally is a relatively long process.
Strategies for children who are deaf given by various researchers:
Perhaps the most significant difference between the use of literacy skills in children
who are hearing and SwDs is the reliance by children who are deaf on literacy skills,
such as writing, as a mode of social communication (Maxwell 1985; Rottenberg and
Searfoss 1992). Evidence from the researchers Rottenberg and Searfoss (1992) indicated
that SwDs use literacy as a way to learn about and gain access to a world where the
majority of individual use a verbal mode of communication. When attempts at signed
communication fail, children rely on drawing or writing to express themselves (Maxwell
1985; RottenbergSearfoss 1992). For children who are not yet able to write or draw a
clear message, environmental print—such as name tags, charts, signs, and labels—is
shown to a communication partner to convey a message (Rottenberg and Searfoss 1992).
This is a cultural phenomenon that continues throughout the life of adults who are deaf.
Despite the frequent use of written communication by children who are deaf, the
reliance on letter-sound relationships in written language provides a significant challenge
for emerging writers with hearing impairments (Williams 1994). Without the ability to

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hear initial consonants in words, using the strategy of sounding out a word is not a
useful approach. Seemingly, however, children who are deaf do make generalizations
about beginning sounds based on the visual cues provided by the hand shape of the sign
for the word (Ruiz 1995; Williams 1994). While this works for some words, such as
names, the strategy has been observed to be overgeneralized by children to include
other words without sign–initial consonant correspondence (Ruiz 1995).
A similar, more developed strategy is observed as children use finger spelling to
record words in print (Padden and Ramsey 1993; Ruiz 1995; Williams 1994). As children
make the connection between the finger spellings used in daily communication and the
written English language, select, high frequency, personally important words begin to
appear in their writing (Padden and Ramsey 1993; Ruiz 1995). Because some finger
spelling is part of daily communication using ASL, many children are exposed to a
variety of such words from birth. Using these words in written format shows a more
developed understanding of the relationship between signed and written language
(Padden and Ramsey 1993). Linking language (ASL) with printed text (English) creates
a connection that is useful in reading and writing new or unfamiliar words (Padden and
Ramsey 1993).
Finger spelling, therefore, should be encouraged as a viable strategy when presenting
new words in the classroom. Hearing peers also find this technique helpful for
remembering difficult spellings and words.

5.7 Evidence Based Practices In Literacy Development

Let us first review the characteristics of readers with deafness;
1. Less aware of misunderstandings
2. Rely more on pictures
3. “Passive” readers
4. Spend less than 12 minutes a day
5. Actively engaged in print
6. Distinctly different DHH populations (diverse group)
(Marschark, M., Sapere, P., Convertino, C., Seewagen, R., &Maltzen H.
(2004).,Schirmer, B. (2003), Schirmer, B., Bailey, J., &Lockman, A. , (2004), Donne
&Zigmond, (2008), Easterbrooks, et al, (2008)).

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 Figure #1 Musselman, C. (2000)

We will review few researches under the domain of literacy and understand the concept
of evidence based practices. This will assist in developing literacy in children with
deafness.

Domain Researchers Findings

Vocabulary Luckner& Cooke, 2010 Use computers (ICT) for
vocabulary instruction
Fung, Chow, & McBride-Chang, Dialogic Reading
2005; Trussell&Easterbrooks, 2013
Cannon, Fredrick,&Easterbrooks, Repeated readings or
2009; Guardino, Cannon, &Eberst, viewings
2014
Beck &McKweon, 2007; Repetition
Easterbrooks& Beal-Alvarez, 2013 Meaningful use in natural
contextual situations
Reading Stauffer, 1969 Modified Directed Reading
Comprehension Thinking Activity- DRTA
Luckner, J., & Handley, M. (2008) Use of well-written, high
interest texts
Easter brooks& Beal-Alvarez, 2013 Bi-Bi Approach
Read Aloud
Writing to Read

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 Domain Researchers Findings

Narrative Story Grammar

Technology
Fluency Luckner & Urback, 2011 Repeated readings of word lists
Repeated readings of passages
Repeated readings of word lists
and passages
Decoding Tucci, Trussell, &Easter Grapheme-Phoneme
brooks (2014) Correspondence
With Visual Phonics,
Lexicalized Fingerspelling and
Chaining, Iconic/Semantic and
Representation
Communication Hermans, et al 2008 Children whose teachers are
better communicators learn
more.
Kelly, 1996 Vocabulary and grammar
worktogether as a team.

As a master trainer, we should keep in mind that a good teaching practice, (not
intervention, method, material or strategy) that leads to positive student outcomes.
Children who are identified and served early acquire language and literacy skills at a
level high to those who are not identified and served early. “Early” means 6 months or
as early as possible.

