BESC 131 Full Textbook

BESC-131
Education: Concept,
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
Nature and Perspectives
School of Education
BLOCK 1
CONCEPT AND NATURE OF EDUCATION 7
BLOCK 2
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION 87
BLOCK 3
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION 167
BLOCK 4
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE OF EDUCATION 233
1
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Lokesh K. Verma Prof. D. Venkateshwarlu Dr. Gaurav Singh
Former Dean Director Assistant Professor
Department of Education School of Education, IGNOU School of Education
University of Jammu IGNOU
(Chairperson of Expert Prof. Vibha Joshi
Committee Meeting) School of Education, IGNOU Dr. Elizabeth Kuruvilla
Assistant Professor
Prof. P.K. Sahoo
Prof. N.K. Dash School of Education
Formerly with Department
School of Education, IGNOU IGNOU
of Education
Allahabad University
Prof. Saroj Pandey Dr. Anjuli Suhane
Prof. Harjeet Kaur Bhatia Formerly with School of Assistant Professor
Department of Education Education, IGNOU School of Education
JamiaMilliaIslamia IGNOU
Prof. Amitav Mishra
Prof. Nidhi Bala,
School of Education, IGNOU Mr. Ajith Kumar C.
Formerly with Department
Assistant Professor
of Education
Prof. Nirmala Yalavarthi School of Education
University of Lucknow
School of Education, IGNOU IGNOU
Prof. Swaraj Basu,
School of Social Science Prof. Sutapa Bose Dr. Niradhar Dey
IGNOU, New Delhi School of Education Programme Coordinator,
(Former Chairperson, IGNOU, New Delhi Education under B.A.
CBCS Committee) General (BAG)
Mrs. Poonam Bhushan
Programme - CBCS
Prof. Santosh Panda, Associate Professor
Assistant Professor
STRIDE, IGNOU, School of Education, IGNOU
School of Education
(former Chairperson NCTE IGNOU
New Delhi) Dr. Eisha Kannadi
Associate Professor
Prof. S. Vijaysekhar Reddy
School of Education, IGNOU
CBCS BDP Coordinator of
School of Social Science
Dr. M.V. Lakshmi Reddy
SOSS, IGNOU
Associate Professor
Prof. Rashmi Sinha School of Education, IGNOU
Director
School of Social Science
IGNOU, New Delhi
Programme Coordinator : Dr. Niradhar Dey
Educaion under B.A. General (BAG)
Programme - CBCS
Course Coordinator : Dr. Niradhar Dey, (BESC-131)
BLOCK 1 PREPARATION TEAM
Unit 1, 2 & 3 : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU.
Unit 4 : Dr. Ramendra Ku. Parhi, Dept. of Education, Central University of Odisha,
Koraput.
Content Editing : Prof. N.K. Dash, School of Education, IGNOU.
Language Editing : Prof. Pramod Kumar, SOH, IGNOU.
Format Editing and Proof Reading : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU.

Unit 5 : Dr. Sunita Singh, CIE, University of Delhi.
Unit 6 : Dr. Gaurav Rao, Dept. of Education, MJP Rohilkhand University.
Unit 7 : Prof. Asheesh Srivastava, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar.
Unit 8 : Prof. Neerja Dhankar, Formerly with School of Education, Central University
of Haryana.
Major Transformation : Unit 5 : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU
Content Editing : Prof. Vibha Joshi, School of Education, IGNOU
Language Editing : Prof. Pramod Kumar, SOH, IGNOU
Format Editing and Proof Reading : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU
2
Unit 9 : Dr. Shrikant Dwivedi, School of Education, Galgotias University.
Unit 10 : Prof. Vishal Sood, School of Education, Central Univ. of Himachal Pradesh.
Unit 11 : Dr. Tapan Kumar Basantia, School of Education, Central University of South
Bihar.
Unit 12 : Dr. Dori Lal, Dept. of Teacher Training and Non Formal Education, JMI.
Content Editing : Prof. Amitav Mishra, School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Format Editing and Proof Reading : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU.

Unit 13 : Dr. Rajalaxmi Raina, Amity Institute of Behavioural and Allied Science, Amity
University, Noida.
Unit 14 : Dr. Biswajit Behera, School of Education, Central University of Punjab.
Unit 15 : Prof. Ramakanta Mohalik, RIE, Bhubaneswar (NCERT).
Unit 16 : Dr. Sweta Gupta, Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi.
Major Transformation : Unit 14, 15 & 16, Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Content Editing : Prof. N.K. Dash, SOE, IGNOU (Units 13, 14 and 15); Prof. N.K. Dash and
Mrs. Poonam Bhushan, SOE, IGNOU (Unit-16).
Format Editing and Proof Reading : Dr. Niradhar Dey, School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
PRINT PRODUCTION
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SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi
July, 2020
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN-81
All right reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form by mimeograph or any
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3
BESC-131 EDUCATION: CONCEPT,
NATURE AND
PERSPECTIVES
Block 1 Concept and Nature of Education 7
Unit 1 Concept and Nature of Education 9
Unit 2 Scope of Education 27
Unit 3 Agencies of Education 43
Unit 4 Historical Developments of Education: An Overview 63
Block 2 Philosophical Perspective of Education 87

Unit 5 Education and Philosophy 89
Unit 6 Schools of Thought 107
Unit 7 Contribution of Indian Philosophers 123
Unit 8 Contribution of Western Philosophers 145
Block 3 Sociological Perspective of Education 167

Unit 9 Education and Society 169
Unit 10 Education and Socialization 185
Unit 11 Issues and Concerns in Education 198
Unit 12 Interface between School and Community 216
Block 4 Socio-Psychological Perspective of Education 233

Unit 13 Understanding Education from Psychological
Perspective 235
Unit 14 Understanding Education from Socio-
Psychological Perspectives 253
Unit 15 Shifting Psychological Theories to Understand
Education 271
Unit 16 Understanding Socio-Psychological Attributes 291
BESC-131 EDUCATION: CONCEPT,
NATURE AND
PERSPECTIVES
Introduction to the Course
This course ‘Education: Concept, Nature and Perspectives’ (BESC-131)
is basically an attempt to make you understand the meaning and concept of
education and its discourses in various educational perspectives. The course aims
to achieve the following learning outcomes.
After going through the course, you should be able to:
 Explain the concept, nature and scope of education.
 Discuss the role of different agencies of education and their interface
between and among the agencies.
 Analyse the historical development of education in India during pre and
post-independence periods.
 Explain the concept of education from different philosophical perspectives
with special reference to various schools of thought and viewpoints of Indian
and Western philosophers.
 Describe sociological perspective of education with special reference to
the process of socialisation of the child and the interface between the school
and community.
 Discuss the socio-psychological perspective of education with special
reference to the use of constructivist approach to education.
This course has been designed into four different Blocks.
The first Block will provide you with the basic understanding of education
from various perspectives. This Block deals with the concept, nature and scope
of education. This Block also emphasizes the functions of various agencies of
education like family, school, community, state, media, etc. in imparting education
to the children. This Block also discusses a detailed overview of the historical
development of education in India.
The second Block deals with the philosophical perspective of education focusing
on educational concept of various schools of thought and viewpoints of different
Indian and Western philosophers on education.
The third Block provides the learners experiences to understand the society
where they live, role of education for socialising the children, debate and
discussions on social issues and concerns in education and its interface with
different agencies of education like, family, school and community.
The fourth Block explores and understands the use of socio-psychological
attributes of learners and the implications of constructivist approach to education.
Specifically, it deals with understanding education from the socio-psychological
perspectives and the implications of psychological theories and attributes in the
field of educational practices.
6
BESC-131
Education: Concept,
Indira Gandhi
School of Education
Block
1 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF

EDUCATION
Unit 1
Concept and Nature of Education 9
Unit 2
Scope of Education 27
Unit 3
Agencies of Education 43
Unit 4
Historical Developments of Education: An Overview 63
7
BLOCK 1 CONCEPT AND NATURE
OF EDUCATION
Introduction to the Block
‘Concept and Nature of Education’ is the first Block of the Course,
BESC-131 ‘Education: Concept, Nature and Perspectives’. To understand
an abstract concept like education, one is required to explicate its meaning or
nature from the point of view of the functions such concepts perform or the
contexts in which such concepts are appropriately used. Keeping in view of
its areas of knowledge and perspectives, the present Block addresses specifically
the meaning, scope and nature of education narrating the contribution of various
agencies to the understanding of educational discourses. This Block provides
an overview of the historical perspective of education. There are four Units
in this Block.
The first Unit of this Block, ‘Concept and Nature of Education’, begins with
providing you an understanding of the concept and nature of education, including
the values that we practice. Specifically, the Unit discusses the aims of education
that deals with the development of individuals and the society. Finally, the Unit
differentiates the concept of Education from Schooling, Learning, Instruction,
Training and Indoctrination.
The second Unit of this Block, ‘Scope of Education’, focuses on understanding
education from different viewpoints such as different learning environments, focus
on the study of knowledge and mode of providing education. Under the viewpoint
of learning environments, the scope of education has been explained as formal,
informal and non-formal systems of education. Further, from the focus on study
of knowledge, education is classified into liberal, professional and vocational
& technical education. The Unit ends with illustrating the systems of face-to-
face, open and distance learning, and online education.
The third Unit of this Block, ‘Agencies of Education’ deals with the contribution
of various agencies such as family, school, community, State and media to the
education of the children. Education being a continuous and life long process,
to the above agencies of education perform educational functions as expected
by the society and educate the children.
The fourth Unit of this Block, ‘Historical Developments of Education: An
Overview’ analyses the historical perspective of education. Specifically, this Unit
critically analyses the education system prevailing in India and its influences on
shaping educational policies and practices during different periods such as ancient,
medieval and modern times. This Unit also explains educational developments
in the recent time such as the Niti Aayog, education as a fundamental right
and draft National Education Policy, 2019.
8
UNIT 1 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF
EDUCATION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Concept of Education
1.3.1 Etymological Derivation of Education
1.3.2 Definitions of Education and its Analysis
1.3.3 Narrow and Broader Meaning of Education
1.3.4 Nature of Education
1.4 Goals and Aims of Education

1.4.1 Individual Aim of Education
1.4.2 Social Aim of Education
1.4.3 Democratic Aim of Education
1.5 Cultivating Values through Education
1.6 Education as Differentiated from Schooling, Learning, Instruction,

Training, Teaching and Indoctrination
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 References and Suggested Readings
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is a never ending process. It starts from the very beginning of one’s
birth and continues till the death. At every moment of our life, we learn something
that may be at our home, at the school, in the society, at the workplace, and many
other places. Education helps us to realise our potential abilities and helps use
those in our actions. Education is a powerful instrument to modify our behavior
and it also makes us realize our own self. The aims of education are also very
wide in their scope and cater to individual and social need of an individual. The
most important aspect of education is to cultivate values among the human beings
through schooling, instruction, training and teaching.
In view of the above, the present Unit will help you to understand the concept
and nature of education. It will also help you to understand the aims of education
for the development of individuals and the society. Finally, this Unit will help you
to differentiate the concept of Education from Schooling, Learning, Instruction,
Training and Indoctrination.
All of us know that education is an important aspect of our social life. Parents
irrespective of different socio-economic background want their children to get
good education. Government wants that its citizens must get good education.
Dr. Niradhar Dey, Assistant Professor, School of Education, IGNOU. 9

Concept and Nature of
Education 1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 define education with its derivations;
 explain the concept and nature of education;
 discuss the individual, social and democratic aims of education;
 describe the processes to cultivate values among the learners through
education; and
 explain the concepts of ‘schooling’, ‘learning’, ‘instruction’, ‘training’, and
‘indoctrination’.
1.3 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

In layperson’s language, we understand education is a capacity that helps an
individual to lead him/her from ‘darkness to light’ or from ‘ignorance to knowledge’.
More specifically, education helps individuals to acquire information and knowledge;
makes them conscious and adjust to different situations; and also change their
behavior from undesirable to desirable. John Dewey explains education as a
process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It means the
experiences are not static; rather the experiences are reconstructed, which means
education helps us to reconstruct our experiences. Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
says ‘Education in Indian tradition is not merely a means of earning a livelihood,
not only a nursery of thought, or a school for citizenship, but it is ignition into the
life of sprit and training of human souls in the pursuits of truth and the practice
of virtue’.
The above discussions depict that:
 Education helps individuals to continuously reconstruct their own experiences.
 Education contributes to the complete development of human beings.
 Education not merely prepares individuals to earn their livelihood but also
purifies their soul and mind and enables them to experience the truth and
virtues of life.
Let us try to understand the meaning of the concept of education from the
etymological point of views.
1.3.1 Etymological Derivation of Education

The word ‘Education’ has been derived from the Latin words ‘Educare’, ‘Educere’
and ‘Educatum’. The word ‘Educare’ means to ‘nourish’ or to ‘bring up’. The
word ‘Educere’ means to ‘lead forth’ or to ‘draw out’. The word ‘Educatum’ is
composed of two terms, i.e. ‘E’ and ‘Duco’. Here ‘E’ means, a movement from
‘inward’ to ‘outward’ and ‘Duco’ means ‘developing’ or ‘progressing’.
When we analyse the above etymological derivations, we can infer that ‘Education’
nourishes or brings up the children for complete development of their personality.
‘Education’ can lead them from ignorance to knowledge. Further, ‘Education’
helps them develop and express their inward abilities.
10
‘Education’, can also be defined in terms of Sanskrit words ‘Shiksha’ and ‘Vidya’. Concept and Nature of
Education
The word, ‘Shiksha’ is derived from ‘shah’ which implies, ‘to control or to
discipline’. The word, ‘Vidya’ is derived from ‘Vidh’ which implies ‘to know’. So
the Sanskrit words ‘Shiksha’ and ‘Vidya’ are synonyms to the word ‘Education’.
Thus ‘Education’ provides knowledge and makes oneself disciplined’.
Let us now discuss some of the definitions of ‘Education’ given by the great
educationists.
1.3.2 Definitions of Education and its Analysis

Both Indian and western thinkers have defined the concept of education. Let us
analyse a few of them.
Indian Thinkers:
‘Education is something, which makes the person self-reliant and self-less’.
Rigveda
‘Education is for liberation’.
Upanishad
‘Nothing is more purifying in the earth than wisdom’.
Bhagvat Gita
‘Education means training for the Country and love for the nation’.
Kautilya
‘Human education means the training which one gets from the nature’.
Panini
‘Education is the manifestation of divine perfection already existing in man’.
Swami Vivekananda
Education is the all-round drawing out of the best in child and man - body,
mind and spirit’.
Mahatma Gandhi
The highest education is that which does not merely give us information but
makes our life in harmony with all existence’.
Rabindranath Tagore
‘Education which will offer the tools where by one can live for the divine,
for the country, for one-self, and for others and this must be the ideal of
every school which calls itself national’.
Sri Aurobindo
Western Thinkers:
‘Education is the child’s development from within’.
Rousseau
11
Concept and Nature of ‘Education means the bringing out the ideas of universal validity which are
Education
latent in the mind of every man’.
Socrates
‘Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right movement’.
Plato
‘Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body’.
Aristotle
‘Education is the natural, harmonious and progressive development of man’s
innate powers’.
Pestalozzi
‘Education is the complete development of the individuality of the child’.
T.P. Nunn
‘Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of
experiences’.
John Dewey
When we analyse the above definitions of Education, we infer the following
characteristics of education.
 Education makes the individual self-less, self-reliant, liberated from worldly
bondage, and manifests the divine perfection already existing in him/her.
 Education makes the individual realize the divine and work spiritually.
 Education trains individuals for the country and inculcates in them love for the
nation.
 Education makes our life in harmony with all existence.
 Education prepares oneself for the society as well as for the country.
 Education helps individuals to adjust to various situations, both favourable
and unfavourable.
 Education helps individuals to live through continuous reconstruction of new
experiences.
 Education is the natural, progressive and harmonious development of the
individuals in body, mind and spirit.
Activity 1
From the above definitions of ‘Education’, write the name of the educationist(s)
against the key points that they have mentioned in their definition:
Individual and all-round development:
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
12
Development for the Country: Education
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Spiritual and divine development:
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
1.3.3 Narrow and Broader Meaning of Education

Education can also be explained in its narrow as well as broad sense. According
to narrow meaning of education, education means teaching-learning activities taking
place in the formal system of education. Education that we receive from the
formal school system explains narrow meaning of education. Under narrow meaning
of education, curriculum, teachers, students, time tables, teaching methodologies,
teaching materials, evaluation processes are covered. The acts of teachers and
students in which teachers provide knowledge as per of the defined curriculum
and students receive knowledge whatever is taught to them in the school comes
under the narrow meaning of education. In the narrow setting of education, students
get very less scope to exhibit themselves and also get less opportunities to transform
their potential aptitudes into visible abilities. But this idea of education has been
criticized as it is very limited in scope. The acquisition of knowledge is not the one
and only purpose of education, but definitely formal education system is one of
the prominent aims of education.
On the contrary, broader meaning of education refers to all the life experiences
that the child receives at school, home, society, etc. Education that a child gets
from formal, informal and non-formal systems of education comes under the
broader sense of education. The broader meaning of education explains education
as a continuous process. As earlier discussed, the process of education starts
from the birth and continuous till the death. All experiences of life that an individual
gets while interacting with the family, friends, peers, playmates, environment, club
members, social gatherings, culture and festivals, teachers and mentors help him/
her to mould his/her behavior and personality. All these experiences came are the
wider meaning of education.
1.3.4 Nature of Education

The nature of education is very wide and complex. This can be understood from
the definitions and explanations given in the earlier section. Let us discuss the
specific nature of education.
 Education is a Lifelong Process: The process of education starts from the
very beginning of birth and continues till the death. It includes all the
experiences that an individual gets during his/her life time. Continuous
reconstruction of experiences is a life-long process of education.
 Education brings Development of the Country: Education brings the
changes in the society and development of the country. The development of
the country depends on how established its education system is. Education
is a means of earning one’s livelihood. Education helps individuals to earn
their livelihood. Therefore, it comes under ‘bread and butter’ aim of education. 13
Concept and Nature of  Education is a Tri-polar Process: The process of education is not limited
Education
to the teacher and the students (bi-polar process); rather it includes the
society as well. Every educational action is for the betterment of the society.
Education is, therefore, a tri-polar process, in which there is regular interaction
among teachers, students and the society. The ultimate beneficiary of every
educational action is the society.
 Education brings all Round Development of the Personality: Education
brings all round development of the personality of the individual. It includes
physical, mental, social, emotional, aesthetic, moral, economic and spiritual
development of the individual. Lack of development in one aspect hinders
development of total personality. For achieving this goal, emphasis is given
in our school curriculum for all round development of individual personality.
 Education prepares individuals to live their life: The broader aim of
education is not only to educate individuals for their intellectual development
but to make them able to live their lives. It helps individuals acquire knowledge
and skills to engage themselves in world of works and acquire the skills
required for living their lives. Interacting with people, dealing with various
situations, maintaining socio-emotional balance, acquiring life skills, values,
etc. help them to prepare for their lives. It helps them to acquire ten core
life skills given by the World Health Organisation (WHO) such as self-
awareness, empathy, critical thinking, creative thinking, decision making,
problem solving, effective communication, interpersonal relationship, coping
with stress, and coping with emotion.
 Education prepares citizens for the country: Education trains and prepares
the citizens to work for the country and develop patriotism for their country.
Therefore, citizenship education is a part of every education system and gets
practiced in school curriculum.
 Education is a Systematic Process: Education is a systematic process
wherein teacher (Guru) provides students (Shishyas) new knowledge by
organizing varieties of teaching-learning activities.
 Education is an Art as well as a Science: Education is both an Art and
Science. As discussed earlier education is a systematic process. It means,
certain methods, techniques, strategies, curriculum, resources, etc. which are
used to teach the students. When we apply the above methods and techniques
in our teaching, we follow certain systematic process and scientific principles
to teach the students. Hence, it is said that ‘Education is a Science’. On the
other hand, teaching varies from teacher to teacher in their ways of
presentation, citing examples and illustrations, articulations, etc. which constitute
art of teaching. Therefore, ‘Education is also called as an Art’.
Check Your Progress 1.1
Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end of
the Unit.
1. Discuss the etymological derivations of the term ‘education’.
............................................................................................................
14 ............................................................................................................
2. Explain the meaning of the terms Shiksha and Vidya. Education
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. Cite one example each of narrow and broader meaning of education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4. Explain how ‘Education is a tri-polar process’.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
1.4 GOALS AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

The goals and aims of education are not limited in their scope. Keeping in view
different goals of life, the aims of education may also be different. Aims of education
may be immediate or ultimate. Immediate aims of education are achievable in a
short span of time; say just after the accomplishment of an academic programme,
whereas it takes a very long time to achieve ultimate aims. For example, arranging
bread and butter for one’s living and ensuring shelter, health and security for
oneself are the immediate aims of education, whereas, achieving aims like ‘national
integration’, ‘emotional integration’, ‘universal brotherhood’, ‘international
understanding’, etc. are the ultimate aims or goals of education. These are broad
aims of education.
Aims of education may be specific in terms of achieving individual requirements
or they may be broad to achieve the requirements of the society or the nation.
In this section, we will discuss the details of individual and social aims of education.
1.4.1 Individual Aim of Education