Parallels to children who are hearing

Literacy development in SwDs is a multifaceted issue. There are many parallels to
literacy development in hearing children, as well as some elements unique to SwDs
(Ewoldt 1985; Padden and Ramsey 1993; Rottenberg 2001; Rottenberg and Searfoss
1992, 1993). Understanding these commonalities and differences allows educators to
plan more appropriate, meaningful literacy activities in their classrooms activities.
SwDs will benefit from many of the literacy activities already in place within the
regular education classroom. For younger learners, time to explore writing, drawing,

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books, and environmental print is crucial. Story time (translated into sign – depending
upon the method of communication undertaken) and journal writing using “invented
spelling” are appropriate activities for young SwDs.
SwDs, like their peers with full hearing, participate in literacy events and use written
language in many typical ways. SwDs demonstrate the following uses of language (signed
or spoken):
a. to interact socially with peers and adults while writing;
b. to provide information about written text, to label written creations, and to monitor
the construction of text (Williams 1994);
c. to request assistance with writing tasks from adults and peers;
d. to challenge others’ knowledge of literacy; and
e. to evaluate literary works (Williams 1994).
Similar parallel results can be drawn for early literacy experiences with reading
(Rottenberg 2001; Williams 1994). Like their hearing peers, learners who are deaf show
an interest in print and drawings (Rottenberg 2001; Williams 1994). Within print-rich
classrooms and supportive homes, deafness do not significantly differentiate the process
of literacy development (Ewoldt1985;) Padden and Ramsey 1993; Rottenberg 2001;
Rottenberg and Searfoss 1992, 1993). However, educatorsto remember that learners
also use literacy in ways unique and variety to their deafness.

Families who are Hearing (DCHP)

Some interconnections exist in language development between learners who are
deaf and learners who are hearing. Language development is dependent on frequent,
consistent, and accessible communication (verbal /manual). These factors are the same
for children of parents who are able to hear, as well as children of parents who are not
able to hear (DCDP/DCHP). The mode of communication (manual or spoken language)
is not a factor (Marschark, 2001).
However, SwDs and born to hearing parents generally start learning language later,
and with less consistent and less useful experiences. Such students do not share a native
language with their family. Students hearing loss, on average, is not identified until
their first birthday (Marschark, 2001). These children are exposed to less linguistically
rich environments than deaf children of deaf parents (DCDP) or hearing children of
hearing parents (HPHC). As there is difference in language exposure, learners who are
deaf in families with hearing caregivers commence their language learning at a later
age than their peer group (Marschark 2001).

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 In families where parents are learning a new language, such as Sign Language or
Signed English (SE) or Signing System (SS), with which to communicate with their
child, children have a tendency to acquire inconsistent linguistic input (Kuntze, 1998
and Marschark, 2001). This early language deprivation explains the troublesome statistic
that 90 percent of children with deafness born into families with only hearing caregivers
experience delays in language acquisition compared to hearing children in hearing
families and deaf children in deaf families ( understand with respect to commonalities
of language) (Kuntze, 1998 & Meier and Newport 1990).
Katasse (1997) has suggested a variety of strategies and techniques to provide
meaningful language experiences in classroom situation, educators may share these
suggestions with families, as well as remember them in their own teaching learning
process:
a. Model social and public encounters as an adult who is deaf would. Using notes
while communicating in restaurants and stores is an important way to model
successful, nonverbal communications.
b. Use written language to communicate within the family and classroom if the
child doesnot have verbal language.
c. Keep up-to-date on learning sign language. This includes enrolment in refresher
and more advanced classes (AYJNIHSD (D) conducts such training program)
Students who are deaf will have an interpreter if they use manual communication,
but teachers can create a feeling of belonging by learning sign themselves and teaching
sign in their classes. Educators should not be fearful to ask learners, interpreters, and
parents for assistance with signing or any assitance they require.

Classroom practice for Student with Deafness

When considering the learning environment for students with deafness, keep in mind
the commonalities and differences discussed in this unit. Opportunities to read and
enjoy books alone, with peer group, with teachers and with parents are important learning
experiences for all students. Make sure that students with deafness have time to discuss
their literacy experiences amongst themselves and with others (teachers or parents). If
your student uses sign language and is just learning to sign, use written notes combined
with signing to communicate. If your student is unable to come up with a sign for an
object, assist him/her in finding the written word or an actual example, and then look
up the sign together. Provide written, as well as sign/speech labels for classroom objects.
This will help connect sign to spoken language.

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 Organize your classroom for learners with deafness to maximize visual input. The
following suggestions help ensure that students with deafness receive information in a
clear, and effective manner:
a. Write key words, phrases, and assignments on the board.
b. Use visual aids whenever possible to provide additional access to information
presented in class.
c. Use an LCD / overhead projector rather than a chalkboard. Projector allows teacher
to face the students rather than have your back to them. Digitalization helps in
teaching learning process.
d. Arrange seating arrangement so that students with deafness can see and hear the
majority of what is happening during class. Make sure that the light source (window
or open door) is behind the student; visual cues are difficult to see when looking
into the light.
e. Use closed-captioned videos.
f. New vocabulary to be presented to students with deafness prior to the lesson.
This allows students to recognize the words and signs/speech during the lesson
and thus maximize comprehension.
g. Teach students to raise hands and be identified before speaking/ signing or
responding in class. This allows students who are deaf to know who is speaking
and learn communication skills.
By making some modifications in your daily teaching, you can create a more visual
classroom environment. Visual input may be considered when planning lessons and
activities. Modify your story time so that you can sign/speak as you read, or have asign
language interpreter the story as you read it aloud. If using a sign language interpreter,
make sure that s/he is signing near the book. This shows the connection between the
written words, the oral story, the pictures, and the signs s/he is doing.
As a master trainer, you can design a reading program for students with deafness by
considering five domains like;
1. Phonemic awareness: Relying on research stated above in the unit which indicates
that successful deaf readers make use of phonological information, a system to be
developed to teach basic phonemic awareness.

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 2. Bridging lists and bridging: Lists (vocabulary) may be developed to bridge some
of the differences between print and sign/verbal language and the training to be
provided to children.
3. Reading series: A commercially available series (check Amazon) , multiple skills
series may be used.
4. ISL development / language experiences stories: Language experience
approaches may be used, with the children signing/verbal stories and the teacher
telling stories Andprovide Appropriate Language Models Resigning, Writing And
Videotaping May Be Followed.

5.8 Let Us Sum Up

To ensure that SwDs receive the quality education they deserve, educators must
understand the learning needs of these children. Students with pre-lingually deafness (either
born deaf or became deaf before acquiring language), with no other disabilities, are a
diverse group of students. Though a multitude of factors should be considered when
teaching these students, a primary one is language development. SwDs acquire language
in different ways, depending on the home environment and teaching strategies incorporated
by teacher. As you must have understood from the unit, language development plays an
important role in a student’s literacy learning.
Literacy as we know, consist of two highly interrelated components; reading and
writing. Literacy itself is a subcomponent of a higher order category that also includes
direct person to person oral and manual communication. Traditionally research on the
reading and writing of children with deafness has focussed on areas of perceived
weakness, especially grammar and has concentrated on the word, phrase or sentence
level. More recent investigations of developed countries in the field of special education
of the deaf suggest that the functional reading ability of SwDs is much higher than the
standardized achievement test. In the area of writing, some research developments
suggest that approaches emphasizing function (meaning) over form (syntax) may be
more beneficial, this may be considered as priority in research area.
Some clear trends in the development of literacy skills are still emerging. A shift
appears to be taking place form an elemental, step by step process toward more holistic,
functional, semantic based instruction manner. The final outcome of this unit suggest
that pragmatic blend of analytic and holistic techniques should be employed to develop
literacy , somewhat akin to the interactive compensatory model which was advocated
by Stanovich (1980).

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 Overall, having a SwDs in your classroom should not dramatically change the way
you teach. Providing a developmentally appropriate, print as well as language-rich
environment is fundamental to literacy success. Exposure to competent language models,
whether sign language interpreters, educators, or peers, encourages language
development. Opportunities to respond and ask questions in class also help in language
development.

5.9 Unit end exercises

A. Answer in detail
1. As a master trainer, suggest strategies to improve literacy in children with deafness.
2. As a master trainer, how you will enhance emergent literacy in Preschool for
Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children through interactive reading?
3. Discuss on “Literacy and the role of parents of children with deafness”.
B. Short Notes
Impact of Hearing loss on ……
1. Reading Achievement
2. Patterns of Reading Development
3. Trends in Literacy Skill Level
4. Higher Level Functioning in Literacy
5. Cochlear Implant and Literacy Development
C. Experiential Learning
1. Interview five deaf adults using sign language for communication to understand
the “Importance of Fingerspelling for Reading”
2. Discuss a research paper on “Reading, Writing, and Phonological Processing Skills
of Children with deafness” in a group.

5.10 References
Akamatsu, C. T., & Andrews, J. F. (1993). It takes two to be literate: Literacy
interactions between parent and child. Sign Language Studies, 81, 333-360.

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 Clay, M. M. (1979). The early detection of reading difficulties (3rd ed.).Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann Educational Books.
Evans, M. A., Shaw, D., & Bell, M. (2000). Home literacy activities and their influence
on early literacy skills. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54, 65-75.
Gioia, B. (2001). The emergent language and literacy experiences of three deaf
preschoolers. International Journal of Disability, 48, 411-428.
Goswami, U. (2001). Early phonological development and the acquisition of literacy.
In S. B. Neuman& D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp.
111-124). New York: Guilford Press.
Marschark, M., Lang, H. G., &Albertini, J. A. (2002). Educating deaf students: From
research to practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sénéchal, M., &LeFevre, J. L. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of
children’s reading skill: A five-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73, 445-
460.
Sénéchal, M., LeFevre, J., Hudson, E., & Lawson, P. E. (1996). Knowledge of
storybooks as a predictor of young children’s vocabulary. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 88, 520-536.
Sulzby, E., &Teale, W. (1996). Emergent literacy. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B.
Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. II, pp. 727-
757). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Swanwick, R., & Watson, L. (2007). Parents sharing books with young deafchildren
in spoken English and in BSL: The common and diverse features ofdifferent language
settings. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 12, 385-405.
Whitehurst, G. J., &Lonigan, C. J. (1998). Child development and emergentliteracy.
Child Development, 69, 848-872.

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