According to individualist thinkers, an individual is greater than the society. Individual
aim, therefore, emphasizes the development of individual to his/her fullest capacities.
T.P. Nunn, the ardent supporter of this aim emphasized ‘nothing good enters into
the human world except in and through the free activities of individual men and
women and that the educational practice must be shaped to accord with this
truth’. (Quoted in Saxena and Dutt, 2009).
The above statement emphasizes that education should develop individuals
according to their interests, capacities and specialties. Naturalists advocate that
essential aim of education is the independent progress of an individual. The
educationists like Rousseau, Pestalogy, Frobel, T.P. Nuun, and others have given
emphasis on individual aim of education. Individual aim of education has both
narrow and wider meanings. Let us understand narrow and wider meanings of
individual aim of education. 15
Concept and Nature of Narrow Meaning of Individual Aim of Education:
Education
The narrow meaning of individual aim of education emphasizes all-round and
natural development of the individual. Individual aim of education is based upon
the principles of naturalist thinking on education. T.P. Nuun in his book, ‘Education’,
has mentioned, ‘Education must secure conditions under which individuality is
most completely developed’. Thus, narrow meaning of individual aim of education
emphasizes imparting education according to individual’s interests, inclinations,
capacities, and needs so that he/she is able to choose a vocation according to his/
her nature. This is called narrow meaning of individual aim of education as it
focuses only on the development of the individual for better living and fulfilling his/
her individual needs.
Wider Meaning of Individual Aim of Education:
On the contrary, the wider meaning of individual aim of education emphasizes the
individual development of the human being which contributes to the development
of the society. As the individual is a component of the larger society, the development
of individual has no meaning without development of the society. Therefore,
development of the society is as important as the development of individual child.
T.P. Nuun highlighted that education of the individual should be planned with a
view to achieving individual good as well as the good of the society of which he
is an integral part. Further, T.P Nuun mentions, ‘Education should help the child
to make his original contribution to the variegated whole of human life as full and
as truly characteristic as his nature permits’. (Quoted in Saxena and Dutt, 2009).
The statement emphasizes that the contribution of individual towards the development
of the society constitutes the wider meaning of individual aim of education.
Arguments in favour of Individual Aim of Education:
The following arguments favour the individual aim of education:
 Each individual has distinct interest, abilities, and psychological traits. Therefore,
according to their abilities and traits, facilities and opportunities should be
provided for their fullest development. This concept is supported by the
psychologists.
 The scientists supported the individual aim of education as every individual
grows and develops according to his/her developmental pace. The biological
development of individual is quite natural but it needs to be supported by
providing to the individual.
 As per the progressivists, the individuals create society to preserve and
transmit their culture to the future generation so that social progress goes on
continuously. It clarifies that the development of the individual leads to the
development of the society. Therefore, development of the individual is essential
for the development of a society.
 The eminent educationists like T.P. Nuun, Rousseau, Frobel and Pestalozzi
support the individual aim of education. Nuun emphatically remarks,
‘Individuality is the ideal of life. A scheme of education is to be valued by
its success in fostering the highest degree of excellence’.
 Keeping in view the rights of individuals for their own development as good
citizens, the advocates of democracy have also supported the concept of
16 individual aim of education. According to them, good citizenship develops
from good human beings. Hence, the aim of education should be the Concept and Nature of
Education
development of unique abilities of the individual. Therefore, individual aim of
education is important for the development of the individuals themselves.
Arguments Against Individual Aim of Education:
The following arguments go against the individual aim of education:
 Individual is an active member of the society. The existence of the individual
is because of the existence of the society. Therefore, individual aim of
education is the secondary whereas social aim of education is the primary.
When society develops, individual develops automatically. Therefore, individual
aim of education should be given less priority in comparison to social aim of
education.
 Every individual is unique. As per the psychological principle, no two individuals
are alike so far as their physical and mental traits are concerned. If individual
aim emphasized, then, different curricula, methods, techniques may be designed
for each individual’s development, which is not possible. Therefore, individual
aim of education seems to be impractical.
 Because of individual aim of education, there may be disequilibrium in the
society as a few individuals may be more powerful and others may be weak
in many areas of social action. Social control over individual may be minimized
and that may cause a conflict in the society between the empowered and the
under-privileged sections of the society.
 Inclusive nature of the society and its inclusive development is the demand
of the time. If we emphasize individual aim of education, it may hinder
inclusive growth and development of the society. Therefore, social development
should be inclusive, in which all individuals in the society may live with love,
happiness, sympathy, cooperation and moral values.
1.4.2 Social Aim of Education
Many educationists give more importance to social aim of education than individual
aim of education. As individual is a part of the society, the development of society
will bring in development of individual. The view of well-known educationist,
Raymont, i.e. ‘An isolated individual is a figment of imagination’ very well explains
the social aim of education.
Narrow Meaning of Social Aim of Education:
Narrow meaning of social aim of education emphasizes optimum power to be
with the state to control the individual. There may be the apprehension that the
individual rights may be violated because of unnecessary control on the citizens
by the State. This may further suppress creativity of the individual. The suppression
of the individual by the society may happen because the individuals have to
adhere to the norms set by the society. The society may be controlled by a few
individuals who frame the norms, rules and regulations for the entire society. This
section of the society may occupy a prominent position in the society and dominate
other members of the society. Therefore, social aim of education, in its narrow
sense, gives a lot of importance to the society in comparison to individuals.
Wider Meaning of Social Aim of Education:
Wider meaning of social aim of education takes a mid-way between individual aim
17
of education and social aim of education. Social aim of education is equated with
Concept and Nature of democratic socialism. It means that both the society and the individual will be
Education
given equal importance. Society will be the ideal, and individuals will work for the
betterment of the society. At the same time, individual development needs to be
addressed by the society. The democratic principles for fulfilling the needs and
interests of the individual will be prioritized by the society. In the wider sense of
social aim of education, both the society and the individuals work in a cooperative
manner for the development of each other.
Arguments in favour of Social Aim of Education:
The following arguments are given in favour of the social aim of education.
 An individual exists within the society. The identity of an individual is known
from the society where he/she lives. Therefore, society should be given more
importance than individual.
 Human child is born with animal tendencies and instincts. It is the society that
makes the individual a social being. It is therefore, society which gets more
value than individual.
 An individual is nurtured by the society to realize his/her potentialities. Hence
the individual should work for the betterment of the society.
 Development, preservation, and transmission of culture are three major
concerns of the society. Therefore, every individual should work for these
three major concerns of the society.
 It is the society that protects the rights and fulfills needs of the individual.
Hence, it is the responsibility of the individual to safeguard its society and his/
her culture.
 In the words of Raymont, ‘An isolated individual is a figment of imagination’.
Hence, individuals must make society stable and well organized (Quoted in
Saxena and Dutt, 2009).
 There is a saying that ‘United we stand and divided we fall’. It reflects the
benefits of group living. So, every individual should work and live in the
society with common social values.
Arguments Against Social Aim of Education:
The following are the arguments against the social aim of education.
 Social aim of education goes against the principles of psychology as individual
differences pertaining to human abilities and other aspects of human
development are not taken into consideration by the society.
 The ultimate contributors to the social development are the individuals.
Therefore, individuals should get more importance than the society.
 According to the narrow meaning of Social Aim of education, society assumes
a dominant role in comparison to individuals. Therefore, social aim of education
has been criticized as there may not be recognition of the individuals and
their contribution towards the society.
 Over emphasis on society and state may undermine individual rights and
values. The values of equity and equality and democratic principles of
education may not be promoted if the society and state are dominant over
18 the individual.
 No society develops without the development of the individual of that society. Concept and Nature of
Education
If individual abilities like intelligence, aptitude, attitude, creativity, and other
such talents are neglected, no society can develop. Therefore, social aim of
education can be achieved when emphasis is given on the individual aim of
education.
Activity 2
From the above discussion on individual and social aims of education, how
can both of them be synthesized for their development? Give your opinions.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
1.4.3 Democratic Aim of Education

Quoting on democracy, the University Education Commission (1948-49), has
mentioned, ‘Democracy is a way of life and not a mere political arrangement. It
is based on the principle of equal freedom and equal rights for all regardless of
race, religion, sex or economic status’. This principle guides the framing of the aim
of education of a democratic country. In a democratic country, there needs to be
equilibrium between the individual need and the social need.
Democratic aims of education involve democratic values such as freedom, equality,
fraternity, justice, etc. which are practiced by the citizens of the country for the
social and national development. Let us understand some of the aspects/elements
of democratic aims of education.
 Equal educational opportunities should be provided to all members of the
society.
 Compulsory or universal education should be provided to children up to a
particular standard. For example, in India, Right of Children for Free and
Compulsory Education Act 2009, popularly known as Right to Education
Act 2009, has been implemented from 1st April 2010, onwards to provide
free and compulsory education to all the children within the age group of 6-
14 years (Class-I to Class-VIII). It is the responsibility of every democratic
country to provide free and compulsory education to its citizens till a particular
level.
 There should be provision of Adult Education for achieving democratic aim
of education. By implementing Adult Education programmes, skills and
efficiency of adult illiterate learners are enhanced so that they contribute to
the development of the country. Therefore, night school, skill based short-
term courses, and other job trainings can be provided.
 Democratic aim of education promotes institutional autonomy. It means that
the institutions of education should have the autonomy to develop their own
curriculum, and launch academic programmes.
19
Concept and Nature of  Democratic aim of education emphasizes personality development and
Education
professional development of teachers. Therefore, orientation, refreshers, and
theme based training programmes for teachers need to be organized by
education system.
 Achieving all round development of the students is another democratic aim
of education. It includes development of all aspects of students i.e. physical,
mental, emotional, social, and spiritual.
 Developing national and international outlook is also a democratic aim of
education. The purpose of this aim of education is to make the citizens
practise the values of democracy, love their nation and also to have feeling
of universal brotherhood and international understanding.
 Democratic aim of education also emphasizes on a dynamic and diversified
curriculum, achieving social aims, fulfilling local and vocational needs and
provision for leisure hour activities.
 Democratic aim of education focuses on implementation of varieties of teaching
methods and activities so that students with diverse abilities can easily
participate and take the benefits of teaching-learning activities.
 Democratic aim of education gives stress on self-discipline of the learners
instead of imposing it on them. Democratic discipline does not believe in
repression or compulsion rather than self-discipline.
 As per the democratic aim of education, teacher is considered as a friend,
a philosopher and a guide. A teacher performs like a good supporter of
students and facilitates them in their career paths.
 Democratic aim of education emphasizes the school administration should
develop children into capable and responsible citizens and train them as
future leaders.

the Unit.
5. Explain the wider meaning of Individual Aim of Education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6. State any two important points in support of Social Aim of Education
............................................................................................................
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20
7. Explain democratic aim of education in view of facilitating learners with Education
diverse abilities.
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............................................................................................................
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1.5 CULTIVATING VALUES THROUGH

EDUCATION
Highlighting the importance of educational values, ‘J.S. Brubacher (1962) said,
‘to state one’s aim of education is at once to state his educational values’. It
means that aims of education are rightly associated with the values that the person
has acquired. So, education and values are naturally related with each other.
Saxena and Dutt (2009) explain values as quality of an individual or thing which
makes that individual or thing important, respectable and useful. This quality may
be internal or external or both. From philosophical point of view, value signifies
neither a thing nor an individual, but a thought or a point of view. A person or a
thing, which is useful to an individual, becomes valuable to him/her.
Internal and External Values
Values may be categorized under two types, Internal or Subjective value and
External or Objective value. Internal values are our ideas and our qualities that
guide us for our activities. Many internal values may not be exhibited but they help
the individual in his/her life. Internal values are subjective in nature as they guide
the person only.
External values are the qualities of an individual which are exhibited by him/her
in many situations. They are outcomes of his/her external observation and judgment
leading to actions. External values of practitioners in education influence them
while designing curriculum, formulating teaching strategies and choosing teaching-
learning resources for instructional activity.
Kinds of Educational Values
Brubacher (1962), in his book, ‘Modern Philosophies of Education’, has classified
educational values into two categories, they are –
1. Immediate values
2. Remote values
1. Immediate Values: These values are usually related to satisfaction of
biological and psychological needs of the children. If someone is interested
in badminton and gets an opportunity to play badminton, he/she can fulfil his/
her immediate need of playing badminton. If a child has an interest and liking
for fine arts, he/she can fulfil his/her artistic need by engaging in fine arts
activities. The above two examples, explain immediate needs and their fulfillment
by individual actions.
2. Remote Values: These values are related to human intelligence and constitute
rational needs. Fulfilling rational needs is sometime difficult. Each student has
to make rational selection in order to achieve maximum gain from various 21
Concept and Nature of activities of the school. Hence these values are related to rational selection
Education
of needs. The remote values are further divided into two categories, i.e.
Instrumental values and Intrinsic values.
Instrumental values are judged good because they are good for something.
These values are helpful for the person themselves. For an example, if a child
wants to become a musician, knowledge of ‘Tal’ and ‘Swar’ are useful for
him/her. This knowledge of ‘Tal’ and ‘Swar’ are the specific abilities of the
child which help him/her to be a musician. These instrumental values may not
be used for other vocations, but these are valuable for the person him/
herself.
Intrinsic values are the values within an individual or an object which make
him/her or it good. These values are the inherent quality of a person or of
an object. If furniture in a classroom is good and useful for the students and
teachers, it may be said that the furniture is having intrinsic values.
3. Aesthetic Values: Values which give us pleasure, happiness, etc. are called
aesthetic values. Our school curriculum should incorporate a number of
aesthetic values. They should be an integral part of our curriculum and
teaching learning process.
4. Democratic Values : The values enshrined in our Constitution should also
be practiced in the educational process. Equity, equality, national integration,
unity in diversity, rights and responsibilities, liberty, etc. are the democratic
values which need to be integrated in our education system.
5. Moral Values : The moral values such as truth, goodness, honesty, sympathy
and empathy, belongingness, cooperation, etc. need be to part of our education
system.
Activity 3
Explain the following values with examples.
Immediate values: .................................................................................
Remote values : ....................................................................................
Aesthetic values :..................................................................................
Democratic values : ..............................................................................
Moral values : ......................................................................................
1.6 EDUCATION AS DIFFERENTIATED FROM

SCHOOLING, LEARNING, INSTRUCTION,
TRAINING, TEACHING AND
INDOCTRINATION
People sometimes confuse the concept of education with schooling, learning,
training, teaching or instruction. Though these terms have close links with the
process of education, they are different from the term ‘education’. Let us discuss
22 the distinctions between education and these terms.
Education: Education, in its wider sense is the process of development from birth Concept and Nature of
Education
to death or from ‘womb to tomb’. In this sense, education is a lifelong process
that includes all knowledge, attitude, skills and experiences. Thus, all experiences
in life become educational in nature and the process of education continues in all
personal and social situations. Education, in this sense, would certainly include all
efforts for inculcation of values, attitudes, and skills that the society desires to be
imparted to children.
Schooling: Schooling is an act of consciously imparting knowledge, values and
skills in accordance with the requirements (social and individual) in a formal
situation. In its essence, schooling is a limited educational exercise in terms of
range of experiences provided. It is also limited to a specific period of human life
i.e. from childhood till one leaves school, while the process of education continues
throughout the life.
Learning: Learning is a process which results in more or less permanent
modification of behavior as a result of practice of experience. Any relatively
permanent modification of behavior in any aspect of human personality can be the
result of learning. In contrast, education is concerned with the harmonious
development of human abilities and powers, according to the needs of the individual
and the society. While learning results in specific modification of behavior, education
seeks to mould the entire personality and takes a global view of an individual’s
abilities. Another distinction is that, learning may be positive or negative, whereas
education is always positive.
Training: Training is a series of activities involving instruction, practice etc. to
produce desirable habits or behavior modification in particular aspects of life or
vocations for example, teacher training, technical training etc. Thus, training aims
at developing and promoting specific skills in a chosen area with a view to making
the individual undergoing training an expert in the field or task concerned. Thus,
training may be thought of as development of skills in a particular aspect whereas
education is concerned with the development of the whole individual.
Teaching: Teaching is the means employed to effect desirable changes in human
behavior. Teaching involves communication of ideas, values, skills, information
and knowledge to the students. It uses systematic and scientific methods to make
communication effective. Teaching aims at effecting learning in individuals with a
view to educating them. Thus, teaching becomes an instrument of educating
individuals along with other educative experiences.
Indoctrination: Indoctrination is a process of inculcating in the learners ideas,
attitudes or a set of beliefs without entering to their rationality. Indoctrination is
linked with the knowledge and skills that one acquire through teaching.
(Source: The above section (1.6) has been taken from ES-334, Block-1, Unit-
1, Education and its Nature, IGNOU, 2000)
Activity 4
Compare education, schooling, learning, training, teaching and
instruction each with one example.
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.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
23
Education Check Your Progress 1.3
the Unit.
8. Explain aesthetic values with an example.
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............................................................................................................
9. ‘Learning may be positive or negative’. Explain with an example.
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1.7 LET US SUM UP

The first unit of this course highlighted the concept of education from different
perspectives. The aims of education have been elaborated in the light of the
concept and nature of education. The broader meaning of education which prepares
the individual for development of the nation and to work for national development
is exemplified under the social and democratic aim of education. After reading this
unit, you might have understood that the aims of education are to develop the
individual abilities that one has and at the same time, to contribute towards the
society for its development.
Values are the integral part of our education system. Therefore, cultivating values
through education is also one of the important aspects of our school curriculum.
In the end, the terms such as schooling, learning, instruction, training, teaching and
indoctrination have been explained with examples in this unit.
1.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Aggrawal, J.C. (2008). Theory and Principles of Education,12th Edn, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, p24.
Bhatacharya, S. (2006). Philosophical Foundation of Education. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers and Distributors.
Brubacher, J.S. (1962). Modern Philosophies of Education (3rd edition), McGraw
Hill.
IGNOU (2000). Education and its Nature (Unit-1), Understanding Education
(Block-1), Education and Society (ES-334). New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU, (2016). Nature and Concept of Education (Unit-9). Contemporary
India and Education (BES-122). B.Ed. Programme. pp.5-25, IGNOU: New
Delhi.
Jacques, D. (1998). Education for the Twenty First Century – Issues and Prospects.
24 The University of Michigan: Bernan Assoc.
Mathur, S.S. (1966). A Sociological Approach to Indian Education. Agra: Vinod Concept and Nature of
Education
Pustak Mandir.
MHRD (1948-49). The University Education Commission (1948-49). Govt. of
India: New Delhi.
Park, J. (1963). Selected Readings in the Philosophy of Education. Macmillan
Publisher.
Peters, R.S. (ed.) (2010). The Concept of Education –Vol. 17, New York:
Routledge.
Rather, A.R. (2014). Theory and Principles of Education. New Delhi: Discovery
Publications House.
Samuel, S.R. (2015). Philosophical and Sociological Bases of Education. Delhi;
PHI Learning Private Ltd,p.166.
Saxena, N.R.S. (2009). Principles of Education. Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
Saxena, N.R.S. and Dutt, N.K. (2009). Principles of Education. R. Lall Book
Depot. Meerut.
Singh, Y.K. (2008). Philosophical Foundations of Education. New Delhi; APH
Publishing Corporation, p.3.
Taneja, V.R. (2005). Socio-Philosophical Approach to Education. New Delhi;
Atlantic Publishers, p.18.
1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. ‘Education’ is to nourish or bring up the children for their complete
development of personality and “Education’’ is to provide oneself knowledge
and make him/her disciplined.
2. ‘Shiksha’ means ‘control or to discipline’ and the word, ‘Vidya’ means ‘to
know’. So the Sanskrit words ‘Shiksha’ and ‘Vidya’ which are synonyms
the word ‘Education’.
3. Self-exercise.
4. Tri-polar process of Education : Teachers, Students and the Social
Environment
5. Wider meaning of individual aim of education emphasizes the individual
development of the human child corresponding with the development of the
society.
6. It is the society, that makes individual child a social being. Therefore, social
aim of education is more important than the individual aim of education. The
identity and the recognition of the individual are gained through the society.
Therefore, social aim of education is important than the individual.
7. The democratic aim of education addresses the concerns of learners with
diverse abilities and accordingly develops the curriculum to maintain equity
and equality.
25
Concept and Nature of 8. Pleasure, happiness, etc. When we read a poem, we feel happy and
Education
appreciate the creation of the poet. (Other examples can be given by the
learners)
9. Learning is acquisition of new experiences and formation of habits of these
new experiences. Good individual habits result in positive learning and bad
individual habits result in negative learning.
26
Scope of Education
UNIT 2 SCOPE OF EDUCATION
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Scope of Education from the Viewpoint of Different Learning Environments
2.3.1 Informal Education
2.3.2 Formal Education
2.3.3 Non-formal Education
2.4 Scope of Education from the view point of Major Focus of the Study of
Knowledge
2.4.1 Liberal Education
2.4.2 Professional Education
2.4.3 Vocational and Technical Education
2.5 Scope of Education from the Viewpoint of Mode of Providing Education

2.5.1 Face-to-Face Education
2.5.2 Open and Distance Education
2.5.3 Online Education
2.5.4 Comparison among the Face-to-Face, Distance and Online Education
2.6 Let Us Sum Up

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier Unit, we have discussed the concept and nature of education. In this
Unit, we will acquaint you with the scope of education. By scope of education,
we mean the educational operations in terms of different learning environments,
study of knowledge and mode of providing education. As you know the scope
of education is very wide. It cannot be equated with the knowledge acquired
through formal schooling system alone. The informal and non-formal systems of
education also equally contribute to education of individuals. The scope of education
is also understood in terms of study of knowledge through liberal, professional,
technical and vocational education. All the above branches of education provide
a particular knowledge base to the students that include concept, principles and
skills for practicing that knowledge. Moreover, education is transacted through
face-to-face and distance education systems. Now-a-days, with the development
of computer technology and internet, online learning is also getting popular. These
can also be considered as the scope of education.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 define the meaning and scope of education;
[Note: Few content points of this Unit has been taken from Unit-3 ‘Scope of Education’, MES-012,
MAEDU, IGNOU, New Delhi, 2007]
27
Dr. Niradhar Dey, Assistant Professor, School of Education, IGNOU.
Concept and Nature of  classify education from the viewpoint of different learning environments;
Education
 discuss the inter linking of informal, formal and non-formal education;
 categorise education from the viewpoint of the major focus of the study of
knowledge; and
 categorise education according to the mode of providing education.
2.3 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE

VIEWPOINT OF DIFFERENT LEARNING
ENVIRONMENTS
It is rightly said, education is a process from ‘Cradle to Grave’. It means the
process of education starts from the very beginning of birth of the child and
continues till the death. Therefore, education is a lifelong and continuous process.
We learn many things during our daily activities at different situations and different
places, may be at our home, schools, market places, during travel in playground,
during social gatherings, festivals and cultural activities, etc. Learning can happen
at different situations, at different places and with different people. The event of
learning cannot be restricted to Schools only. School is a formal system of education.
Definitely we learn many things through the formal system of schooling but also
we learn through various informal and non-formal systems of education. This
section of the unit will make you acquainted with the scope of education from the
view point of different learning environments, namely informal, non-formal and
formal learning environments/systems of education.
2.3.1 Informal Education

Informal education takes place in any kind of informal learning environment that
we come across with. As you know, we learn the traditions and cultures of our
family by observing the different activities in our family as well as by interacting
with the family members. Similarly, we learn many things about our society such
as social living, culture and traditions, etc. by observing the social and cultural
activities as well as by interacting with the members of the society. When we
travel by a bus or a train, we come in contact with many people, interact with
them and learn many things that we had not known earlier. All of us are familiar
with how the farmers acquire knowledge from their ancestors about farming of
different kinds of crops. The farmers cultivate all types of crops without receiving
any kind of formal or non-formal training. All the above discussions explain the
concept of informal education.
Based on our discussion, we may identify the characteristics of informal education
as follows:
 Informal education is the outcome of the interaction between a child/ a
learner with his/her social environment.
 Informal education is not organized and structured.
 Only desirable learning in an informal education can be called informal
education.
 Informal education is purposeful but many times incidental.
28
 Informal education can take place in a variety of physical and social settings; Scope of Education
there is no regular or prescribed form.
 Informal education is experimental in nature. It means the learner learns a lot
through interacting with the learning environment.
 Informal education is a lifelong process which starts at the time of birth and
continues till the death of a human being.
In summary, informal education includes all types of life experiences of the child
that he/she acquires from different situations, places, persons, environments, etc.
This is also called incidental education as the child gains knowledge incidentally
through his/her interactions with different learning situations. Further, informal
education prepares the learner to benefit from formal education. Therefore, learning
starts informally and gets structured in formal system of education.
Activity 1
Define informal education citing at least one example.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
2.3.2 Formal Education

Since informal learning environment is unstructured, transmission of desirable learning
experiences by the society requires a formal and structured learning environment.
Educational institutions like school and colleges are formal learning environments
or systems of education. They are called formal system of education as they
enforce a formal process to educate the child. Let us understand what is meant
by formal education.
Coombs, Processor and Ahmed (1973), defined “formal education is the
hierarchically structured, chronologically graded education system, running from
primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic
studies, a variety of specialized programmes and institutions for full time technical
and professional training”.
The above definition of formal education depicts that the learning experiences
provided through formal system of education are vertically and horizontally
structured. Vertical system of education means, that it starts from primary school
education to university education and horizontal system of education means that
it caters to all forms of education that include general education, technical education,
professional and vocational education. The various aspects of formal system of
education are as follows:
 Formal system of education has a particular aim and purpose. The aims of
education at different levels of schooling and also in different types of education
are different. So before planning any formal system of education, aims and
purposes are determined.
29
Concept and Nature of  There is a particular time schedule for implementing any formal system of
Education
education. We can say that elementary education is of eight years of duration,
secondary education is of two years of duration, senior secondary education
is of two years of duration and college education is of three years of duration.
Again, there is a formal time schedule for planning teaching-learning activities
and completing the curriculum within the prescribed time.
 Every formal education has a definite curriculum and courses of study. Students
receive necessary knowledge, attitudes, and skills through the prescribed
curriculum.
 There are entry requirements for the students to get into a particular level of
formal education. For example, to take admission in secondary class, one
should have completed the elementary education. Similarly, to take admission
in three year degree education, one should have completed senior secondary
schooling.
 In formal system of education, teacher uses teaching-learning strategies that
include classroom teaching, practical experiences, field-based experiences,
participation in co-scholastic activities, etc.
 Formal system of education is operated through a centralized body that may
be a Board or a University. For example, there are State Secondary Education
Boards in different States for operating School Education. Similarly, Central
Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) works for secondary and senior
secondary education at the central level. For operating higher education,
Universities work as operational bodies. They prepare curriculum, develop
guidelines for its implementation, conduct examination and certify students.
 Every formal education is based upon certain learning outcomes. Achieving
the specific learning outcomes is the goal of the formal system of education.
The learning outcomes are assessed through formal evaluation system by the
Education Boards or the Universities.
In a nut shell, we can say that the formal system of education is a structured
process of organizing teaching-learning activities that include a pre-defined
curriculum, proper plan of its transaction and implementation on a specified time
schedule, daily interaction of teachers with students, centralized bodies to operate
it, evaluating and certification of the performance of the students.
2.3.3 Non-formal Education

Like formal education system, non-formal education is also an organized system
of education which includes centralized body for operating the system, programmes
offered to a variety of clientele groups, curriculum and its transaction process,
evaluation and certification. The major difference between formal and non-formal
education systems is in terms of flexibility in planning and implementation of the
system. In formal education, these is rigidity about the clientele groups, time
schedule, duration of the programme, regular interaction between teacher and
students, etc., whereas in non-formal education system, there is flexibility in terms
of time schedule, classes, duration of the programme, examinations, etc.
Non-formal education system is also called as the alternative system of education.
This in spirit fulfills the objectives of lifelong and continuous education. Even one
30 can pursue education after entering job fields. This type of education is provided
through distance education system. Distance Education, Open and Distance Scope of Education
Learning, Online Education, etc. provide non-formal education. Now let us discuss
some of the characteristics of non-formal education:
 Like formal education, non-formal education has certain goals and objectives
of the programmes. It offers learners learning experiences that it intends to
provide to them.
 Unlike formal education system, non-formal education system is flexible in
terms of completing an academic programme. For example, in distance
education system, there is minimum and maximum time duration to complete
a programme.
 Curriculum and courses of study are formulated keeping in view of the
learning needs of the learners. Non-formal education curriculum is mostly
customized and individualized as it caters to the needs of out-of-school
children as well as the persons who are already in different professions.
 Curriculum and courses of study are formulated keeping in view of the
learning needs of the learners. Non-formal education curriculum is mostly
customized and individualized as it caters to the needs of out-of-school
children as well as the persons who are already in different professions.
 Teaching-learning process is generally learner-oriented and flexible in nature.
 Like formal system of education, there is a centralized body which operates
the system, plans and implements the programme, evaluates the achievement
of the learners and certifies their performance.
 Assessment of learning outcomes is also carried out in non-formal education
system.
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that most characteristics of
formal and non-formal education are similar in nature except the rigidities in
their implementation. The flexibility in non-formal system of education is as
follows:
 Plan and implement short term programmes or courses for a small group of
clientele, say illiterate, out-of-school children, the workers, etc.
 No need of regular classes, even the courses can be offered through distance
education system.
 There is flexibility in duration of the programme and its completion.
 It addresses special clientele group not only for their professional development
but also for development of their basic education.
Activity 2
Based upon your understanding, cite few examples of non-formal education
and also explain how it is different from formal system of education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 31
the Unit.
1. What is informal system of education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Explain the major characteristics of formal system of education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What is the major difference between formal and non-formal education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.4 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE VIEW

POINT OF MAJOR FOCUS OF THE STUDY
OF KNOWLEDGE
In the previous section, you have studied different forms of education in terms of
learning environments, i.e. informal, formal and non-formal education. In this section,
we will discuss the scope of education in view of study of knowledge i.e. liberal
education, professional education, vocational and technical education.
2.4.1 Liberal Education

To understand the concept of liberal education, let us analyse the definition given
by Lemann (2004) on liberal education. According to him,
“Liberal education is best defined with its most literal meaning. It is the
education that liberates, that frees the mind from the constraints of a
particular moment and set of circumstances that permits one to see
possibilities that are not immediately apparent, to understand things in a
larger context, to think about situations conceptually and analytically, to
draw upon and muster knowledge when faced with specific situations”.
From the above definition, it can be inferred that the pursuit of liberal education
is to make the person free from particular set of constraints. It is an intellectual
pursuit which makes the individual liberal in his/her thinking, doing and activities.
Acquisition and utilization of knowledge with a broader perspective, creation of
new knowledge, bringing changes in the existing knowledge structure and practices
32 are objectives of liberal education. The academic pursuit of liberal education is to
create and cultivate human mind for the greater intellectual purpose. The boundary Scope of Education
of liberal education is not confined to the areas of humanities and art education,
but it extends to other areas of human knowledge and practices. There are many
areas of human learning like education, value education, peace education, spiritual
education, etc. where the mind plays a great role in conceptualizing and theorizing
new ideas. Therefore, many elements of liberal education are also present in other
areas of learning other than liberal arts education.
For example, ‘Education’ is taught as a liberal discipline and also as an area of
practice. As a practice, it prepares teachers to transact school curriculum using
proper pedagogy, whereas, as a liberal discipline, it focuses on broader dimensions
of education as an area of knowledge. As a liberal discipline, ‘Education’ is taught
in the colleges and universities to make students understand the body of knowledge
of education; its theoretical, historical and intellectual perspectives; various areas
of its practice; its wide research base; and its linkages with other cognate disciplines
like Psychology, Philosophy, Sociology, Economics, etc. All these aspects of
education as a discipline deal with intellectual pursuits.
2.4.2 Professional Education
One can find a number of definitions to define a profession. We present one of
these definitions below:
“A profession . . . is a field of endeavour whose practitioners have a collective
idea of the good in their work that does not overlap exactly with the self-interest
of either themselves or their employers. Professionals have goals and ideals and
purposes having to do with the history, the techniques and the social role of their
field, which rise above the daily demands of work. They are in discourse with
each other about matters broader than just the completion of the work assignment
at hand. Professionals have to deal with complexity in their work. Professionals
do work that has a public purpose.”
(Lemann, 2004)
From the above definition and many more definitions, we can find out the following
important features of a profession:
1) A profession renders a crucial social service.
2) A profession comprises a specialised body of knowledge, skills and attitude.
3) A profession requires continuous updating in the knowledge base and in-
service practical training of the members.
4) A profession demands that its practitioners form professional groups or
association to enhance and safeguard the interests of group members.
5) A profession expects its members to be guided by a code of ethics and
professional values.
6) A profession ensures that its members grow in their professional careers.
7) A profession enables a professional to make his own judgement in relation
to appropriate practices.
(Source: MES-012, IGNOU, 2007)
From the above discussion we can say that professional education is basically
related to various aspects of social service, but for an individual the first and 33
Concept and Nature of foremost concern is to earn his/her livelihood. Professional education fulfills both
Education
the requirements. It prepares for a person to serve the nation and at the same time
it also make the person self-sufficient for his/her livelihood.
2.4.3 Vocational and Technical Education
Like professional education, vocational education is deeply in the vocation that a
family pursues. For example, during the earlier days, if the vocation of a family
was carpentry, the members of the family from generation to generation followed
the same vocation without getting a formal training. They learnt carpentry from the
seniors of the family. But, now, the concept of vocational education has undergone
change. Because of rapid development of industrialization, many training and
vocational institutions have been established across the world for providing varieties
of vocational training that the industries require. Now vocational education is also
a part of higher secondary and higher education. After completion of secondary
education, one can go for higher secondary education in general education stream
or in vocational education stream.
Vocational education thus refers to education, which prepares a person for a
particular vocation or occupation. The concept of getting traditional vocational
education from the family or society has been widened to get it from the formal
and informal institutions. In India, the concept of vocational education is very old.
It was initially recommended in 1854 by Wood’s Despatch which suggested for
introducing pre-vocational education at the secondary stage. The Calcutta University
Commission, in the year 1917, also recommended for establishing intermediate
colleges with Arts, Science, Medicine and Engineering subjects. In the Wardha
scheme of Basic Education, 1937, Mahatma Gandhi also emphasized the
importance of craft centered education. The Secondary Education Commission
(1952-53) recommended the introduction of diversified streams in higher secondary
schools such as commercial subjects, agriculture, fine arts, etc. The Education
Commission (1964-66) recommended work experience and vocationalisation as
part of secondary education. For promoting vocational education, the contribution
of National Institute of Open Schooling at the school stage and Indira Gandhi
National Open University at the higher education level are also significant. Some
of the important areas of vocational education are as follows:
Table 2.1 : Areas of Vocational Education
Sl. No. Areas of Vocational Education Vocational Education
1 Agriculture Poultry Farming

Dairying
Sericulture
Floriculture
2 Engineering and Technology Mechanical Services

Audio-visual Technician
Computer technique
Tanneries
Sugar Technology
34
Scope of Education
3 Health and Paramedical Health Worker
X-ray Technician
Pharmacist
Auxiliary Nurse and Midwives
Primary Health Worker
4 Home Science Food Preservation

Interior Design
Child Care and Nutrition
Knitting Technology
Pre-school and Crèche
Management
5 Science and Humanities Library and Information Science

Photography
Commercial Act
Indian Music
Classical Dance
(Source: MES-012, MAEDU, IGNOU, 2007)

Apart from the above areas of education, the National Skill Development
Corporation (NSDC) has implemented more than 247 skill education programmes
under Prime Minister Kaushal Vikash Yojana (2018-19). The skill education
programmes are from different sectors such as agriculture, beauty and wellness
sector, construction skill development council of India, Capital goods skill council,
etc. Some of the skill education programmes are like, gardening, micro irrigation
technician, greenhouse operator, tractor operator, organic grower, dairy farming,
small poultry farming, Animal health worker, pressman, Export assistant, quality
seed grower, etc.
(Source: NSDC, India, 2020; Retrieved from https://nsdcindia.org/
contentavailability/1408)
Apart from the vocational education system, the scope of education for imparting
technical education is also one of the prominent developments in India for its
development. The development of technical education in India started with the
establishment of All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in the year
1945.
The structure of technical education in India is given in four stages. The first
stage is for certificate level programmes which are usually offered in the vocational
and technical institutions. The second stage of technical education offers diploma
level training courses, through the Polytechnic Institutes. At the third stage,
technical education is provided at the Degree level, is usually offered by the
Engineering Colleges, IITs and NITs. The fourth stage of technical education
which constitutes Post Graduate and Doctoral levels engineering programmes
which offered by the NITs and IITs. 35
Education
the Unit.
4. Explain the main focus of liberal education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
5. Differentiate between professional education and vocational education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6. What are the four stages of technical education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.5 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE

VIEWPOINT OF MODE OF PROVIDING
EDUCATION
The scope of education can also be understood in view of mode of providing
education i.e. education provided through the conventional system, open and
distance learning system and online education through Internet. In this section, we
will discuss the mode of education: face-to-face education system and distance
education system. Let us discuss each of these modes of education in details.
2.5.1 Face-to-Face Education

Face-to-Face education is generally a formal system of education. The concept
of face-to-face system of education can be traced back to the Gurukul system
of education, wherein there was regular contact and interaction between the
Gurus and the Shishyas. That was a type of residential system of education in
which the Shishyas were staying at the Gurukul till the completion of their education.
Later on, the Gurukul system of education was replaced by formal education
system for the common public. The State took the onus of providing formal
education to its citizens. Now, Elementary education has become the right of the
children. India is the 139th country in the world to provide free and compulsory
elementary education to the children within the age group of 6-14 or up to
completion of Class VIII. Elementary education in India becomes a fundamental
right of the children through the Right to Education Act, 2009. Face-to-face
education is provided to the students starting from elementary education to
36 secondary, senior secondary, higher education, vocational and technical education
levels. The characteristics of face-to-face education are as follows: Scope of Education
 This is a formal system of education, in which there are regular classes for
the students in a place called a School or a College or a University.
 A stage specific curriculum is designed and developed for implementation at
that stage of education.
 Teacher teaches students using methods and techniques suitable for different
subjects and topics and also organizes varieties of activities for all round
development of the personality of the students.
 Teacher is mostly engaged in verbal communication throughout class lecture
for teaching students.
 A proper time schedule is prepared for implementing the process of teaching
and learning. The time schedule includes yearly plan, weekly plan, lesson
plan, etc.
 Formal certificate is provided to students after assessing their performance
through both formative and summative tests.
 Promoting students to a higher class requires acquisition of requisite knowledge
and skills in the lower class.
2.5.2 Open and Distance Education

The Open and Distance Education System is alternative mode of providing
education. Though it is a non-formal system of education, most of its operations
are like a formal system of education. Education which is imparted through distance
mode without regular class and interaction of students with teachers at a physical
space is called as a distance education system.
Keegan (1986), mentioned the characteristics of distance education as follows:
 Open and Distance Education system is just like a quasi-permanent separation
of teacher and learner during the process of teaching and learning.
 Students are provided a well prepared quality learning materials of the entire
courses for their study which is called as the Self-Learning Material.
 Students are provided support services at different stages for their smooth
study.
 Varieties of methods and media are used for transacting the curriculum such
as print, audio-video, teleconferencing and radio counseling systems.
Moore (1990) defines distance education as “all deliberate and planned learning
that is directed or facilitated in a structured manner by an instructor…..separated
in space and/or time from the learners.” Kulandai Swamy (1992) defined distance
education in a different way. He considers distance education as the third stage
of the evolution of education. The first stage was the ancient Gurukul system of
education, second stage is the conventional classroom system and the third stage
is the distance education system which is characterized by flexibility, high productivity
and capability to readily respond to market demands. He also considered distance
education as an instrument that can satisfy the requirements of equity and universal
education.
37
Concept and Nature of 2.5.3 Online Education
Education
Online education is a recent development in providing education for the learners
due to the development of computer networking, internet, and various online
learning applications. It is used for general as well as professional education both
at the certificate, diploma and degree levels. The Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD), Govt. of India, has initiated Study Webs of Active-
Learning for Young Aspiring Mind (SWYAM), an online system of pursuing
education through Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) since 2017. (MHRD,
2019). The MOOCs aim to address the most critical issues in education, i.e.
access, equity and quality. SWYAM offers online courses through MOOCs starting
from Class-IX to Post Graduate Level.
Due to the popularity of internet and its wide use by learners it is now easy to
get the online resources for study from YouTube, Open Educational Resources,
National Digital Library (Govt. of India), eGyankosh (an IGNOU initiative),
Gyandarshan-1, 2 and Swamprabha (Educational Televisions), and also from
important institute, organization and university sites. One can pursue an online
course from across the globe by using Internet and computer and mobile. It is
cost effective, time saving, self-paced, and individualized. One can get varieties
of learning experiences with quality instruction and learning resources. The
international organization like Commonwealth of Learning (COL), also promotes
online learning in the Commonwealth countries.
Activity 3
Visit the website of Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of
India and mention a few lines about the efforts made by the MHRD for
promoting online learning.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.5.4 Comparison among the Face-to-Face, Distance and

Online Education
From the discussions made earlier, we can now compare among face-to-face
education, distance education and online education as presented in the Table 2.2:
Table No. 2.2 : Comparison among face-to-face, distance and
online education
Face-to-Face Distance Education Online Education
Education System System
Teacher and students Teacher and students are Teacher and students are
are in regular contact physically separated but physically separated but they
and there are there is limited face-to- experience regular online
constant face-to-face face contact between contact and feedback.
interactions. them.
38
Scope of Education
Teacher decides the Self-pacing of learning Self-pacing by the students
pace of students by the students. while learning through online
learning media.
Lecture by the Self-learning print E-contents in terms of

teacher and library materials, varieties of customized videos, audios,
books are major electronic materials, and texts available online
sources of along with counseling are the main sources of
information and sessions and information for curriculum
strategies for workshop are the transaction along with
curriculum major curriculum regular online discussion
transaction. transaction strategies. and assessment.
Constant peer and Individualized and Completely self-pacing
group interaction. self-pacing learning, learning. Possibility of online
less peer and group peer and group activities.
interaction.
Education is less Democratization of Democratic and laissez-faire
democratic; more education. approaches to education.
autocratic.
Mostly teacher Learner centered Learner centered
centered teaching instructional strategies instructional strategies with
and teacher directed with varieties of self- varieties of online learning
classroom activities. learning activities. activities.
Strict entry Relaxed entry Relaxed entry qualifications.
qualifications. qualifications. Learners Huge number of learners
Number of learners get benefitted due to get benefitted at a time.
is less. reasonable time.
Both formative and Formative assessment Formative assessment (self-
summative (without and with assessment strategies with
assessment strategies credits), assignments credit system) and
are followed. and summative summative assessment
assessment through through online mode.
offline mode.

the Unit.
7. Describe any two characteristics of face-to-face education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 39
Education 8. Define Open and Distance Education system.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
9. What is Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
10. Write any two differences among face-to-face, distance and online education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2.6 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, the main thrust of discussion was to present the scope of education
in view of different learning environments, the focus of the study of knowledge
and modes of providing education. The presentation of three different perspectives
on the scope of education might have helped you to understand the scope of
education.
Different learning environments provide us different experiences. Informal education
which we get incidentally is very much important to get informed and acquire
knowledge that can further help us to pursue a formal education. Both formal and
non-formal education also provides us learning experiences in different learning
environments. According to the focus of study of knowledge, education can be
categorized into liberal, professional, vocational and technical education.
As per the changing scenario of education, education has also been continuously
changing. Our system of education has evolved from the Gurukul system of
education during the Ancient time through face-to-face education system to the
most current online education system. Now, we are capable to address huge
number of students at a time by providing them quality education through distance
and online education.

Aggrawal, J.C. (2008). Theory and Principles of Education, 12thed, New Delhi;
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, p24.
Bhattacharya, S. (2006). Philosophical Foundation of Education. New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers and Distributors.
Coombs, P.H., Processer, C. and Ahmed, M. (1973). New Paths to Learning for
Rural Children and New York: International Council for Educational Development,
40 in Smith Mark K. (2004):http://infed.org/biblio/b-nonfor.htm.
Govt. of Education (1952-53). Secondary Education Commission. New Delhi: Scope of Education
Ministry of Education.
Govt. of India (1964-66). The Education Commission. New Delhi: Ministry of
Education.
Govt. of India (2019). Report of Calcutta University Commission (1917).
IGNOU, (2007). Scope of Education (Unit-3). Education: Nature and Purposes
(MES-012). M.A. Education Programme. pp.39-56, IGNOU: New Delhi.
Keegan, D. (1986). The Foundations of Distance Education (2nd ed.). London,
Croom Helm.
Kulandai Swamy, V.C. (1992). Distance Education in the Indian Context. Indian
Journal of Open Learning, 1(1), 1-4., IGNOU: New Delhi.
Kulandi Swamy, V.C. (2004). Vocational Orientation to Education, in J.S. Rajput
(ed.), Encyclopedia of Indian Education, New Delhi: NCERT.
Lemann, Nicholas (2004). Liberal Education and Professionals. Quoted from
MES-012, Education: Nature and Purposes, Unit-3, IGNOU, 2007.
MHRD (1948-49). The University Education Commission (1948-49). Govt. of
India: New Delhi.
Moore, M.G. (1990). Correspondence Study, in M.W. Galbraith (ed.), Adult
Training Methods, Krieger, Malabar, Fla.
Rather, A.R. (2014). Theory and Principles of Education. New Delhi: Discovery
Publications House.
Samuel, S.R. (2015). Philosophical and Sociological Bases of Education. Delhi;
PHI Learning Private Ltd,p.166.
Saxena, N.R.S. (2009). Principles of Education. Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
Depot. Meerut.
Publishing Corporation,p.3.
Website Referred
NSDC, India, 2020; Govt. of India, Retrieved from https://nsdcindia.org/
contentavailability/1408 on 15.06.2020.

1. Informal education takes place in informal learning environment. The examples
of informal education are the family, the neighbourhood, community, market
place, etc. Informal education is also called as incidental education.
2. Formal system of education is a time bound education system. It requires a
formal curriculum, teacher, student, place of teaching, regular classes,
41
certification, etc.
Concept and Nature of 3. Formal education refers to an organized structure of education and its main
Education
aim is to provide individuals learning experiences both in vertical and horizontal
learning situations. Non-formal education system provides flexibility in terms
of time schedule, programme, and examination.
4. The main focus of liberal education is to undertake intellectual pursuit, which
aims at cultivation of mind.
5. Professional education deals with a body of specialized knowledge and
application of this knowledge to serve various requirements of the society.
Vocational education refers to the forms of education, which provides a
person learning experiences required of a particular vocation or occupation.
6. Certificate, Diploma, Degree and Post Graduate/Ph.D.
7. In face-to-face education system, there are regular classes and there is also
a definite curriculum at a particular stage of education.
8. Education which is imparted through a distance mode without a regular class
and interaction between students and teachers at a particular physical space
is called as Open and Distance Learning system.
9. Massive Open Online Courses are offered online using Internet. A large
number of students can study online through MOOCs at a time.
10. Face-to-Face Distance Education Online Education
Education System System
Teacher and students Teacher and students Teacher and students

are in regular contact are physically are physically
and there are constant separated but there is separated but they
face-to-face limited face-to-face experience regular
interactions. contact between them. online contact and
feedback.
Teacher decides the Self-pacing of learning Self-pacing by the

pace of students by the students. students while learning
learning through online media.
42
Agencies of Education
UNIT 3 AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Agencies of Education – Meaning and Classification
3.3.1 Classification of Agencies of Education
3.4 Family as an Agency of Education
3.4.1 Role of Family for the Development and Education of the Child
3.5 School as an Agency of Education

3.5.1 Role of School for the Development and Education of the Child
3.5.2 Relationship between School and Home
3.6 Community as an Agency of Education

3.6.1 Role of Community for the Development and Education of the Child
3.6.2 Relationship between School and Community
3.7 State as an Agency of Education

3.7.1 Role of State for the Education of the Child
3.8 Media as an Agency of Education

3.8.1 Role of Media for the Education of the Child
3.9 Interface Between and Among the Agencies of Education

3.10 Let Us Sum Up
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Every society wants that its knowledge, culture, traditions, etc. are preserved as
well as transmitted to its future members. Preservation and transmission of
knowledge and culture are performed by many social institutions like family,
school, community, etc. For example, before entering the School, the children
learn many things in the family when they interact with family members, and
observe the things done by them in the family. Similarly, community, school, state
and media also perform such functions. All these social institutions act as agencies
of education and perform educational functions as expected by the society.
This Unit intends to discuss the role and functions of the above five agencies of
education and how these agencies help in shaping personality of the children. The
above agencies are not independent themselves. Each agency is linked with other
agencies. All the above agencies work collectively for the development of the
Note: A few sections of the Unit have been taken from ‘IGNOU (2016). Agencies of Education
(Unit-12). Philosophical Perspectives of Education.
Dr. Niradhar Dey, Assistant Professor, School of Education, IGNOU.

43
Concept and Nature of children. Therefore, the present Unit will also discuss the interface between and
Education
among the agencies of education.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
 define the meaning of agencies of education and classify them;
 explain the role of various agencies of education such as family, school,
community, state and media in education of the children; and
 analyse the interface between and among the agencies of education.
3.3 AGENCIES OF EDUCATION – MEANING

AND CLASSIFICATION
In the Unit-1, we have explained that education is a lifelong process. It starts from
the birth of a human being and continues till his/her death. During the entire period
of life, human beings come in contact with various institutions. They acquire
educational experiences through these institutions. These institutions are called
agencies of education. The agencies of education can be classified into Family,
School, Community, State, Media, etc. According to Bhatia (1994), ‘Society has
developed a number of specialized institutions to carry out the functions of education.
These institutions are known as ‘Agencies of Education’. Among the agencies,
some are formal agencies of education, whereas others are informal agencies of
education. In the next section, we discuss the classification of the agencies of
education.
3.3.1 Classification of Agencies of Education

As mentioned by Brown (1947), quoted in Saxena (2009), classification of the
agencies of education can be done in various ways. Let us discuss some of the
important classifications of the agencies of education.
44 Fig. 3.1: Classification of Agencies of Education (Category-1)

Agencies of Education
Fig. 3.2: Classification of Agencies of Education (Category-II)
Fig. 3.3: Classification of Agencies of Education (Category-III)
(Source: Saxena, 2009).
As presented in Figure 3.3, agencies of education can be classified into different

categories keeping in view their nature and functions of imparting education. It is
true that only one agency of education is not enough for the child to get education
for his/her development. Children get education from formal as well as informal
agencies, active and passive agencies, commercial as well as non-commercial
agencies of education. In the subsequent sections, we discuss a few important
agencies of education.
Activity 1
Based on the classification of agencies of education given in Figure 3.3,
classify agencies of education into some other categories as per your
understanding.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 45
the Unit.
1. What is an agency of education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Why are family, school and community called as the active agencies of
education? Explain.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3.4 FAMILY AS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION

Family is an oldest, basic and fundamental unit of human society. Family nurtures
the child from the very beginning of the birth of the child even when he/she is in
mother’s womb. A family consists of persons who interact with one another in
different ways. A child in a family comes in contact with the senior and junior
members of the family and from them learns culture, customs, values, etc. Therefore,
family is called as the first school of the child. Socialization of the child starts with
the family wherein he/she learns a lot of societal values from the members of the
family. It plays a very important role in laying foundation of the child’s personality
in terms of physical, emotional, social, moral and cognitive dimensions.
A family has the following characteristics:
 Family is universal. It is found all over the world.
 A family consists of a definite number of persons living together having blood
relation or otherwise among themselves.
 A family is a miniature of the society. The values of a society are adopted
and practised in the family.
 Family plays an important role in moulding the personality of the child by
facilitating his/her all-round development.
 Child develops a sense of responsibility in the family. Generally adult members
of the family have greater responsibility than children.
 Family is one of the active agencies of education for inculcating desirable
social values among the children for leading effective social life.
 Family is the first institution from where, the child gets formal recognition to
be a member of the society.
46
3.4.1 Role of Family for the Development and Education Agencies of Education
of the Child
Family is actively involved in the development and education of the child. In the
family, there are members who are emotionally attached with the child and play
an active role in his/her development. The following are the major educational
functions of the family.
 It educates the child by inculcating positive attitude, developing moral and
social values, and desirable skills for social interaction.
 It teaches the child about the culture, tradition, and customs of the society
and also, teaches him/her fellow feeling, love and sense of living together.
 It helps in physical, mental, and emotional development of the child.
 It facilitates the socialization of the child.
 It identifies the interests of the child and accordingly provides him/her
opportunities to develop his/her interests.
 It not only provides the child basic necessities but also prepares him/her for
future living.
 It makes the child ready for formal schooling.
Let us discuss the role of family in all round development of the child.
 Physical Development: The child spends his/her childhood with the family.
During childhood period, the priority, initially, should be on the physical
growth of the child. The family should take care of the diet of the child
and ensure that the child is nourished properly. Moreover, it should engage
the child in age appropriate plays and games for his/her physical growth.
 Social Development: The first act of socialization takes place when the
child receives love and affection from his/her family. Family is the first social
institution that socializes the child. The social development of the child
depends upon the love, affection, recognition, security, approval, freedom,
etc. which the child receives from the family. The child learns how to conduct
in a righteous manner from the parents. He/she also observes day to day
activities of the parents which impact his/her social behaviour. The manner
in which the family conducts itself influences the future role and performance
of the child.
 Emotional Development: The behavior of the parents influences the
emotional development of the child. Needless to say, the child first develops
emotional bonding with the parents. The feeling of ‘acceptance’, ‘love and
belongingness’ and ‘togetherness’ comes from the family, which builds up
emotional maturity in the child.
 Mental Development: Like physical growth, mental development of the
child takes place in the family. From the very beginning of infancy, child
learns various signs and symbols, speeches and imitates others in the family.
The family educates the child, informally through various actions, plays, and
stories.
47
Concept and Nature of  Moral and Religious Development: The parents are the first role model
Education
for the child. The values and behaviours of the parents are usually observed
by the children. The parental behaviours create a value system in the
children. The parents make them differentiate between the right and the
wrong. The immoral acts of the children are checked by the parents at
the very initial stage. The value system of the children gets developed by
the moral and spiritual activities practised in the family.
Apart from these, the family performs the following functions for the development
of the children.
 Develop in them a sense of patriotism towards the country.
 Make them understand their duties and responsibilities to the society.
 Develop in them respect for human life and dignity.
 Encourage them to preserve and transmit family values and culture.
 Develop in them interest and positive attitude towards people, society, etc.

the Unit.
3. Explain any two characteristics of a family
............................................................................................................
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4. Explain the role of family in the emotional development of the child.
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3.5 SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION

School is an important formal agency of education. It develops all-round
personality of the children and makes them capable of adjusting themselves to
the changing scenario of the society. School is the place where the children
get enough opportunities to adjust themselves to various situations and learn
many things. After home and family, school is the second important place where
the children acquire different learning experiences and modify their behaviours.
The word ‘School’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘Skhole’ which means
leisure. In ancient times, India had the Gurukula system of education where
students were accepted as Shishayas and stayed with the guru in Ashrams/
Gurukuls. Teaching learning process was conducted in the Gurukul system
48 through face-to-face interactions, story-telling, hands-on activities of different
nature, and expose to the nature for true learning. The objectives of learning Agencies of Education
were to understand life, nature and acquire values. It did not require only
memorizing the information rather to reflect upon it for one’s life practices. But
now the concept of schooling has changed; it denotes a formal centre of
education where the children need to be taught about the societal system,
governance, civic structure, democracy, Country, demography, History, Languages,
Mathematics, vocations, etc. The school system, thus, becomes an important
agency of education.
3.5.1 Role of School for the Development and

Education of the Child
The School is an agency of education and also is a miniature form of the society.
It comprises the different stakeholders like teachers, students, parents and the
government. The Schools has its own culture and social setting. Socialization
is also an important function of the School. The process of socialisation of the
child which takes place in family extends to school when he/she enters it.
Besides socialization, another significant function of School is the transmission
of cultural norms and values to new generations. Students coming from different
strata of the society are made to follow the rules and regulations of the School.
School undertakes different activities at different levels to ensure overall
personality development of the child. School, therefore, plays a significant role
in laying the foundation of child’s personality in terms of physical, cognitive,
social, emotional, moral and spiritual development. In the changing scenario of
education, the school basically performs two types of roles: manifestation role
and emerging role. Let us discuss the two types of roles of a school.
Manifestation Role:
The following manifestation roles are performed by school.
i. Transmitting Traditional Culture: School, as an agency of education,
transmits social culture, a process by which the culture of a society is passed
on to its future members. Children are taught about culture, beliefs, values,
and norms of the society. School helps the children develop self-concepts,
emotions, attitudes and desirable behaviours for proper adjustment to the
society. Every society has its own heritage and history. The main function
of the School is to make the students aware of the cultural history and
heritage of the society. This is done through formal teaching of History,
Literature, etc.
ii. Teaching Basic and Vocational Skills: The School responds to society’s
need and complies with society’s demands for preparing trained workers,
intellectuals and well-educated citizens. The School trains the individuals
for developing occupational and vocational skills. For accomplishing this
job vocational abilities and interests of individuals are identified and are
developed. Presently, the government of India is focusing more on skill
based education starting from school stage. Even in the higher education
curriculum, as per the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS), the ability
and skill enhancement courses have also been included at the graduation
level. It is because the main focus of education is to produce skills based
human power.
49
Concept and Nature of iii. Character Education: The School inculcates values among the children.
Education
In school curriculum, moral science is integrated into different subjects. The
stories of national heroes are also part of the curriculum. The School has
a responsibility to create individuals of high morals and character. In School,
students learn to follow rules and regulations; learn patience, learn to respect
different beliefs and thoughts. School also teaches the learners to learn the
ethics, values, morals, and life skills required for becoming responsible
citizens of the country. The above aspects which are taught by the schools
lead to character development of the students.
Emerging Role:
The school performs the following emerging roles among the children.
i. Imparts Life Skills Education: Today’s society expects school to teach
students life skills such as self-awareness, effective communication, creative
thinking, critical thinking, problem solving ability, coping with stress, coping
with emotions, etc. According to World Health Organization (WHO), life
skills are the abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable
individuals to deal effectively with the demands and everyday challenges.
WHO has prescribed ten life skills. Those are, Self-awareness, Empathy,
Critical thinking, Creative thinking, Decision making, Problem Solving,
Effective communication, Interpersonal relationship, coping with stress, and
Coping with emotions.
ii. Promotes Functional Literacy: School develops basic academic skills
like reading, writing and arithmetic among students. Literacy generally means
knowledge of 3Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic). Apart from promoting
general literacy, school also makes students functionally literate. Functional
literacy implies knowledge, skills, attitudes and values by acquiring which
an individual can face the challenges of life and lead a smooth life in the
society.
iii. Fosters Creativity: School provides an environment for fostering creative
minds of the children. It encourages children to think divergent and create
new ideas. It promotes creative thinking among young children. There are
activities in the school like projects which expect children to exhibit their
creativity. Scientific exhibitions provide children a scope to exhibit their
creative abilities by demonstrating innovative scientific innovations. School
provides students opportunities for creating new knowledge and dissemination
of that knowledge. School is, thus a rearing ground for fresh minds, novel
ideas, innovative thinking, scientific observation, inquiry, etc.
iv. Teaches Learners to Live Together: According to Delors Commission
(1996), ‘the task of education is to teach at one and the same time, the
diversity of human race and an awareness of the similarities between and
the interdependence of all humans’. From the early childhood period, school
must, therefore, take every opportunity to teach these two things. School
actually allows children to explore the culture of their fellow beings. Students
are made to respect viewpoints of other ethnic or religious groups and
develop an attitude of acceptance of feelings and beliefs of other members
in the group. School promotes religious harmony among the children. The
children learn to co-exist with other members of other groups. It helps
50 them to develop a receptive mind.
3.5.2 Relationship between School and Home Agencies of Education
Parents send their children to School with the hope that their children will acquire
knowledge, develop basic skills, and inculcate moral and ethical values. The
contributions of home and school in the development of child are inter-depended.
Both these agencies play an important role in the process of socialization of
the children. Both the agencies of education are dependent on each other in
terms of educating children and nurturing values among them. Schools organize
parent teacher meetings for ensuring parental involvement and participation in
the development of the school. Home, on the other hand, fulfils the basic
requirements of the children and prepares them for school. Conducive environment
at home influences the children in their involvement in school activities and solving
the problems faced by them. Therefore, both the school as well as the home
plays a critical role in the development of the children.
Moreover, in the Right to Education Act, 2009, it has been recommended to
form School Management Committee (SMC) through which the parents can
contribute to the school development activities and establish better relationship
between the school and the home. This is quite evident that without the
cooperation of home, school cannot function well and vice versa.
Activity 2
As a teacher, how can you improve the relationship between School
and Home? State your suggestions.
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............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

the Unit.
5. What manifest functions does the school perform?
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6. Explain the concept, ‘Learning to Live Together’.
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............................................................................................................ 51
Education 3.6 COMMUNITYAS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION
The term ‘community’ has been derived from two distinct words ‘com’ and
‘munis’, ‘com’ means togetherness and ‘munis’ means to serve. Thus the term
‘community’ means ‘to serve together’. A group of people having commonality
in their ways of living, principles and ideals is called a community. According
to Ginsberg, ‘community is to be understood as a group of social beings living
a common life including all the infinite variety and complexity of relations which
result from common life’. (Quoted in Swaroop Saxena, 2009).
Community is considered as an agency of education because community provides
its members all sorts of facilities for getting education by using different means.
It provides formal education by establishing schools and also provides non-formal
education by establishing education centres for adult learners during evening
hours. Community also provides its members all types of informal learning
experiences. School run by a community is, therefore, called a miniature form
of the society. As mentioned in the previous section, the RTE Act, 2009, has
recommended to form a School Management Committee (SMC) for every
school with an aim to bring community closure to school and establish good
school community relationships.
3.6.1 Role of Community for the Development and

Education of the Child
Community is an informal agency of education. Community is a larger social
unit as compared to family. We have already studied that socialization, awareness
about culture, development of the ‘we feeling’ and providing moral and religious
education are the main functions of family. Community is a part of the larger
society and family is a part of the community. Socialization is the main function
of the community. By attending many community functions like marriage, festivals
etc., children get to know about the value system and social culture. Through
community, children learn customs and traditions which influence their social
behaviour.
Role of the Community in Education:
As discussed, socialization is the main function of the community. School is also
a part of community. Community plays an active role by interacting with the
School and improving its quality. Community makes all efforts for the all-round
development of the children. It establishes hospitals, parks, and playgrounds
for the physical development of the children. Community also takes the
responsibility to establish, Zoo, Libraries, etc. which influence the life and
activities of the children. Every community has its leaders and performers and
wants its future generations to emulate them.
According to the Delors Commission (1996), ‘the main parties contributing to
the success of educational reforms are first of all the local community including
the parents, the school heads and teachers”….. Again in RTE Act 2009, the
main role that has been entrusted to the community through the School
Management Committee (SMC) is to prepare and implement the School
Development Plan (SDP) which includes all aspects of the development of the
school. It is obvious that local community plays a paramount role in the
development of the school. The community wants its members to be responsible
52
citizens and add to the productivity of the nation. Therefore, educational Agencies of Education
development depends on the effective participation of the community in the
schooling process.
Apart from the above, the community also undertakes the following roles:
 Establishes school for the education of the children.
 Actively participates with school authorities to prepare School Development
Plan and observe closely for its implementation.
 Extends support to the development of school infrastructure, human
resources and generation of finance for various developmental activities of
the school.
 Provides the school support for organisation of adult education, vocational
and skill based education.
3.6.2 Relationship between School and Community

Learning is a continuous process which encompasses Home, School, Peer
Group, Community etc. School, as a social institution and as an agent of
socialization, needs to have a good relationship with community. The community
can involve itself in various activities of the school and can also contribute to
the curriculum process. According to the National Curriculum Framework, 2005,
(p.88), the participation of the community in the child’s world of education and
learning should be allowed to:
 transfer oral history and traditional knowledge to children, while the school
encourages critical thinking and reflection wherever it is required;
 influence the content of subjects and add local, practical and appropriate
examples;
 support children in their explorations and creation of knowledge and
information;
 support children in their practice of democracy through their participation
in information generation, planning, monitoring and evaluation with local
governments and Schools;
 participate in addressing the constraints faced by children;
 participate in setting criteria for vocational training; and
 enable the village to become a learning environment for children realizing
the concept of “village as a school”.
(Source: NCF, 2005)
Bakwai (2013) was of the view that, ‘School community relationship is a two-
way symbiotic arrangement through which the school and community co-operate
with each other for realization of goals of the community and vice versa’.
Therefore, a school is a mini society that needs good relations with the community
to function effectively. On the other hand, the community also needs the school
for its survival and progress. Madumere (2004) was of the view that, ‘School
as a social system means that the School is a part and parcel of the society’.
He added that since school belongs to the community, cordial relationship 53
Concept and Nature of between the school and community is the pre-requisite for achieving meaningful
Education
educational objective for the community and nation at large. Sadker (2008),
was of the view that, ‘community transmits its culture and views to the world’.
The community would only add to the overall performance of the school. In
order to encourage community participation, schools invite parents and dignitaries
from the community on the occasion of national festivals, and on other occasions
like sports day, cultural day, School’s annual day, etc. Schools have also parents’
teacher associations, alumni associations, etc. which strengthen the relationship
and co-ordination between the school and the community. Communities can also
contribute to the development of school’s infrastructure. Similarly, school can
provide its infrastructure for community service. Community can be asked to
pool in resources for education of the weaker sections of the society.
Activity 3
1. Read the provisions of School Management Committee given in
the Right to Education Act 2009 and point out the role of SMC
for the development of the School.
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2. How can community be better associated with the activities of

the school? Give suggestions.
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3.7 STATE AS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION

I. L. Kandel (Quoted in Swaroop and Saxena, 2009) defines ‘State as an
organized political community with government recognized by people’. The role
of State is for the overall development of its citizens in terms of education,
health, infrastructure, economy and other socio-cultural aspects. Being a major
stakeholder in school system, State cannot be kept isolated for education of
the children. In the hierarchy of school management, State occupies the top
position to exercise its control over the education system in the country. It ensures
that all children irrespective of caste, creed, religions, socio-economic backgrounds,
etc. have access to educational facilities. Thus, it promotes the constitutional
provision of equality of educational opportunity. It regulates the entire education
system by preparing plans, executing them and providing educational supports
to the students through various schemes of education. Let us discuss the role
54 of state for the education of the Children.
3.7.1 Role of State for the Education of the Child Agencies of Education
A democratic and liberal state takes the responsibility of educating its citizens.
State as a major stakeholder in education in general and School in particular
undertake the following roles for the education of the child.
Formulation of a National Policy on Education :
A liberal State takes the responsibility to develop an education policy for
implementing it across the country. For that, the State constitutes committees
to look into the matter by consulting various stakeholders in education, organizing
seminars and workshops before making it final. Similarly the state also sets up
various commissions from time to time give recommendations pertaining to
different aspects concerned with different levels of education, like school
education, higher education, teacher education, technical and professional
education, etc. For example, the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53),
was set up to recommend for school education system in India. National Policy
on Education, 1986 provides detailed guidelines for education system of India
which includes education at all levels. 10+2+3 system of education (10 Years
of Secondary School Education, 2 Years of Higher Secondary School Education
and 3 Years of Graduation Degree) was recommended by the National Policy
on Education (1986) and subsequently, it was implemented across the country.
Implementation of National Policy on Education:
For effective implementation of National Policy on Education, the State launches
different schemes of education. Through these schemes of education, different
stakeholders get the benefits of education. The following are some of the schemes
of education which have been implemented for the educational development of
our country.
Table 3.1: Schemes of Education
S.N. Name of the Schemes Main Objective
1 Right to Education Act,  To provide the children right to
2009 (Implemented get free and compulsory
since 1st April 2010) Elementary Education (from Class I
to VIII) within the age group of 6
to 14 years.
2 Mid-Day Meal Scheme  To enhance enrollment, retention,
(Launched on 15th attendance and simultaneously to
August 1995) improve the nutritional status of
children.
3 Kasturba Gandhi Balika  To provide the upper primary schools
Vidyalaya (KGBV) (2004) residential facilities for the girls from
SC, ST, OBC and Muslim
communities.
4 National Bal Bhawan(1956)  To provide opportunity to the
children for enhancing their creativity
through creative art, writing,
performance, physical education,
scientific innovation, photography, etc.
in a joyful environment. 55
Education 5 Rashtriya Madhyamika  The scheme envisages interalia,
Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) to enhance the enrollment at
(2009) secondary stage by providing a
Secondary School within a
reasonable distance of habitation,
and with an aim to ensure Gross
Enrollment Ratio (GER) of 100%
by 2017 and universal retention
by 2020.
 To improve quality of education
imparted at secondary level
through making all secondary
schools conform to prescribed
norms, removing gender, socio-
economic and disability barriers,
etc.
6 UDAAN(2014)  To address the quality gap
between school education and
engineering entrance, by
addressing three dimensions of
education – curriculum design,
transaction and assessment.
 To enrich and enhance teaching
and learning of science and
Mathematics at Senior Secondary
level.
 To provide a platform that
empowers the girl students and
provides better learning
opportunities to them.
(Source : Govt. of India, 2020)
Activity 4
Write the names of at least two schemes of education with their objectives
and beneficiaries which were launched by your State Government.
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56
Provision for Schools: Agencies of Education
The State makes provision for Schools at different levels within the proximity
of the students. As per the Right to Education Act, 2009, a child has the right
to get free and compulsory elementary education up to the age of 14. There
should be a school within the radius of one kilometre from the house of the
children and the ratio of students and teachers will be 30:1 and 35:1 at the
lower primary (Class I-V) and upper primary (Class VI-VIII) levels respectively.
Therefore, the role of the State is to provide a school to the children within
their reach.
Adult Education Centre:
Like the provision of Schools, the State makes provision for an Adult Education
Centre at the village level to educate the illiterate adult learners and make them
skilled in various occupations.
Finance of the School:
The State provides financial assistance to the schools and educational institutions
for their proper functioning. It includes salary for the teachers, funds for
infrastructure development in the schools as well as recurring amount for day-
to-day expenses of the schools.
Appointment of Teachers:
The State appoints teachers in all schools as per the requirements and strength
of students in the schools. As it was mentioned earlier, the State should maintain
the ratio of students and teachers as 30:1 at the lower and 35:1 at the upper
primary classes respectively (RTE Act, 2009). The responsibility of the State
is not only to appoint the teachers, but also to ensure quality education in the
schools.
Provision of Text Books and Study Materials:
The State provides textbooks and other study materials to the students free
of cost. In every State, there is a State Council of Educational Research and
Training (SCERT). The major functions of SCERT are to develop school
textbooks and supply them to students timely and free of cost.
Provision of Scholarship:
The State provides scholarships to the poor and meritorious students and
motivates them for studies. This is one type of incentive to the students for
their study. National Talent Search (NTS) examination is conducted by the
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) to identify the
talented students at the school level and support them with scholarships and
incentives. This is an example of how the state makes provision of scholarship
for students at the school level.
Coordinating between School and Communities:
The State also acts as a coordinator between the School and Community for
their proper functioning. As per the Right to Education Act, 2009, there is the
provision of establishment of School Management Committee (SMC) in each
school. The work of the SMC is to prepare the School Development Plan
(SDP) and to observe its implementation with a close monitoring of the activities
conducted in the schools. 57
the Unit.
7. How does the State implement Education Policy in the Country?
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3.8 MEDIA AS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION

Like family, school and home, media also play a vital role in socialization of
children. With advancement in the field of educational technology, media is being
used for the purpose of formal and informal education. We are living in the
age of science and technology. Mass media like radio, television, etc. can improve
the quality of education as they make educational contents reach a large number
of people. Mass media may be defined as the medium or agency through which
ideas, attitudes or impressions are communicated to a large number of people.
Currently, we find a number of interactive media like interactive radio, interactive
television, teleconferencing, mobile, email, online conferencing which are used
to interact with students in real time. Moreover, online education supports like
Open Educational Resources, e-learning and Massive Open Online Courses are
getting popular in the education system all over the world. Therefore, media
play a significant role in education of students.
John Dewey has stated that education cannot be limited to the teacher or taught
without social environment. So, mass media is used to create a virtual social
environment in teaching-learning process. Due to mass media, education is not
any more confined to the four walls of the classroom. Teaching-learning can
take place without a formal classroom with the help of latest online technologies.
Mass media can be used beyond the boundaries of a country and can make
the entire world a family. Various media such as newspaper, TV, radio, films,
internet, World Wide Web, social media, etc. can be used for educating the
children.
3.8.1 Role of Media for the Education of the Child
Media is one of the means of educating the society. It is one of quickest means
of providing education to the masses. Media is also now an important tool in
the hands of the teacher. It is now used in the classrooms in the form of multi-
media packages and social media. Success of education cannot be achieved
merely by substituting human beings with technological aids, but by developing
new teaching-learning methodologies using both human beings and technological
aids. Information technology is undoubtedly providing knowledge, skills, improving
58 understanding and changing attitudes.
Educational media has gained popularity both for individual learning and mass Agencies of Education
education. Information Communication Technology (ICT) is used in both formal
and non-formal education systems. Indira Gandhi National Open University
(IGNOU), National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS), etc. are offering
educational programmes throughout the country and in oversea countries through
ODL, radio, television, and online learning. The Central Institute of Educational
Technology (CIET) under the NCERT is mainly concerned with the development
of audio-video programmes and online learning resources and is using these
resources for School education. It is engaged in the use of television through
INSAT to reach both school children and out of school children and teachers
throughout the country. It produces Educational Television (E.T.V.) programmes
and these programmes are being telecast via INSAT. The Electronic Media
Production Center (EMPC) of IGNOU, also develops audio-video materials,
conducts direct virtual teaching telecast through Teleconferencing and Interactive
Radio Counselling for different learners.
The Delors Commission (1996; p.173), also observes that new technology has
created a host of new tools for use in the classroom as under:
 Computer & Internet
 Cable and satellite TV education
 Multimedia equipment
 Inter-active information exchange system including e-mail and online access

to libraries and public data base.
(Source: IGNOU, 2000)
NPE, 1986, has emphasized, ‘modern communication techniques have the

potential to bypass several stages and sequences in the process of development
encountered in earlier decades. Both the constraints of time and distance become
manageable. In order to avoid structural dualism, modern educational technology
must reach out to most distant areas and most deprived sections of beneficiaries’.
The National Knowledge Commission (NKC)) in its report also recommended
online learning and use of varieties of media in the process of teaching and
learning. Most importantly, the progress of Massive Open Online Courses
(MOOCs) throughout the world and the present initiative of the Govt. of India
for ‘Digital Literacy’ add further boost for the use of multimedia in education.
The multimedia system has promoted personalized learning which means a learner
can learn on his/her own pace and according to his/her convenience. Online
programmes are available on the Internet which enables the learners to pursue
courses of their choice. Learning materials are also available online. No longer
are students dependent solely on the classrooms and teachers. They have new
opportunity to expand their learning by going beyond the classroom and accessing
a lot of information online. All new technologies also contribute a lot to informal
education of the masses.
According to NCF 2005, ‘mass media can be used to support teacher training,
facilitate classroom learning and be used for advocacy. Possibilities of teaching
and learning at varied paces, self-learning, dual modes of studies, etc. could
59
all benefit from the use of technology particularly ICT’.
the Unit.
8. What media does IGNOU use for delivering its programmes? Make a
list of it
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
........................................................................................................... .
3.9 INTERFACE BETWEEN AND AMONG THE

AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
The agencies of education discussed in this unit supplement each other for overall
development of the children. These agencies influence the children in their own
ways. Continuous interface among Home, School and Community enhance the
capabilities of the children. Home, school, the peer group, the community and
the media could contribute a lot to education of children if these agencies work
in a concerted manner.
Today’s School is different from the ancient Gurukul system of education.
Knowledge that the students acquire today is not solely from the face-to-face
interaction that takes place between students and teachers at the school, students
also acquire knowledge and get informed by using other media. Now-a-days,
school is using multi-media approach for teaching the students. School uses text
books, reference books, audio-video materials, television, radio, internet, and
other e-learning tools for teaching the students. Therefore, learning takes place
by using varieties of agencies of education with proper coordination among and
between the agencies of education. Without the support and cooperation of the
community, school cannot function well. Again the development of the community
depends upon the involvement of schools in the community activities. Home
is of course, one of the primary agencies of education which links the child
with school and community. The State is at the apex. It prepares policies of
education and implements it in the school by using various agencies of education
like, media, community, family, school, etc. Therefore, the purpose of educating
the child cannot be fulfilled neglecting any agencies of education.
The above agencies of education supplement each other for overall development
of the child. These agencies influence the child in their own ways. A perfect
environment created by the family, School and Community enhances the
capabilities of the child. In this way the total environment comprising the family,
school, peer group, community and the media influences the child in the process
of learning and education. Thus, these agencies influence the child separately
and further influence each other.
3.10 LET US SUM UP

We have dealt with various agencies of education in this Unit and their relationship
60 in influencing the overall development of a child. The roles of formal and informal
agencies are intertwined and interweaved where one impacts the other. These Agencies of Education
agencies consciously and unconsciously educate a child and have their own utility.
While a formal agency like School educates in a systematic manner through
a planned curriculum and methodology, informal agencies provide knowledge
informally. The family teaches children values and looks after their social
development. At the same time, it remains an active partner with schools helping
the children to study. Though today, a larger role is being played by the schools
which are termed as emerging functions. The community shares responsibility
with family in providing moral and religious education to the children. Apart
from that, the community as an informal agency that provides facilities, and is
involved in the development of the schools. It also regulates the curriculum of
the Schools. The School actually works in collaboration with the community.
Media, no doubt, plays a very effective role in providing information and
knowledge which are a part of school curriculum and learning practices.
On the whole, these different agencies of education supplement each other in
the overall development of the children. These agencies influence the children
in their own ways. A perfect environment created by the family, school and
community, State and Media enhance the capabilities of the children.

Aggrawal, J.C. (2008). Theory and Principles of Education,12thEdn, New Delhi;
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, p24
Bhatacharya, S. (2006).Philosophical Foundation of Education. New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers and Distributors.
Brown, F.J. (1947). Educational Sociology. The Technical Press.
Coombs, P.H., Processer, C. and Ahmed, M. (1973). New Paths to Learning
for Rural Children and New York: International Council for Educational
Development, in Smith Mark K. (2004):http://infed.org/biblio/b-nonfor.htm.
Dagar, B.S. and Dhull, Indira (1994). Prospective in Moral Education, New
Delhi: Uppal Publishing House.
Dash, B. N. (2003). Principles of Education, New Delhi: Neelkamal Publications.
Delors Jacques (1996). Learning the Treasure Within, Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
Govt. of Education (1952-53). Secondary Education Commission. New Delhi:
Ministry of Education.
Govt. of India (2015). Digital Literacy. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource
Development.
Govt. of India (2020). Annual Report, MHRD, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
IGNOU (2000). Agencies of Education (Unit-3), Understanding Education
(Block-1), Education and Society (ES-334), New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU (2016). Agencies of Education (Unit-12). Philosophical Perspectives
of Education (Block-3). Contemporary India and Education (BES-122).
IGNOU: New Delhi.
IGNOU (2016). Education and Policies (Unit-3). Indian Societal Context and
Education (Block-1). Contemporary India and Education (BES-122). IGNOU:
New Delhi. 61
Concept and Nature of Mohanti, P.C. (1992). Learning the Treasure within. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
Education
Musgrave, P.W. (ed.), (1970). Sociology, History and Education. London:
Mathuen & Co. Ltd.
NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2005). New Delhi:
NCERT.
Saxena, N.R. S. (2009). Principles of Education. Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
Depot. Meerut.
Publishing Corporation, p.3.

1. Agencies of Education are the social institutions like school, community,
media, family, state, etc. which function as knowledge providers and educate
the children.
2. Family, school and community are called as the active agencies of education
as nourishment, grooming and education of the children are done directly
by these agencies.
3. Two characteristics of a family are : (i) A family is having a size i.e. a
number of persons living together with having blood relation or otherwise
and (ii) family is a permanent institution for the child because from the
family, the child gets formal recognition to be a member of the society
and to lead a social life.
4. Family is a place where the child develops an emotional bonding as the
members of the family are emotionally attached with each other. The feeling
of ‘acceptance’, ‘love and belongingness’ and ‘togetherness’ comes from
the family only, which provides emotional maturity to the children.
5. School transmits culture and tradition, teaching skills and vocation and helps
in character building and practice of values.
6. The concept, ‘Learning to Live Together’ helps the students develop a sense
of living together, accept the feelings and culture of others, and to understand
the whole universe as a large family.
7. The responsibility of a State is to develop a policy of education by consulting
all the stakeholders of education and to implement the policy in its true
sense.
8. For transacting academic programmes, IGNOU uses the media like Self-
Learning Print materials, Radio and Television, internet, webcasting, online
and also face-to-face interaction.
62
Historical Developments of
UNIT 4 HISTORICAL Education: An Overview
DEVELOPMENTS OF
EDUCATION: AN OVERVIEW
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Ancient Indian Education
4.3.1 Education during the Vedic Period
4.3.2 Education during the Buddhist Period
4.4 Education during Medieval Period

4.5 Indian Education in Modern Time
4.5.1 Education during the Pre-independence Period
4.5.1.1 Macaulay’s Minutes 1835
4.5.1.2 Wood’s Despatch 1854
4.5.1.3 Hunter Commission 1882-83
4.5.1.4 Indian University Commission 1902
4.5.1.5 Calcutta University Commission 1917-19
4.5.1.6 Hartog Committee 1928-29
4.5.1.7 Govt. of India Act 1935
4.5.2 Education during the Post-independence Period
4.5.2.1 University Education Commission 1948-49
4.5.2.2 Secondary Education Commission 1952-53
4.5.2.3 Education Commission 1964-66
4.5.2.4 National Policy on Education 1968
4.5.2.5 National Education Policy 1986
4.5.2.6 Revised National Education Policy 1992
4.5.2.7 Five Year Plans
4.5.2.8 Niti Aayog
4.5.2.9 Education as a Fundamental Right
4.5.2.10 Draft National Education Policy 2019
4.6 Let Us Sum Up

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Development of education in India has a long historical past. The history of
education in India can be traced back to the Gurukul system of education during
the Ancient times. Since then, it has passed through several centuries of Indian
civilization and reached the current stage of technology based education system.
Development of education in every period beginning from the Ancient times has
its own importance. India has witnessed many ups and downs of education during
different periods, say, the Ancient, the Medieval, and also the Modern which
includes both the pre-independence and the post-independence periods.
Dr. Ramendra Ku. Parhi, Dept. of Education, Central University of Odisha, Koraput. 63
Concept and Nature of The present Unit will help you understand and analyse the education system
Education prevailing in India during different periods as mentioned above. This Unit will also
help you understand the present development of education in terms of transformation
of quality education at the School and the Higher education levels.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the Unit, you should be able to:
 explain the education system prevailing during the Ancient period;
 critically analyse the education system practiced during the Medieval period;
 discuss the educational developments which took place during the pre-
independence period; and
 critically analyse the developments and issues of education during the post-
independence period.
4.3 ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION

India has a long history of well-established education system. The modern
educational systems are the outcomes of educational systems prevailing during the
past. Modern or contemporary systems of education draw their essence from the
past educational systems. It is the historical outlook which helps in studying the
problems of education. India has a magnificent history of education since the
Vedic age. Indeed, there was an ideal education system during Vedic, Brahmanic
and Buddhist era. Further, the ancient system of education was nourished by the
Mughals who came to this land and settled in this country. With the advent of
British in India, reform of the traditional system began and foundation of modern
education system in India was laid down. After independence, Government of
India improved the status and promoted the system of education to a new
culminating point.
4.3.1 Education during the Vedic Period

The Vedas were the original source of the philosophy of life and system of
education during ancient India. Education, during ancient India, consisted of
teachings of the Vedas. Four Vedas, such as Rig-Veda, Samveda, Atharveda and
Yajurveda are the sources of knowledge about the culture, civilization, life and
philosophy of the people of Ancient India. They contain the philosophy of life.
Rig-Veda is the essence of the basic teachings of the great Indian thinkers, teachers,
rushis and munis. Education, during the Vedic period, was based on the text of
Rig-Veda. Vedic education thus consisted of teachings of the Vedas.
Aims of Education
The ultimate aim of education during the Vedic period was to enable an Individual
to understand truth and to attain Moksha. Moksha means ‘liberation’ and
‘emancipation’. Also known as Mukti, it is derived from Sanskrit word
‘mukt’which means to be liberated from the life-death cycle. It is the final stage
into which dharma, artha and kama automatically culminate. Dharma means living
a virtual and moral life. Artha means attaining the means of wealth, security and
prosperity. Kama means appreciating sensual pleasures, love and enjoyment.
64 There are three goals of Purusarthas through which individuals move towards
achievement of Moksha. Other important aims of Vedic education were Historical Developments of
Education: An Overview
development of character and personality, sublimation of instincts, preservation of
culture, character building and physical efficiency. Vedic education also intended
to develop piety and sense of respect; to train the human cognition, intellect and
memory; to make one fit to have healthy progeny; to make one live long, and to
bring immortality within reach (Dash, 2008, p. 20).
(Source: http://www.yogapedia.com, “Moksha”, What is Moksha?)
Methods of Teaching
Methods of teaching during, the Vedic period, emphasised repetitive recital or

avritti. Mostly, three methods of teaching were being used by teachers during
that period:
(i) Sravana (Listening): Students listened to the words or texts uttered by the
teacher and memorized them.
(ii) Manana (Deliberation): It was an advanced method of teaching through

which students were taught how to reflect on the topic taught by the teacher.
Intellectual appreciation of truth was the prominent feature of this method.
(iii) Nidhidhyasana (Meditation): Through this method realization of truth was

to be accomplished.The individual was helped by this method to realise the
self.
Duties of students (Shishyas) : According to Rai (2001), the duties of the

students who lived in ‘Gurukul’were : (a) a student had to do the service of the
‘Guru’ and required works of the ‘Gurukul’. He also prepared the necessities for
the rituals like, Yajnas. (b) The student had to go out for alms. This developed
the spirit of generosity in them. (c) His main duty was to study. He learnt and
attended to the instruction of the ‘Guru’very gently.Thus, it is clear that while living
in ‘Gurukul’ he spent the life of an ideal student, which was simple and well
regulated.
Relation between Guru and Shishyas : During the Vedic age, the Shishya
considered his Guru as his father. “Guru, very affectionately looked after his
taught” (Rai, 2001, p. 11). He never let him suffer in any way and always worked
towards his all-round development.
Gurukulas : “The Gurukul system which necessitated the stay of the student
away from his home at the home of the teacher or in boarding house of established
reputation, was one of most important features of the Ancient Indian Education”
(Altekar, 1944, p.30).
Qualities of Guru : Teachers of the Vedic age were of the uppermost calibre
in the society in terms of knowledge and spiritual development. Residing in their
‘Gurukulas’, they always emphasised on religious and spiritual development of
their thoughts. Thus, every obligation of the Shishyas (learners) was on ‘Gurus’,
who continuously tried to improve the qualities of their learners so that they might
become better than themselves. The teacher’s responsibility was to show the
correct path to learners for realization of ultimate truth (Nayak, 2012).
65
Concept and Nature of Curriculum
Education
Curriculum, during the Vedic period, was chosen to enhance the process of all
round development of the learner’s personality.The students were taught to learn
the four Vedas by heart and side by side they studied Sanskrit language and six
Vedangas Kalpa (ritual), Vyakaran (grammar), Jyotish (astronomy), Chhanda
(metrics), Nirukta (etymology) and Shiksha (phonetics).As far as courses of
study and literature were concerned, the Vedic education was remarkable. Physical
Education was also included in the curriculum. Some professional and technical
subjects like Ayurveda or Chikitshavidya (Medicine and surgery), Astronomy,
Ethics, Philosophy, Astrology, Military Education, Artha-sashtra, etc. also comprised
the Vedic curriculum.
Fullness in Education – The comprehensive knowledge of some specific subjects
was emphasized after knowledge of several basic subjects was acquired by
students.
Importance of religious education – Ancient Indian education was dominated
by religion. Kindness, forgiveness, perseverance, nobleness etc. were inculcated
in students. “The knowledge of the sacred hymnology and sacrificial rituals was
considerably systematized and it was transmitted orally word by word by the
teacher to pupil” (Nayak, 2012, p.24). Teaching of hymns and rituals were
emphasized by teachers.
Emphasis on character building – The Gurus thought that if the students would
learn good habits from the early life then their future would be peaceful and
happy. The learners were under the direct and personal supervision of their
teacher, who was to look after not only their intellectual development but also
their moral conduct (Altekar, 1944).
Women education- Women education also received proper attention during the
Vedic age with the result that women became Rishikas after receiving education.
They composed hymns too. They used to take part in religious rituals. They were
also taught practical and useful handicrafts and household duties.
Physical education – Though the Vedic education was religious in nature, yet
useful and needful subjects for general public were included in the Vedic curriculum.
People could gain education of various arts and crafts side by side. Subjects like
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, etc. were taught through the Vedic education.
To conclude, we can say that the aim of ‘Vedic’ Education was very lofty. It
aimed at providing students full opportunity for the development of human qualities.
It is beyond doubt that ‘Vedic’ education was fully capable of building
goodcharacter, providing knowledge in various subject areas, ensuring social
prosperity, etc.
4.3.2 Education during the Buddhist Period
‘Buddhism’ evolved in India and was started by Gautam Buddha who was an
Indian Prince of Sakya dynasty. Buddhism had spread over India by 600 B.C.
and developed in the form of ‘Sanghas’. Buddhism was not a sudden outcome
of any thought. It was the natural evolution of the Indian thinking which was
expressed in the ancient Indian religious, philosophical, social and political spheres
66
of the society. Buddhism spread through the ‘Monasteries’ and ‘Vihars’, where Historical Developments of
educational activities were carried out by the monks. In short, the history of
education during the Buddhist period is closely related with the history of these
monasteries and ‘Vihars,’ as there were no independent educational institutions or
centres, other than those religious centres. Moreover, only monks or ‘Shramans’
were authorised to impart education to the people. Thus, the monasteries and
‘Vihars’ took the places of sacrificial altars and as a result, these places became
the centres of leaving as well as cultural life.
Aims of Education
The aims of Buddhist education were individual as well as social. Under the
individual aim, the development of moral character was emphasised; under the
social aim, promotion of culture and social efficiency were more focused.The aim
of education was to disseminate worldly and practical knowledge (Nayak,
2012).The most important aim of education was to show the path by which an
individual can overcome the desires and ultimately achieve Nirvana.
Admission to Educational Institutions (Sangha)
Pabbja/Phahajja (The first Ordination) - In order to take admission in any

sangha, monastery or vihar, one had to go through the initiation ceremony. Like
the ‘Upanayan’ during the Vedic period, ‘Pabbja’ was performed during the
Buddhist period, before a student could get into the Sangha. The novice, if he was
eight years old, had to perform the Pabbja/Phahajja (orientation or initiation
ceremony). Generally, everyone had the opportunity to undergo ‘Pabbja’ and
become a part of the Sangha. It was ensured that parents permitted the pupil to
join the monastery. There they received education for twelve years and during this
period they were getting prepared for the Sangha –life.
Upasampada (The final Ordination) -After undergoing education for twelve

years, the ‘Monk at the age of 20 years had to go through the ‘Upasampada’
ceremony and then he became the permanent member of the ‘Sangha’. Generally,
the methods of performing ‘Upasampada’ were slightly different from Pabbja.
After ‘Upasampada’, a student became a full-fledged monk, having no concerns
with family life. Pabbja was a ritual for limited time but ‘Upasampada’ was
permanent and for the whole life.
Curriculum
The curricula were oral, ceremonial and book-based. Monks passed on the
religious knowledge to the learners. Most of the monks were carrying on the
study of teaching of Buddha and ‘Dharmshastras’. The curriculum of the Buddhist
monks included the subject matters contained in the Tripitaka: (i) Sutta Pitaka was
a collection of discourses on various subjects by the Buddha; (ii) Vinaya Pitaka
comprised monastic code; and (iii) Abhidharma Pitaka contained the philosophical
interpretations of the doctrines of Buddhism. So far as arts and crafts were
concerned, students were taught spinning, weaving, painting, tailoring, writing,
arithmetic, printing, etc.
Buddhist education was divided into two stages:(i) Primary and (ii) Secondary. At
primary education stage, Reading, Writing and Arithmetic were taught and at
Higher education stage, Religion, Philosophy, ‘Ayurveda’, Logic (Hetuvidya), 67
Concept and Nature of Metaphysics (Abhidharmakosa), Military training, etc. were taught. Everyone was
Education
free to choose his subject without any restrictions.
Medium of Instruction
The mediumof Buddhist education was the local language followed in the community.
Lord Buddha himself gave his teachings in local languages at different places. It
is, therefore, clear that there was not much importance given to Sanskrit in
Buddhist education.
Methods of Teaching
The methods of teaching during the Buddhist period seem to have been oral.
Teaching through questions and answer was mostly followed by teachers. To
impart moral instruction, teachers took the help of telling stories through illustration.
The stories, thus told, had a dramatic effect on the moral development of the
students. Thinking and questioning were adopted as methods for promoting
intellectual development. “The Buddhist system of education, like the Brahmanical,
lays equal stress upon the efficacy of the method of debate and discussion in
education” (Mookerji, 2011, p.452).
Buddhism aimed to answer to the old philosophical question: “How to attain
Salvation?” Looking at the Buddhistic system of education from every point of
view, it can be concluded that the system began to face downfall due to its own
shortcomings and demerits, which developed in the later period in the monasteries
and vihars. Even then, we find that ‘Buddhist system of education” had more
qualities than its demerits. Doubtlessly, Buddhist education laid the foundation
stone of a rich culture and inspired people to lead pure, simple and ideal life.

the Unit.
1. What were the aims of education during the Vedic period?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What was the medium of instruction during the Buddhist period?
............................................................................................................
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4.4 EDUCATION DURING MEDIEVAL PERIOD

During the medieval period, the Muslim rulers established their empires in India,
they introduced a new system of education. Subsequently, the ancient system of
education was greatly changed. No Muslim ruler apart from Akbar did praiseworthy
68 works in the area of education (Rai, 2001). It was due to the fact that in maximum
cases praiseworthy work done by a ruler had been undone by his successors due Historical Developments of
to their indifferences and neglect (Dash, 2008).
Aims of Education:
The aims of education during the Muslim period in India were multifarious and
they changed with change in rulers. The entire education system was influenced
by religious principles which shaped the aims, the contents of the study and even
the daily life of the pupils. Pupil acquired knowledge as a religious obligation. The
Muslim education also aimed at the achievement of material prosperity.The aims
of education during the Muslim rule in India may be summed up as follows:
i) Education was being imparted to strengthen the political position of rulers
and to employ educated employees for smooth running of the administration.
ii) Education of this period aimed at the propagation of Islamic values, laws and
social conventions. Therefore, the aim of education was to acquaint the
students with the verses of Koran and Islamic culture (Nayak, 2012).
iii) Dissemination and mastery over social and moral codes of conduct were the
chief aims of education. Masses were informed about the Muslims laws and
shariyats of the holy Koran through Muslim Education.
Initiation Ceremony
The initiation ceremony was called ‘Bismillah Khani’. It means the child was
introduced to education after invoking God. Admission to maktabs was marked
by a colourful ceremony called Bismillah. Initiation into religious studies commenced
on the day when a Muslim boy would be four years, four months and four days
old.
Types of Educational Institutions
During the Muslim period, there were basically two types of institutions, Maktabs
and Madrasahs:
Maktabs: Primary education was provided in ‘Maktabs’.These were elementary
schools attached to mosques or run by private individuals imparting Muslim
education in the three Rs (reading, writing and primary arithmetic) and the prayers
were based on the Quran. The ‘maktabs’ attached to the mosque were perhaps
the most permanent of Muslim educational institutions in India (Dash, 2008).
Madrasahs: Higher education was disseminated through Madarsahs. After
completing the primary education, children were sent to ‘Madarsahs’ to receive
higher education. Madrasahs were seats of higher learning patronised by royal
families.There were separate teachers for different subjects. Special emphasis
was also given to religious education and secular subjects.
Methods of Teaching
The methods of teaching in the Muslim educational institutions were Recitation
and Cramming. Cramming and memorising were practiced in educational
institutions.
Curriculum
Curriculum at elementary stage was focused on reading, writing, arithmetic and
religious education. In ‘Maktabs’ children were made to remember the ‘Ayats’ of 69
Concept and Nature of ‘Quran’. After children had learnt the Arabic script, they were taught Persian
Education
language and script. The stories of Prophets and Muslim ‘Fakir’ were also taught
to the children. Children were also imparted the knowledge of art of writing letters
and conversation. The system of oral education was mostly prevalent in the
educational institutions.
At the higher education stage, the curriculum was broad and comprehensive
enough to contain the religious education and general education (non-religious).The
religious education included the study of Quran, Mohammad Saheb and his
conventions, Islamic laws and Islamic history, etc. The secular/general education
included the study of Arabic literature, grammar, rhetoric, history, philosophy,
mathematics, geography, politics, economics, Greek language, and astrology.
Medium of Instruction
Persian, which was the court language of the Muslim kings, was the popular
medium of instruction. The study of Arabic, the language of the Quran was
compulsory for Muslim
Education of Women
Women education was mostly ignored during the Medieval period. ‘Paradah’
system was present during the Islamic period. But during the Muslim period in
India, education of girls received a great set back particularly at the secondary
level (Nayak, 2012).Sometimes, young girls were taught in schools. Since they
left school at an early age, they could not continue their education up to the higher
level.
Examination system
There was no provision for annual examination of the modern type in the education
system. Evaluation was a built-in, continuous process. Upgradations were based
on assessment by the educators themselves. Degrees were awarded for specialised
and in-depth study in various branches of learning (Dash, 2008).The most important
of these degrees were: Fazil (specialised in logic), Atim (specialised in theology),
and Qubil (specialised in literature).
In medieval India, the Islamic system of education as discussed above conformed
to the ideals and objectives of life as laid out in the Quran, the religious scripture
of the Muslims. Hence education was religion oriented. Much stress was laid on
the teachings of the principles of Islam through the study of the holy Quran and
also the propagation of Islam among the people of India.

the Unit.
3. What was the main aim of education during the Muslim rule?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
70 ............................................................................................................
Historical Developments of
4. What is a Madrasahs? Education: An Overview
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
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4.5 INDIAN EDUCATION IN MODERN TIME

The modern system of education was started by the Portuguese missionaries as
early as 1510. Thereafter, the British Christian missionaries came to India and the
education in modern India started with the advent of the Britishers. After coming
to India, the Britishers established the East India Company, but in a short time the
reign of the government was in the hands of the British Parliament. The education
during the reign of East India Company was initially neglected as the company
was busy in consolidating its rule in India. When one lakh rupees was sanctioned
in the budget for the education in India in 1813 (Charter Act), Macaulay Minutes
(1835) was written and submitted to William Bentinck, the then Governor General
of India. The minute shaped the destiny of Indian education. However, the significant
educational reforms under the East India Company began after the Wood’s
Despatch of 1854.
4.5.1 Education during the Pre-independence Period

The major developments in Education started during the pre-independence period,
notably from the recommendations of the Macaulay’s Minutes (1835). It continued
till the independence of India with many other developments in education. Let us
discus major landmarks in educational development during the British period.
4.5.1.1 Macaulay’s Minutes 1835
The beginning of the state system of education in India under the British rule may
be traced back to the year 1813 when the East India Company was compelled
by then circumstances, both socio-economic and political, to accept responsibility
for education of the Indians. However, it has its real roots in Elphinstones’s
‘minutes’ of 1823 in which it was stressed on establishing schools for teaching
English. Subsequently, Macaulay advocated education of the upper classes in
India and advised the government for the dissemination of western learning through
the medium of English. Macaulay’s intention was to ‘create a class of people,
Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, opinions, morals and intellect’
(Nayak, 2012, p. 139). The Minute submitted by Lord Macaulay was further
endorsed by Lord William Bentinck which paved the way for educational
development in India.
4.5.1.2 Wood’s Despatch 1854
Through out the nineteenth century, downward filtration theory was the
acknowledged goal of education. It dominated the scene of education throughout
the century. Between 1813 and 1853, there was significant educational progress
in the country. But there was no definite educational policy. When the Charter of
East India Company was to be renewed in 1853, the government felt the necessity
to conduct a thorough survey of education prevailing in the country and prescribe,
in the light of this survey, a systematic policy for the future educational development 71
Concept and Nature of in the country. The Despatch of 1854, popularly known as the Wood’s Despatch,
Education
observed the situation and gave a directive for the promotion of mass education.
The recommendations of the committee were positively considered by the Board
of Directors. Wood’s Despatch derives its name from Sir Charles Wood who
was the President of the Board of Control for India (Aggarwal, 2011).
Recommendations:
In order to achieve the major recommendations, the Despatch suggested the
introduction of the following initiatives:
1. The Despatch declared that in all the provinces, the Department of Public
instruction should be set up. Its highest official should be designated as the
Director of public Instruction, and he should be assisted by Deputy Education
Director, Inspector and Deputy Inspectors of Schools.
2. The Despatch suggested for the setting up of the Universities at Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras and if necessary, at any other places too. All the
Universities were to be modelled on the London University which was then
an examining body.
3. The third scheme suggested by the Despatch was the establishment of a
network of high schools in the country. The Despatch emphasised on the
graded schools.
4. The Despatch suggested the Grant-in-aid system for the institutions which
fulfilled certain qualifications. It also suggested that the rules and regulations
for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the lines practised in England.
5. The Despatch laid importance on vocational education and to that end
suggested the requirement of establishing vocational colleges and schools.
6. It recommended for the inclusion of Indian Languages and literature in the
course of study.
7. In order to secure properly qualified teachers, the desire for opening training
schools in every province of India was suggested by the Despatch.
Wood’s Despatch, with all its merits and demerits, has an important place in the
history of Modern Indian Education. It has contributed much to the organisation
and stabilization of the present Indian educational system. As a result of this
Despatch, three universities were established in the Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay
and Madras.
4.5.1.3 Hunter Commission, 1882-83
As a result of the recommendations of Wood’s Despatch, Universities were
established in 1857 by the various Acts in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the
pattern of the London University. There was a quick growth of colleges and other
educational organisations but no appreciable progress was made in the field of
primary education since 1854. However, the missionaries which ran English medium
educational institutions introduced an organization in London identified as the
‘General Council of Education in India (1878) to achieve their goals. The first
Indian Education Commission was appointed in February 3, 1882 by Lord Ripon
with Sir William Hunter (Member of Viceroy’s Executive Council) as Chairman
with other twenty persons as members, besides the President. The Commission
is also well-known as the ‘Hunter Commission’. It was the outcome of an agitation
72 began by the Council in London.
The Hunter Commission was appointed primarily to assess the problems and Historical Developments of
development of primary education. But this Commission also made its suggestions
in regard to secondary, higher, women and modern education. The Commission
made very important recommendations regarding the expansion of education at
different phases and recommended to initiate the system of grant-in-aid in the field
of education. It was on the basis of suggestions of the Commission that a network
of the primary schools was spread through out the country with secondary and
higher education as well.
4.5.1.4 Indian University Commission, 1902
This Commission was set up essentially for two significant reasons. Initially, the
university education system was extremely defective and nothing had been done
till date to reorganise the system since its beginning. Secondly, the London University
which acted as an ideal for the Indian universities had gone through a change in
the year 1898. So, it was the correct time for the Indian university education
system to undergo modification. Therefore, the Indian University Commission was
set up by Lord Curzon on January 27, 1902 and in the same year by the month
of June, the Commission gave its recommendations. The Commission’s
recommendations were accepted in the interest of strengthening and revamping of
the present education system. On the basis of the Indian University Commission
1902, Indian University Act 1904 was enforced.
4.5.1.5 Calcutta University Commission, 1917-1919
Under the Chairmanship of Dr Michael Saddler, the Vice Chancellor of the Leeds
University, the Calcutta University Commission was set up in 1917. The
Commission was also known as the Saddler Commission. Although the Commission
was mainly appointed to examine the problems of the Calcutta University, it found
that the problems were very much related to the problems of other Indian
Universities; thus it provided recommendations which were of great value to the
higher education system in India as a whole. This report had a great effect on the
progress of secondary and higher education in India. The Commission
recommended for the establishment of secondary and intermediate boards in each
province. It, moreover, advocated separation of intermediate courses from the
university education and made important recommendation regarding the re-
structuring of secondary schools. The recommendations in respect to the
introduction of technological, professional and vocational courses contributed a
lot to the subsequent educational developments in the country.
4.5.1.6 Hartog Committee, 1928-29
In May 1928, the Simon Commission (an Indian Statutory Commission set up for
examining into social, political and economic developments of India) appointed an
Auxiliary Committee, also called as the Hartog Committee, named after its chairman,
Sir Philip Joseph Hartog. The Committee arrived at the conclusion that the
expansion in the field of education was taking place at the cost of quality and that
the immediate need of the hour was to improve the quality of education rather
than to struggle to increase the quantity education. The Committee inquired into
all the aspects of education in India and presented its report in September 1929.
The Hartog Committee proposed various recommendations on primary education,
secondary education and Higher education. 73
Concept and Nature of 4.5.1.7 Government of India Act, 1935
Education
The Government of India Act, 1935 was an important step towards the
advancement of education leading to the attainment of the political freedom.A new
system of administration called as the Provincial Autonomy came into force from
the year 1937 in eleven provinces of British India. The hopes of educational
advancement were not realized as the congress remained in power for a short
duration of just three years. The Act of 1919 had made education partly for all
the Indian and partly for the reserved category. But the Act of 1935 removed all
classifications and brought the whole educational system to be administered by
the Central government and the Provincial governments.

the Unit.
5. State two initiatives mentioned in the Wood’s Despatch.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6. What was the main focus of the Calcutta University Commission?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4.5.2 Education during the Post-independence Period

This section focuses on major landmarks in the development of education during
the post-independence period.
4.5.2.1 University Education Commission, 1948-49
The first major initiative in education taken by the Government after Independence
was appointment of the University Education Commission 1948-49. The
Commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.
This Commission is better known as Radhakrishnan Commission. The
recomendations of the commission wee as follows:
 The maintenance of the highest standards of teaching, research and examination
in the universities and colleges under their control.
 The courses of study in the universities with special reference to the maintenance
of a sound balance between the Humanities and the Sciences and between
pure science and technological training and the duration of such courses.
 The standards of admission to university courses of study with reference to
the desirability of an independent university entrance examination.
 The provision for advanced study in Indian culture, history, literatures,
74 languages, philosophy and fine arts.
 The need for more universities on a regional or other basis. Historical Developments of
 The qualifications, conditions of service, salaries, privileges and functions of
teachers and the encouragement of original research by teachers.
4.5.2.2 Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53
With the recommendation of an All-India Policy on Secondary Education laid
down by the Central Advisory Board of Education made at its 14th meeting held
in January 1948, the Government of India appointed the Secondary Education
Commission in September, 1952 with Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar, Vice-
Chancellor, Madras University as its Chairman. The Commission was directed to
suggest measures for re-construction of secondary education with particular
reference to its aims, organization, content and relationship with other levels of
education.
In spite of its limitations and inadequate treatment of certain problems, the Report
presents a complete progressive blueprint for the future development of secondary
education in India.
Its terms of reference were:
 to enquire into and report on the existing position of Secondary Education
in India in all its aspects; and
 to propose measures for its reorganization and progress with particular
reference to:
- the aims, organization and contents of Secondary Education;
- its relationship to Primary, Basic and Higher Education;
- the inter-relationships among different types of Secondary Education;
and
- Other allied problems.
Moreover, the Commission was of the opinion that both the state and the central
government should make every effort to find the necessary funds to implement
these recommendations and adopt a planned and coordinated policy for the
purpose of establishing standards in education.
4.5.2.3 Education Commission, 1964-66
Several recommendations of Radhakrishnan and Mudaliar Commissions had
remained to be implemented and some of them were out of date. On account
of all these there was the need for a new system of education. It was, therefore,
felt that there should be re-organisation and re-orientation of all the stages of
education; Primary, Secondary, University and Technical. Therefore, the
Government of India appointed the Education Commission in 1964 under the
Chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari which is popularly known as Kothari Commission
(Nayak, 2012).
The main objective of this Commission was to assess the whole educational
system in India. The report comprises recommendations on all aspects of education.
It covers education at all stages from the pre-primary through the secondary to
the higher. The Commission’s recommendations covered different areas such as
reforms needed in education including a language policy; structure and quality in 75
Concept and Nature of education; and various aspects of school education including achieving the universal
Education
retention. It highlights not only the present defects in the system at each level, but
also offers practical recommendations for eradicating them.
4.5.2.4 National Policy on Education, 1968
Based on the Kothari Commission’s report, the National Policy on Education,
1968, was formulated. It was, for the first time, in the recent history of education
that the members of all the political parties discussed together and prepared the
draft of the statement. This draft was accepted by the Central Advisory Board
on Education (CABE). Subsequently, the Government of India passed the resolution
on National Policy on Education in 1968 and this formed the foundation of
education reforms in India until the approval of the New Policy in the year 1986.
It aimed to encourage national progress, a sense of common citizenship and
culture and to strengthen national integration. The National Policy had given its
recommendations on the following aspects:
 Free and compulsory education
 Status, emoluments and education of teachers
 Development of languages
 Regional languages
 Implementation of three language formula
 Achieving equal educational opportunity
4.5.2.5 National Policy on Education, 1986
Before the finalization of the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, it was
made open to the general public for thoughtful debates under the title of “Challenge
of Education”. The declaration for the same was made on 11 August 1985.
The emphasis of the National Policy on Education was on the vocationalization
of education. The term vocationalization was used to align education with areas
like agriculture, rural development programmes, communication and other areas
concerned as they were with the overall development of the economy. The policy
also stressed the significance of Open University System of education to expand
faster the level of higher education. The National Policy on Education specified
that the nation should produce men and women with skills to use the recent and
modern technology so that they can earn their livelihood without much suffering.
The National Policy on Education 1986 considered education as a continuum. To
earn the maximum benefits of the productive human resources of the country, the
best mode is through spreading education. Accordingly, on the 7th May, 1990, the
Government of India announced the appointment of a new committee “to review
the National Policy on Education 1986”.
4.5.2.6 Revised National Policy on Education, 1992
The National Policy on Education 1986 was modified in 1992 by the Programme
of Action (PoA), 1992 under the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986. The
revised recommendations were implemented on certain aspects like equity, social
justice and education; early childhood care and education; adult and continuing
education; education and right to work; higher education; technical and management
76 education; and resources of education.
4.5.2.7 Five Year Plans Historical Developments of
Planning is absolutely essential for the progress and advancement of a democratic
country like India. Understanding the importance of planning for national
development, Government of India set up Planning Commission of India in the
year 1951. Five year plans were formulated since the year 1951. So far, India
has formulated and complemented 12 five year plans and 12th five year plan was
the last five year plan. Niti Aayog came into existence in the year 2015 to take
over functions performed by Planning Commission.
First Five Year Plan 1951-56
In the year 1951, the First Five Year Plan was formulated with a vision of
achieving the national goals and fulfilling desires of the people of India. For the
improvement and promotion of education at primary, secondary and university
levels, the following suggestions were made:
 Primary Education: The Plan suggested for the provision of educational
facilities to 60 percent of children with the age group 6 to 11 and also
recommended to bring the children to school up to the age group of 14.
 Secondary Education: The then secondary education was considered as
stereotyped, examination-dominated and poorly equipped. In order to make
secondary education self-supporting, steps were taken for the development
of activities like agriculture, cottage industry and small scale industry. The
central government decided to appoint the Secondary Education Commission
in the year 1952.
 University Education: By the year 1951, there were 30 universities in the
country. The plan sanctioned Rs. 14.03 crores for the advancement of
university education. The shares of state and centre were 10.6 crores and
3.43 crores. The Planning Commission had also recommended for the
establishment of University Grants Commission for managing higher education
and administration of various universities in the country.
Second Five Year Plan 1956-1961
The second five year plan laid stress on education as follows :
 Primary Education: During this period, importance was laid on the
expansion of primary education. The Plan viewed that “The problems of
education at the elementary level are mainly two: the expansion of the existing
facilities and the reorientation of the system of education on basic lines.” The
plan also mentioned about the wastage and stagnation at the primary level.
 Secondary Education: On the basis of the recommendations of Secondary
Education Commission, the following measures were drawn up for the
promotion of secondary education (Brahma, 2012).
- High schools were to be upgraded up to higher secondary schools.
- Junior technical schools and multipurpose schools were established.
- New teacher training colleges were to be established for the provision
of training facilities.
- Conditions of teachers were to be improved by revising the pay scales
of the teachers.
- Proper guidance and counseling were to be given to the children. 77
Concept and Nature of  University Education: During this period, suggestions were made to
Education
introduce the three year degree course. Suggestions were also made to
improve the university education and to increase the pay scale of teachers
and to provide facilities for the professional growth of the university teachers.
Third Five Year Plan 1961-1966
The third five year plan laid emphasis on the following aspects:
 Primary Education: Much importance was given on the universalisation of
education for the age group of 6-11. But the expansion of primary education
was not in accordance with the growth of population.
 Secondary Education: As the recommendations of the Secondary Education
Commission were carried out, it was observed that there was significant
development in Secondary Education. Emphasis was also given on science
education, establishment of multipurpose schools, and establishment of higher
secondary institutions.
 University Education: Twelve more universities were established during
this Plan period. For the qualitative improvement of university education,
some measures were taken. The important measures were:
- Introduction of three year course
- Improvement of laboratories and libraries
- Development of Post Graduate Studies and Research
- Hostel facilities
- Strengthening of scale of pay for teachers
- Provision of evening and corresponding courses
Fourth Five Year Plan 1969-74
With a focus on Primary, Secondary and University Education, the Plan laid down
the following plan of actions (Brahma, 2012).
 Primary Education: The Plan emphasized that priority must be given to the
expansion of primary schools in educationally backward areas, minor
communities and girls. The Plan suggested for the improvement of teaching
standards and good evaluation methods. Text books were to be made available
with lower price. The Plan also suggested for the extension of mid-day meal
programme.
 Secondary Education: The Plan emphasized on a diversified system of
education courses i.e. technical, commercial, agricultural, etc. Work experience
came out as a significant aspect of education. Importance was given on
national integration, cultural and religious tolerance, and healthy living.
 University Education: As there was substantial increase in secondary
schools, the Plan suggested for the strengthening of university education. The
Plan suggested for research facilities in Humanities, Science and Technical
subjects.
78
Fifth Five Year Plan 1974-79 Historical Developments of
 Primary Education : During this Plan period, emphasis was given on
addressing the causes of wastage and stagnation. The Plan emphasized on
the improvement of the quality of education through work experience, co-
curricular activities, etc.
 Secondary Education: The Plan suggested that fulfillment of economic and
social needs should be the main objective of the Secondary Education. It
also suggested for setting a uniform pattern of 10 years of Secondary and
2 years of Higher Secondary schools.
 University Education: The Plan emphasized on the opening of evening
colleges, correspondence courses with an encouragement for private study.
By providing more scholarships, research at higher level was also encouraged.
Sixth Five Year Plan 1980-1985
The Sixth Plan was prepared by considering the achievements and the short-
comings of the past three decades of planning. The Plan had to cover a period
of five years with effect from April 1980 to the end of March 1985. It emphasized
on the qualitative improvement of education in building up the character and
integrity of the student community.
Seventh Five-Year Plan 1985-1990
The Seventh Plan laid stress on improving the productivity level of industries
through the up-gradation of technology. The important objectives of the Plan were
to increase economic productivity, production of food grains, and generation of
employment. Development of education was considered as one of the felt need
since it is the tool for development of other sectors.
Eight Five-Year Plan 1992-1997
(Brahma, 2012) mentioned that outstanding feature of the Eighth Plan was
modernization of industries. The gradual opening of the Indian economy was
emphasized during this Plan period. During this Plan, India became a member of
the World Trade Organization (WTO). The Plan period emphasized on control
of population growth, reduction of poverty, generation of employment, strengthening
of the infrastructure, institutional building, tourism management, human resource
development, Nagar Palikas, N.G.O’s and decentralization.
Ninth Five-Year Plan 1997-2002
The main objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan of India were: (i) emphasis on
rural development and prioritizing agricultural sector; (ii) adequate employment
opportunities and reduction of poverty; (iii) accelerating the growth rate of the
economy; (iv) ensuring nutritional security; (v) provision of basic infrastructural
facilities like education for all, safe drinking water, primary health care, transport,
energy, etc.; (vi) control of the population growth; and (vii) creation of liberal
market for increase in private investments.
Tenth Five-Year Plan 2002-2007
The major objectives of Tenth Five Year Plan were to attain 8% GDP growth per
year, reduction of poverty ratio by 5 percent by 2007, providing gainful and high-
quality employment to the labour force, all children to complete 5 years of schooling 79
Concept and Nature of by 2007, reduction in gender gaps in literacy and in wage rates by at least 50%
Education
by 2007. Within the Tenth Plan period, it was aimed to literacy rates up to 75%.
Eleventh Five-Year Plan 2007-2012
The 11thFive Year Plan aimed to provide the opportunity to restructure policies
to achieve a new vision based on faster, more broad-based and inclusive growth.
It aimed at reducing poverty and focusing on connecting various splits that broke
up our society. The 11th Plan aimed at putting the economy on a sustainable
growth with the growth rate of approximately 10% by the end of the period. It
aimed to create productive employment at a faster pace than before.
12th Five Year Plan 2012-2017
The 12th Five Year Plan was the last Five Year Plan in India. The Niti Aayog was
set up replacing the Planning Commission aiming to provide policy direction to the
Government. The main objectives of the 12th five year plan were : reduction of
poverty; enhancement of regional equality within and across the states; improving
living conditions of SC,ST,OBC and minority sections of society; creation of
employment opportunities for the youth of India; and removal of gender gaps by
2017.
4.5.2.8 Niti Aayog
As a modified form of Planning Commission, National Institution for Transforming
India, popularly known as NITI Aayog, was formed on January 1, 2015 through
a resolution of the Union Cabinet. NITI stands for National Institution for
Transforming India. It has been functioning since 1st January, 2015 with its focus
on reform agenda by replacing Planning Commission which was formed on 15
March 1950. NITI Aayog is the Premier Policy Think-Tank of the Government
of India which provides both directional & policy inputs. Contrary to the Planning
Commission, which went with top to bottom approach in planning, in which, state
has no right and representation in the body, NITI Aayog follows the bottom to
top approach in which state can influence the decisions of the Centre. NITI
Aayog consists of Prime Minister of India as the chairperson, Vice Chairperson,
CEO, Permanent members, Ex officio and Chief Ministers and LG’s and special
invitees.
Functions of Niti Aayog
Niti Aayog performs the following major role and functions:
 To evolve a shared vision of national development priorities sectors and
strategies with the active involvement of States in the light of national objectives.
 To foster cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives and
mechanisms with the States on a continuous basis, recognizing that strong
States make a strong nation.
 To develop mechanisms to formulate credible plans at the village level and
aggregate these progressively at higher levels of government.
 To ensure, on areas that are specifically referred to it, that the interests of
national security are incorporated in economic strategy and policy.
 To pay special attention to the sections of our society that may be at risk of
80 not benefiting adequately from economic progress.
 To design strategic and long term policy and programme frameworks and Historical Developments of
initiatives, and monitor their progress and their efficacy.
 To provide advice and encourage partnerships between key stakeholders
and national and international like-minded Think tanks, as well as educational
and policy research institutions.
 To create a knowledge, innovation and entrepreneurial support system through
a collaborative community of national and international experts, practitioners
and other partners.
 To offer a platform for resolution of inter-sectoral and inter--departmental
issues in order to accelerate the implementation of the development agenda.
 To maintain a state-of-the-art Resource Centre, be a repository of research
on good governance and best practices in sustainable and equitable
development as well as help their dissemination to stake-holders.
 To actively monitor and evaluate the implementation of programmes and
initiatives, including the identification of the needed resources so as to
strengthen the probability of success and scope of delivery.
 To focus on technology upgradation and capacity building for implementation
of programmes and initiatives.
(Source: Official Website of Niti Aayog, https://niti.gov.in/content/functions
retrieved on 14.06.2020)
4.5.2.9 Education as a Fundamental Right
The 86th Constitutional amendment was made in 2002 and inserted Article 21-
A in the Constitution of India to make education as a fundamental right.The Right
of Children to Free and Compulsory Education or Right to Education (RTE) Act
was enacted by the Parliament of India in 2009. But the RTE Act came into effect
on April 1st 2010. It provides the children the right of free and compulsory
education in the age group of 6-14. It is responsibility of the state governments
and local bodies to ensure that every child gets education in a school in the
neighbourhood.
The main aim of the Act is to provide the opportunity of quality education for all
the children belonging to the age group of 6 to 14. The Act makes provision for
the children free and compulsory education in neighbourhood school till the
completion of elementary education. It makes clear that ‘free’ means no child shall
be liable to make any kind of payment or expenses which may prevent the child
in the pursuance and completion of primary or elementary education. Compulsory
education refers to commitment of the appropriate government to provide free
education at elementary level and to make certain the compulsory admission;
attendance and completion of elementary education for the children in the age
group 6-14. Making elementary education a prerogative entitlement for children
in the age group 6-14, the Act will directly benefit the children, who do not go
to school at present. The School Management Committee (SMC) or the local
bodies will identify the out-of-school children aged above six and admit them in
classes appropriate to their age.
4.5.2.10 Draft National Education Policy 2019
The recent development in the field of education in India was the formulation of
National Education Policy, 2019 by a Committee under the Chairmanship of K. 81
Concept and Nature of Kasturirangan. The draft report has been prepared and in circulation since 2015
Education
to obtain suggestions before it is made final. The National Education Policy, 2019
envisages an India-centred education system that contributes directly to transforming
our nation sustainably into an equitable and vibrant knowledge society, by providing
high quality education to all.

the Unit.
7. Write any two recommendations of the University Education Commission
1948-49.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
8. What was the terms of reference of the Secondary Education Commission?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
9. Mention any two functions of the NITI Aayog.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
10. What is the main objective of Right to Education Act, 2009?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
11. Discuss the vision of Draft National Policy on Education 2019.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4.6 LET US SUM UP

Education is the responsibility of the State. Every liberal Government undertakes
the responsibility to educate its citizens for the development of the country as
education is the tool for all other developments. India has a unique history in the
development of education at different periods. Presently, the realisation of the
82 democratic form of education has reached after a long way experiencing many
ups and downs in education. To make education as a right is not the development Historical Developments of
of overnight matter rather it is the will power and continuous progressive work
of the Government of the Country. The present Unit must have made you
acquainted with the development of Education in India beginning from its Ancient
times to the modern period. It must have familiarised you with the works and
contributions of various Committees and Commissions towards achieving education
in its quantitative and qualitative aspects.

Agarwal J.C. (1972). Educational Administration Planning and Financing in India.
Arya Book Depot, Karol Bag, New Delhi.
Aggarwal, J.C. (2011). Development of Education System in India. New Delhi,
India: Shipra Publications.
Altekar, A.S. (1957). Education in Ancient India, (5th edition), 1957, Varanasi:
Nand Kishore and Bros.
Brahma, D. (2012). Educational Administration and Supervision, Sambalpur, Saha
Chaube, S.P. (2016). History and Problems of Indian Education, Agra: Vinod
Pustak Mandir.
Dash, B.N. (2008). History of Education in India. New Delhi, India: Dominant
Dutt, B & Garg, J. (2012). Education System in India. New Delhi, India: Global
Publications.
Draft National Policy of Education (2019). MHRD, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
MHRD, (2011). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan - Framework for Implementation, Dept.
of School Education and Literacy, MHRD, Govt. of India.
Mukherjee, S. N. (1964). Education in India Today and Tomorrow. Acharya
Book Depot. Baroda: India.
Naik, J. P. (1947). Policy and Performance in Indian Education. Indian Council
of Social Science Research, New Delhi: India.
Nayak, B.K. (2012). History, Heritage and Development of Indian Education,
New Delhi, India: Axis Books Pvt. Ltd.
Govt. of India (2019). NitiAayog, New Delhi, retrieved from https://www.niti.gov.in
on 09.09.2019.
Govt. of India (2020). Functions of Niti Ayog, Govt. of India. Retrieved from
https://niti.gov.in/content/functionson 14.06.2020.
Nurullah, Syed & Naik, J.P. (Vth eds.). (1964). Student History of Education in
India. Macmillan, Calcutta (1971, Reprint).
Planning Commission (1970). Education and Man Power, Government of India
Radha Kumar Mookerji (1989). Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and
Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidas Publishers, Delhi, 1989, p. 67. 83
Concept and Nature of Rai, B.C. (2001). History of Indian Education, Lucknow, India: Prakashan Kendra
Education
Rawat, P.L. (1996). History of Indian Education, Agra: Ram Prasad & Sons,
1996.
Report of Education Commission (1964-66). Ministry of Education, Govt. Of

India, New Delhi
Report of National Policy on Education (1986). (as modified in 1992) with

National policy on Education 1968, Dept. of Education, MHRD, Govt. of India,
New Delhi.
Report of Revised National Policy of Education (1992). MHRD, Govt. of India,

New Delhi.
Report of Secondary Education Commission (1952-53). MHRD, Govt. of India,

New Delhi.
Report of the CABE Committee on Girls Education and Common School System
(2005), MHRD, Govt. of India, New Delhi: India.
Report of the National Policy on Education (1986). MHRD, Govt. of India, New
Delhi.
Report of University Education Commission (1948-49). Ministry of Education,

Govt. of India, New Delhi.
Website Referred
Retrieved from http://www.yogapedia.com, “Moksha”, What is Moksha? Definition

from Yogpedia.

1. The main aim of education during Vedic period is to enable an Individual to
understand truth and to attain Moksha.
2. The medium of Buddhist education was the common and the local language
of the persons.
3. The aim of Education during Muslim rule was mostly religious and was
imparted for the propagation of Islamic principles, laws and social conventions.
4. Madrasha was the centre for Higher Learning during the Muslim rule.
5. Set up of Department of Public instruction and setting up of the Universities

at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
6. The major focus point of Calcutta University Commission was in general to

provide the recommendations for solving problems of Higher Education in
India and in particular Calcutta University.
7. The maintenance of the highest standards of teaching and examination in the

universities and colleges and maintenance of a sound balance between the
Humanities and the Sciences and between pure science and technological
training and the duration of courses.
84
8. The term of reference of Secondary Education Commission was to enquire Historical Developments of
into and report on the existing position of Secondary Education in India in
all its aspects; and to suggest measures for its reorganization and progress.
9. (i) To evolve a shared vision of national development priorities sectors and

strategies with the active involvement of States in the light of national objectives.
(ii) To foster cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives
and mechanisms with the States on a continuous basis, recognizing that
strong States make a strong nation.
10. Main objective of Right to Education Act, 2009 is to provide free and
compulsory education to all the children within the age group of 6-14. It is
the responsibility of the State to provide compulsory elementary education
to the children.
11. The vision of National Policy on Education (2019) is to prevail India-
centred education system that contributes directly to transforming our nation
sustainably into an equitable and vibrant knowledge society, by providing
high quality education to all.
85
Education
86
BESC-131
Education: Concept,
Indira Gandhi
School of Education
Block
2
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION
Unit 5
Education and Philosophy 89
Unit 6
Schools of Thought 107
Unit 7
Contribution of Indian Philosophers 123
Unit 8
Contribution of Western Philosophers 145
Philosophical Perspective
of Education BLOCK 2 PHILOSOPHICAL
PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION
‘Philosophical Perspective of Education’ is the second Block of the Course,
BESC-131 ‘Education: Concept, Nature and Perspectives’. Every discipline
has its contexts and perspectives. The discipline of education has also
philosophical, sociological, historical, and political perspectives. This Block
specifically addresses the philosophical perspective of education with special
reference to the ideas and principles of education and thoughts of great Indian
and western educationists and their implications for educational practices.
The first Unit (Unit-5) of this Block, ‘Education and Philosophy’ provides
a base for understanding the concept of education, philosophy and their
interrelationships. The Unit, critically analyses the definitions of philosophy given
by great philosophers with its functions and different domains of philosophy such
as metaphysics (understanding the reality), epistemology (understanding knowledge)
and axiology (understanding values). The Unit also further establishes
interrelationships between education and philosophy and provides understanding
on various aspects of education such as aims, methods, curriculum, etc.
The second Unit (Unit-6) of this Block, ‘Schools of Thought’, discusses the
ideas & ideals and principles of education deduced from various schools of
thought such as Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Existentialism, Realism and
Humanism. The Unit also explains the educational implications of the above
schools of thought in the context of aims of education, methods of teaching,
curriculum and role of teachers and learners.
The third Unit (Unit-7) of this Block, ‘Contribution of Indian Philosophers’
explains the concept and principles of education given by great Indian
educationists like Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri
Aurobindo, J. Krishnamurti and Gijubhai Badheka with special reference to
framing aims of education, curriculum, pedagogy and role of teachers and
students.
The fourth Unit (Unit-8) of this Block, ‘Contribution of Western Philosophers’
explains the concept and principles of education given by great western
philosophers and educationists like Plato, Rousseau, John Dewey and Immanuel
Kant with special reference to framing aims of education, curriculum, pedagogy
and role of teachers and students.
88
Education and Philosophy
UNIT 5 EDUCATION AND
PHILOSOPHY
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 What is Philosophy?
5.3.1 Philosophy as Analysis
5.3.2 Philosophy as Synthesis
5.3.3 Philosophy is the Process of Philosophisation
5.4 Definitions of Philosophy

5.5 Branches of Philosophy
5.5.1 Metaphysics
5.5.2 Epistemology
5.5.3 Axiology
5.5.4 Logic and Education
5.5.5 Branches of Philosophies and their Basic Questions
5.6 Education and Philosophy: Interrelationships

5.6.1 Interrelationships between Philosophy and Education
5.6.2 Philosophy and Aims of Education
5.6.3 Philosophy and Curriculum
5.6.4 Philosophy and Methods of Teaching
5.6.5 Relationship between Teachers and Learners
5.7 Let Us Sum Up

5.1 INTRODUCTION
This Unit deals the concepts of Education and Philosophy and their inter-
relationships. It also focuses on different branches of philosophy and how it helps
to understand education. We have begun our discussion with a preliminary
understanding of word philosophy as the most general way of reflecting on its
etymological meaning and then reflecting upon understanding of Indian and Western
philosophies.
The Unit describes various philosophical types so that learners will be able to gain
familiarity with different branches of philosophy i.e. metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology and logic as they apply these to educational discourses subsequently.
Further, the Unit also focuses on the questions dealt by different branches of
philosophy. Further, the Unit tries to acquaint you with the relationship between
philosophy and education in terms of Aims of Education, Curriculum, Methods of
Teaching, relationships between teachers and learners, etc. Lastly but not the
least, an attempt has been made to give you an insight on the role of philosophy
in understanding education as an area of study.
Dr. Sunita Singh, CIE, University of Delhi. 89
of Education 5.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
 explain the concept of philosophy and education;
 differentiate between the Indian and Western concepts of philosophy;
 analyse different branches of philosophy and its role in understanding
education; and
 establish inter-relationship between philosophy and education.
5.3 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

Etymologically the word philosophy is derived from the Greek words “Philos
(love)” and “Sophia” (of wisdom), it means “love of wisdom”. Wisdom is not the
same as knowledge but much more than that. It is closely related to experience
and worth bearing a sense of knowledge. There is an observation by Plato in his
book “Republic” which reflects the belief that philosophy is that love of knowledge
which makes a man wise and love wisely and also write ‘he who has a taste for
every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn and is never satisfied
may be just termed as a philosopher’.
The word ‘Philosophy’ is difficult to define in a specific way that is universally
acceptable. There are different meanings of philosophy. Sometimes, it refers to a
certain method of thinking. As with all thought, philosophy arises out of an attempt
to solve a problem, to make sense out of a confusing situation or to explain an
inadequacy. But unlike most kinds of thought, it has no immediate objective. In
other words, we may say that, philosophy is concerned not so much with solving
a confronting problem as with finding, the deeper meaning of problems.
Knowledge of philosophy is fundamental not only to an understanding of education
as a whole but also to decide or select the techniques of teaching and their
effective use. For example, a teacher teaches the principles of the square root in
a class. You may find that the methodology used by the teacher is suitable for the
understanding of the children, the teacher knows psychological conditions to
create an appropriate classroom situation, but, has he done enough in teaching
every pupil to solve problems involving square roots? Is the task of a teacher
simply to impart the subject matter specified in the syllabus? Or is education a
means for improving all human behavior? Can it be a model for thinking? Can it
help us to understand the nature of the universe and our place in it? Such are the
questions that philosophies in general and educational philosophy, in particular,
strive to answer. Generally, analysis and synthesis are the two basic functions of
philosophy. The first one is philosophy as analysis and another one is philosophy
as synthesis.
5.3.1 Philosophy as Analysis

If you go through the history of philosophy, you may find that most of the
philosophers were not meta-physicians, rather they were analyst, such as: Locke,
Berkley, Hume, Mill, Moore, Hegel, etc. The analytical philosophers examined
such concepts as mind, truth, cause(s) and assesses. You may observe that under
90 analytic philosophy an object conveys different meaning under different contexts.
The different meanings they convey in a different context. Today analytical Education and Philosophy
approaches of philosophy dominate across the world. Analytical philosophy clarifies
what we already know and point(s) of inconsistencies in our thinking. It does not
build a new system of thought.
5.3.2 Philosophy as Synthesis
The other main function of philosophy is a more traditional one. It attempts to
synthesize all knowledge and man’s total experiences. Here the emphasis is upon
the anticipated result, rather than the tools and methods employed. This view was
held by some early philosophers who did not claim to be a wise man, but merely
lovers of wisdom. They claimed that their role was to help others in the search
of wisdom. So in this sense philosophy is an attempt to give meaning to one’s
existence through the continued search for a comprehensive and consistent answer
to basic problems. This makes philosophers an active person. For example,
Socrates himself took philosophy as an activity.
In the words of Plutarch, another philosopher mentioned about Socrates is,
“Socrates neither set up benches for his students nor set on a platform, nor set
house for his teachers. He was philosophizing all the time while he was joking,
while he was drinking, while he was soldering. Whenever he met you on the street
and met the end when he was in prison and drinking the poison. He was the first
to start that all your life, all the time, in everything you do, whatever you are doing
is the time for philosophy.” (Source: Jackson, 1988)
5.3.3 Philosophy is the Process of Philosophisation
You may be wondering ‘what is the process of philosophisation in philosophy. Let
go through the given para, mentioned by Harold H. Titans, ‘To philosophize is
not merely to read and to know philosophy; it is to think and to feel
philosophical’. The two terms, ‘Philosophy’ and ‘Philosophisation’ needs to be
understood properly before understanding the process of Philosophisation.
Philosophisation may be explained as working on creating new knowledge and
examining that new knowledge for establishing a theory. The process and steps
that we adopt for creating new knowledge, experimentation, process of
inquiry, agreeing or disagreeing with the facts, etc. can be said as
Philosophisation. It is therefore, Philosophisation is the way to reach at the
wisdom or truth which is ‘Philosophy’. Through this process, Socrates develops
his other method of teaching. He posed his questions to his students and invited
them to teach him by giving the best answers. Then he helps them to examine
critically their own answers, to modify and then to alter or further modify till they
reach at the truth.

the Unit.
1. Define the term ‘Philosophy’.
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of Education 2. Name some analytic philosophers?
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3. Explain the term ‘Philosophisation’.
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5.4 DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

As a learner you may be very uncomfortable to begin the study of philosophy to
find that different philosophers have given different definitions of the term
philosophy. You may find that some of them have laid emphasis on the
psychological facts and others gave importance to the values. Philosophy raises
questions in the mind and again it inspire the person to get the answer of the
questions from the pursuit of his/her existing knowledge, experiences or creating
new knowledge. It raises the following questions to get the appropriate answers
to it:
 What is knowledge?
 What is the World?
 Who has created the World?
 Is there a God?
 Who am I?
 What is the aim of life?
 Why should I live?
 What is the purpose of this World?
Definitions of philosophy laid down by the great philosophers mostly address the
above questions and also explain the processes to get the answers of these
questions. It is therefore rightly said, ‘one who asks many questions, try to get
the answers of the questions and never satisfied with the answers are truly become
a philosopher’. In view of this, some of the definitions of philosophy given by the
various philosophers have been given here under:
“Whenever philosophy has been taken seriously, it has always been assumed that
it signified achieving wisdom that would influence the conduct of life.”
- John Dewey
Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching experience rather
than a body of conclusions about experience.
92 - Edgar S. Brightman
Were I limited to one line for my answer to it, I should say that philosophy Education and Philosophy
is a general theory of criticism.
- C.J. Ducasse
Philosophy is the interpretation of the world in order to change it.
- Karl Marx
Men live in accordance with their philosophy of life, their conception of the
world. This is true even of the most thoughtless. It is impossible to live
without metaphysics.
- Huxley
Philosophy and education are like the two sides of the same coin; the one
is implied by the other; the former is the contemplative side of life, while the
later is the active side.
- J.S. Ross
He who has a taste for every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn
and is never satisfied may be justly termed as a philosopher.
- Plato
Philosophy is a science which discovers the real nature of supernatural
elements.
- Aristotle
Philosophy is a view of life. It gives a direction to life, offers a design for
living.
- S. Radhakrishnan
Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science.
- - Herbert Spencer
Our subject is a collection of sciences, such as the theory of knowledge,
logic, cosmology, ethics and aesthetics as well as a unified survey.
- Roy Wood Sellars
Philosophies like other studies, aims primarily at knowledge.
- Bertrand Russell
Between science and philosophy the very closest relationship exists. They
spring from the same root, the love of knowledge and they aspire to the
same end, the knowledge of reality. While science describes the facts,
philosophy interprets them.
- Patreck
Science is interested in the proximate or efficient causes of the facts, while
philosophy is concerned with its ultimate or final causes.
- Brubacher 93
Philosophical Perspective Philosophy is an unceasing effort to discover the general truth that lies
of Education
behind the particular fact, to discover also the realities that lie behind
appearance.
- Raymont
To analyse the above definitions, you may arrive at the following points of
understanding :
 Philosophy is born out of specific experiences, special circumstances and
situations. Therefore, different persons have adopted different philosophies
of life in accordance with the specific circumstances and situation wherein
they spent their lives.
 Philosophy has a deep knowledge pursuits and it provides a shape, analyses
the knowledge base of each and every discipline.
 Scientific enquiry is the base of philosophy and philosophy has an intimate
relation with science. As you are aware that science deals with realities of
nature and life, i.e. animal, plant or human. Those realities are integral part
of human life. These are the base to generate knowledge and experiences of
the child and further it goes to form philosophy.
 One of the main features of philosophy is that it comes out of specific
experiences, special circumstances and situations.
 All those persons may be called as philosophers, who in one way or the
other search for truth and realities.
 Human being undergoes with various kinds of experiences throughout their
life, from birth to death, these experiences provide them with new knowledge
and this search of knowledge makes the individual a philosopher.

the Unit.
4. Mention any two basic aspects of philosophy?
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5. Analyse the definition of philosophy given by J.S. Ross and Herbert
Spenser.
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94 ............................................................................................................
5.5 BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
This has been discussed in the earlier sections that ‘Philosophy’ deals knowledge,
situations and experiences. Defining and shaping Knowledge is the most important
function of philosophy. It characterizes the type of knowledge and processes of
acquisition that cater in a discipline. Even though knowledge is the main function
of philosophy, it also discusses science, realities and values of life. It is therefore,
in the section, different branches of philosophy have been dealt which deals with
its various aspects such as knowledge, reality, values, etc. Let us learn these
branches of philosophy in the following aspects:
 Metaphysics
 Epistemology
 Axiology
 Logic
5.5.1 Metaphysics
The derivative meaning of ‘Metaphysics’ is the ‘science of what is beyond the
physical’. It means, the term ‘Metaphysics’ discusses the ultimate reality which
is beyond the physical world. This term metaphysics derives from the two words,
‘Meta’ which means ‘after’’ and ‘physics’ which means ‘science’. So it may be
said that the very meaning of ‘Metaphysics’ is ‘after science’. The term ‘after
science’ is abstract in nature and it may be little spiritual to realize it. Many
philosophers say ‘metaphysics’ as a ‘theory of reality’.
Metaphysics implies the study of the nature of ultimate reality and it involves
speculation about the nature of existence. It asks the question of what is genuinely
real. The belief about the nature of reality determines how one perceives relationships
to the universe and to the society. Their beliefs raise most important questions,
like, what is real and what is not? It begins to provide the answers to the following
questions: is there a spiritual realm of existence or is reality material? What is the
origin of the universe? Is it inherently purposeful by its own design or do we
create our own purpose? So, metaphysics in their speculations regarding the
nature of reality and accordingly draw various conclusions. It is therefore,
metaphysics is also called as ‘theory of reality’.
Metaphysics and Its Relation with Education
You may be curious to know that how metaphysics is related to educational,
theory and practice in many ways. The subjects or areas of studies, experiences,
and skills in the curriculum reflect the conception of reality held by the society that
supports the educational institutions. Many school subjects such as History,
Geography, Chemistry, and so on describe certain dimensions of reality to the
students. In high school science, if a student concludes the discussion on evolution
that the universe as a whole has no purpose, it follows that his/her life has to
mean only as he/she personally derives that it should. Again in Geography, the
concept such as measurement of earth, altitude, weather and environment in
different regions, different land forms and appropriateness of crops in that land
forms, etc. are the knowledge base of the discipline, but, when we say the
existence and reality of that geographical substance and its utilitarian qualities for
the human society is something related to Metaphysics of that subject or area of 95
Philosophical Perspective study. Accordingly, different disciplines are having a knowledge base as well as
of Education it addresses the reality of that knowledge, which implies Metaphysics.
With addressing the knowledge aspects, the metaphysical views of contents in an
area of study are being properly taken care of in designing school text-books,
curriculum and methods of teaching.
5.5.2 Epistemology
Epistemology is defined as ‘Theory of Knowledge’. It is a branch of philosophy
which investigates the origin, nature, methods, and processes of acquiring
knowledge. In other words, the nature and worthiness of knowledge, methods of
acquiring knowledge, etc. fall under Epistemology. So this branch of philosophy
considers important questions, such as:
 How do we know?
 What do we know?
 What processes of knowing do we base our knowledge of the world and
society?
 What is the authority on which we base our claims to truth?
 Do our knowledge claims derive from divine revelation, empirical evidence,
or personal and subjective experiences?
All the above questions address a knowledge pursuit. Exploring, experimenting,
enquiring and examining the facts are the processes of acquiring knowledge that
come under epistemology. Thus, epistemology addresses the cognitive aspect of
domain. Figure 1 depicts the key epistemological terms:
Fig. 1 : Key Epistemological Terms

(Source: Retrieved from http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/Education_Theory/Epistemology_and_
96 Learning_Theories on 28.01.2020)
Figure 1, presents the origin of knowledge as per the epistemological branch of Education and Philosophy
philosophy. Origin of knowledge may be from objectivism, pragmatism and
interpretivism. Objective knowledge may be acquired through empiricism which
is possible through sensory experiences. According to objectivism, knowledge
exists and it is real so there is no need to construct knowledge. Another type of
knowledge acquisition is through pragmatism as it emphasizes there is no single
truth of knowledge. Knowledge could be tested, experimented, interpreted,
experienced and created. Another way is interpretivism that focuses on knowledge
could be constructed, knowledge is not uniform or identical, rather it may exist
in multiple forms. Every individual has the ability to interpret the facts, link their
experiences with existing knowledge and also to construct their own knowledge.
Epistemology and Education
The narrative of the term epistemology is present in all the disciplines. We often
say that there is disciplinary knowledge, it means, in every discipline there is a
knowledge base with certain principles and theories of knowledge. As an example,
in Psychology, we have certain principles and theories; similarly in Education we
have many pedagogical principles that help us to understand the concept and to
teach that concept by using a suitable pedagogy, etc. Epistemology is closely
related to the method of teaching and learning for example- an Idealist may hold
that knowledge based on ideas, which are present in the mind but not known to
the individual. The appropriate educational method for an idealist would be the
Socratic dialogue in which the teacher attempts to bring latent ideas to the student’s
consciousness by asking the leading questions. While existentialist contends that
we create our own knowledge by choosing what we wish to believe.
It is therefore difficult to say the existence of a discipline without a knowledge
base, its methods and practices to acquire and create new knowledge in that
discipline. Epistemological philosophy also emphasizes that the discipline has a
research base and a group of strong followers who conduct various researches
in that discipline and bring changes. It also has an academic manifestation and it
is being taught in the education system as a subject or discipline.
5.5.3 Axiology
‘Axiology’ is one of the branches of philosophy which defines as ‘Theory of
principles or values’. The sub-division of axiology is Ethics and Aesthetics.
Ethics refers to the philosophical study of moral values and conduct. Aesthetic is
concerned with the study of values in the realm of beauty and art. Some school
subjects such as art, drama, music, dancing etc. fulfill aesthetic sense and make
human life, harmonious, balanced and beautiful. So on one hand where metaphysics
attempts to describe the nature of reality, axiology refers to prescriptions of moral
behavior and beauty. These discussions also affect educational perspectives such
as discipline, school environment, student-teacher relationships, etc. Axiology deals
mainly with the affective domain of knowledge.
Axiology and Education
Axiology plays a very important role in the education system in general and
curriculum designing, development and transaction in specific. As you might have
been aware that the National Curriculum Frameworks (2005) gives stress upon
the value based and moral education as a separate entity of education and also
integrate it with the core subjects. It is therefore, integrating aesthetic sense, moral 97
Philosophical Perspective and value education, art and craft, peace education, etc. in school curriculum and
of Education
syllabus is a challenge before the curriculum committee. You might have come
across that the Education Committees and Commissions at different times have
also given importance and documented in their report for implementing educational
values through the courses and curriculum. So, axiology has direct impact on
education from the very beginning of the ancient system of education. In another
words that it is the heart of an education system. The concept of life skills such
as self awareness, critical thinking, decision making, effective communication,
coping with stress, empathy, creative thinking, problem solving, interpersonal
relationships and coping with emotions and their integration in the schooling and
education is also emphasizes the importance of axiology and education.
5.5.4 Logic and Education

By definition, ‘logic’ is a method of reasoning that involves series of statements,
each of which must be true if the statement before it is true. Logic is the branch
of philosophy that deals with correct and logical thinking. It is concerned with
how one organizes and sequences one’s thinking and form arguments according
to a coherent pattern and that one organizes his/her supporting evidences to make
a case for or to explain something. The two major patterns of logic are deduction
and induction. In deduction, one moves from general statement or principle to
specific cases or examples, whereas in induction, one moves from particular
examples to generalization i.e. to establishing theory or principle.
Example of deductive principle:
All men are mortal…..Rohit is a man…..therefore, Rohit is mortal.
In deductive principle, we move from general statement (all men are mortal) to
specific cases (Rohit is a man, so, Rohit is mortal)
Example of inductive principle:
Rohit is mortal…….Alok is mortal……..Alex is mortal……Harjeet is mortal….
Ankit is mortal…..etc.
The above specific instances imply that they are human being. So, we can say that
‘All human beings are mortal’.
In inductive principle, the person moves from specific instances, cases or
situations to a larger generalization.
5.5.5 Branches of Philosophy and their Basic Questions

From the earlier section, you have been familiar with various branches of philosophy.
In the Table 5.1, different branches of philosophy and basic questions they deal
for the pursuit of knowledge, reality, values and logical thinking have been prescribed
here.
98
Table 5.1 : Branches of philosophies and their basic questions Education and Philosophy
Metaphysics Epistemology Axiology Logic
Ethical Values Aesthetic Values
Examines what Examines what Examines what is Examines what is Examines the rules
ultimately is real is knowledge right and wrong; beautiful or ugly. of correct thinking.
or truth and how do good and evil.
we know.
Is reality a Is truth intuitive, Are ethics, the Is beauty a Is logic deductive, from
cognitive or subjective, and standards of reflection of the the general principle
spiritual personal? behavior, objective universal, absolute, to the specific
phenomenon? and universal, and unchanging? example?
reflecting the
nature of the
universe?
Does objective Is truth revealed Are ethics Is beauty Is logic inductive, from
reality exist from God in a subjective or/and subjective, in the the specific example
outside of one’s sacred or holy personal likes and eye of the beholder? to the general principle
mind? book? dislikes? or finding?
Is reality based Is truth revealed Are ethics Is beauty -

on one’s from reasoning? culturally relative, determined by
experiences? depending on cultural
cultural norms at preferences?
given time?
Does one Is truth empirical, - - -

construct or constructed by
make one’s own using our senses
reality? and the scientific
method?
The above branches of philosophy concentrate basic questions as given in the

table and accordingly education helps to get the answers of those questions.
Getting an accepted answer of the above questions is the work of education.
Educational practices engage in discourses by doing educational experiments and
observations of the things and also develop certain educational theories and
principles. Further, those educational theories and principles get implemented by
using teaching-learning techniques, methods, maxims, etc. which we call pedagogy.

the Unit.
6. Explain the concept of ‘metaphysics’.
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of Education 7. What are the different branches of philosophy?
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8. Mention the major two patterns of ‘Logic’ and give an example of each
type.
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5.6 EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY:

INTERRELATIONSHIPS
Before discussing the relationship between Education and Philosophy, let us
understand the concept of education. You have already studied the concept and
nature of education in Unit-1 of this Course. To recapitulate the concept, we may
say that the word ‘Education’ has been derived from the Latin words ‘Educare’,
‘Educere’ and ‘Educatum’. The word ‘Educare’ means to ‘nourish’ or to ‘bring
up’. The word ‘Educere’ means to ‘Lead forth’ or to ‘draw out’. The word
‘Educatum’ has again composed in two terms, i.e. ‘E’ and ‘Duco’. Here ‘E’
means, a movement from ‘inward’ to ‘outward’ and ‘Duco’ means ‘developing’
or ‘progressing’.
Therefore, we may say that the meaning of ‘Education’ is to nourish or bring up
the best in an individual/child for her/his complete development of personality. In
other words, this may also be said that ‘Education’ can lead to the individual/child
from ignorance to knowledge. Further the meaning of the word, ‘Education’ also
implies to develop and progress the child moving them from inwards towards the
outwards. As an example, we know that every individual has some inner abilities,
experiences and understanding. Education helps the individual to identify those
inner abilities of the individual and to bring it to the light by providing opportunities
and by facilitating the individual.
In other words, in order to understand the relationship between education and
philosophy, it would be better to understand in detail, the relationship between the
two disciplines in view of the major aspects of education i.e., aims of education,
curriculum, methods of teaching and relationship between teachers and students.
5.6.1 Interrelationships between Philosophy and Education

There is supplementary and integral relationship between philosophy and education.
Various philosophical theories and principles have been developed and used in
educational discourses for implementing it in education time and again. It is rightly
said that Philosophy is the theoretical part of developing knowledge and education
100 is the practical and action part to implement that knowledge among the students.
Philosophy is the means of development of human life. Philosophy determines the Education and Philosophy
aim of human life and education plays the role as a mean to achieving of those
aims. Both philosophy and education are integrally and interdependently related
to each other. According to J.S. Ross, ‘Philosophy and education are like the
two sides of the same coin; the one is implied by the other; the former is the
contemplative side of life, while the later is the active side’ (Quoted from
Saxena, 2009). Philosophy is thinking process of life and education is functional
part to materialise the thinking process. Educational problems are discovered in
educational discourses and it has somehow a link with the philosophy to theorise
it and to way forward for solving that problem. Therefore, it is important to
understand philosophy before understanding the educational objectives, system,
organisation and teaching methods.
Establishing relationship between Philosophy and Education, Saxena (2009), in
his book ‘Principles of Education’ has highlighted the following points:
 Philosophy determines the real destination towards which education aims at.
 Philosophy determines the goal of life and also provides suitable and effective
guidance and supervision for education to achieve the goal.
 Philosophy provides the principles and theories of learning whereas education
implements those principles and theories in the process of teaching and
learning.
 True education is practicable only by a true philosophy (Spencer).
 Philosophy determines various aspects of education like the teaching methods,
principles of teaching, curriculum, and the role of the teachers and learners
as well.
 Philosophy and education are like the two sides of a coin, present different
views of the same thing, and that one is implied by the other.
 Great philosophers are great educationists at all the times like, Plato, Dewey,
Rousseau, Gandhi, and Aurobindo.
 ‘Education is the dynamic side of the philosophy’ (John Adams) as because
education translates the ideas of philosophy into action and practice.
 Philosophy determines the aims of life whereas education is a means to
achieve the goal.
(Source : The section, 5.7 has been taken from B.Ed., BES-122, Contemporary
India and Education, Block-3, pp.27-28, IGNOU 2016).
Now, let us discuss the interrelationship between philosophy and education in
various other aspects of education. In the next section, philosophy in the context
of aims of education has been dealt.
5.6.2 Philosophy and Aims of Education

Philosophy determines the aims of education. We all know that education is an
objective and purposeful activity. Aims of education are related to the aims of life.
Again aims of life are the creation of philosophy of a certain time (Saxena, 2009).
It is therefore, aims of education are determined by the philosophy. We prepare
aims of education as per the aims of our life and aims of life are determined by 101
Philosophical Perspective the philosophy of life. It is therefore, aims of education never go beyond the
of Education
philosophy of one’s life. Thus, when aims of life change, aims of education also
change accordingly. As an example, when aim of our life is to arrange for livelihood
and to exist in the society, so as the aim of education sets to meet those needs
and accordingly education prepares the individuals skilled to engage themselves
in world of work and to earn for their livelihood.
It is therefore, philosophers and educationists in different periods have concerned
about the aims of life and accordingly aims of education have been implemented.
Now you might be correlating it with the aim of life and aim of education practiced
in earlier times i.e. during the ancient and mediaeval periods and also in the
present modern period. Development of science and technology in the modern
period has not happened automatically, rather it is the reflection of the aims of life
and education of the individual at the present time.
Further, aims of education in various schools of philosophy such as: Idealism,
Naturalism, Pragmatism, Realism, etc. are different as the philosophical principles
of the schools of thought are different. You will study the detail about different
schools of philosophy and their aims of education in the next unit (Unit-6) of this
Block. So, aims of education at different times were different as philosophy of life
of the society at that period was also different. As example, aims of education at
the Ancient Period, Medieval Period, Modern Period are different as aims are
determined by a time period. The above discussion signifies that philosophy and
aims of education are closely related with each other.
5.6.3 Philosophy and Curriculum

Developing school curriculum is one of the most important components in an
education system. School curriculum links students’ life with the content and
courses transacted in the curriculum which has a direct link with our community
expectations and societal practices. Thus as philosophy determines the aims of
education, therefore, it determines the curriculum. Again, just like there is a
philosophical perspective of discipline, the curriculum and subjects or courses are
also having the philosophical perspective. The philosophy of a country/society is
reflected in the curriculum and accordingly school activities and experiences are
designed. As example, if the philosophy of a country is to spread democratic
attitude among the people, that could be done by incorporating democratic principles
in the school curriculum. Moreover, if philosophy of a country is to make its
national self-reliant by engaging them in the world of work, then the aim of
education would be to develop and implement craft and skill-based education
system in the country/society by incorporating it in the school curriculum.
We may elaborate the concept of the linkage between philosophy and curriculum
by giving many more examples. For example, if the major goal of the country is
to transmit and preserve the cultural heritage, so the school curriculum would be
designed in such a way to develop a sense of cultural awareness among the
students by including it and also by organizing seminars, activities, workshops on
the culture of the country and so on.
If the philosophy of the country is to develop science and technology, so the aims
of education and curriculum should be based upon developing scientific temper
among the students by incorporating inquiry and project based knowledge in the
curriculum and further scope may be given to the students to study and acquire
102 skills in these areas.
You might have observed from the above mentioned examples about the importance Education and Philosophy
of philosophy in curriculum construction. The pragmatic school of philosophy
discusses the methods of the value of empirical knowledge, so they give importance
to those teaching methods in which there is active involvement of sense organs
rather than giving importance to innate ideas. On the other hand, rationalist thinkers
have emphasized knowledge is innate and it develops only through rational thinking.
David Hume rightly pointed out that certainty can be made possible only in
mathematics and not in the field of science while critical philosophers advocate
that knowledge is neither a- priori- nor a- posteriori. So they believe in all
experimental and scientific knowledge and set curriculum according to their
understanding of knowledge.
5.6.4 Philosophy and Methods of Teaching
Philosophy is closely related to methods of teaching. In the next unit of this Block
(Unit-6), you will study the specific methods advocated by various schools of
thoughts. Idealist school of thought suggests traditional method such as ‘lecture
method’ as an ideal method of study. The naturalist school of thought emphasizes
‘self-study method’ and role of a teacher as a ‘facilitator and guide’. The
pragmatic school emphasizes activity, problem-solving and project methods
for teaching. Idealistic school gives importance to teacher-centred methods.
Naturalistic school of thought believes in laissez-faire concept of freedom for the
learners and thus gives importance to self-study method. The pragmatic schools
of philosophy provide democratic freedom to learners for their study and
implement child-centered methods like activity and project methods. The
above discussion tries to clarify that philosophy has a deep relation with the
methods of teaching.
5.6.5 Relationship between Teachers and Learners
Education systems require a relationship between teachers and learners. You may
be aware of that, a teacher is not as content expert only but in a true sense a
philosopher. A teacher directly influences the learners. This is quite natural that the
personality of learners is influenced by the personality of the teachers.
When we talk about the teacher-student relationship as per the schools of
philosophy like Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, etc. we find that idealist teachers
try to impose a strict discipline upon the learners and teachers play a dominating
role in teaching as well as forming behavior of the learners. On the contrary, the
naturalistic teachers provide ample freedom to the students and they work as a
guide and facilitator for the students. They consider that, it is the learner, who has
ample experiences to constitute their own knowledge. Again the pragmatic teachers
provide new and innovative opportunities to their students to create something
creative and innovative which is different from the traditional approach of
understanding the things. Pragmatist teachers believe that change is the ultimate
reality and their every action directed towards to achieve the change, and
accordingly they constitute behavior of their learners.
The above discussion clarifies that the nature of relationship between the teacher-
learners are depended on the philosophical principles that they follow. It is therefore,
this may be rightly said that philosophy has a close linkage to maintain a harmonious
relationship between the teachers and the learners. Autocratic, democratic and 103
Philosophical Perspective laissez-faire behavioral patterns of teachers are not spontaneous rather are the
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reflection of practice of that particular educational philosophy in teaching and to
help the learners to shape their behavior.
In a nutshell, it may be concluded that all forms of philosophy help in determining
the nature and forms of education. Epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics, etc. all
play their part in devising educational programmes and as per the aims of education.
Activity 1
1. Mention the nature of relationship exists between the teachers and
learners in the given schools of thought.
Idealism:
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
Naturalism:
.........................................................................................................
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Pragmatism:
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.........................................................................................................

the Unit.
9. How does philosophy determine the aims of education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
10. Describe in brief the teaching methods emphasized by John Dewey?
............................................................................................................
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11. Mention any two relationships between philosophy and education.
............................................................................................................
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104 ............................................................................................................
5.7 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, you have studied the concept of philosophy and education and how
both are inter-related. We have discussed philosophy as a process of
philosophisation and also as a process of analysis and synthesis. A brief discussion
on different branches of philosophy such as metaphysics, epistemology, axiology
and logic have been provided to make you understand a deep look into
understanding the educational system and inter-relationship with the philosophical
principles. The unit has also provided an understanding on the relationship between
education and philosophy in terms of setting aims of education, curriculum, process
and methods of teaching, and teachers-learners relationships. Finally the Unit
concluded with discussing the role of philosophy in understanding education as a
whole.

Brubacher, J.S. (2007). Modern philosophies of education. 3rd ed. Michigan:
Surjeet publications, New Delhi, pp.1.23
Bruckacher, John. S. (1969). Modern Philosophies of Education. New York: Mc
Graw Hil Co.
Chambliss, J.J. (1996). Philosophy of Education an encyclopedia. New York,
London: Garland publishing, Inc.
Gutek,G.L. (2009). New perspectives on philosophy and education. New Jersey:
person Columbia, Ohio upper Saddle River, Inc.
IGNOU (2016). Contemporary India and Education (BES-122, B.Ed.). Block-
3: Philosophical Perspectives of Education, pp. 27-28, New Delhi: IGNOU.
Kneller, G.F. (1967). Foundations of education, 2nd ed. California: University of
California, Los Angeles pp. 68-69
Mohanty, Jagannath (1994). Indian Education in the Emerging Society. New
Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd.
Saxena, N.R.S. (2009). Principles of Education. R. Lall Book Depot, Meerut,
2009.
Sharma, K.R. (2002). Philosophy of education.3rd ed. Delhi, Atlantic publishers
and distributions, pp.25-30.
Suri, A. & Sodhi T.S. (1998). Philosophical and Sociological foundation of
education. p. 40.
Jackson P. Hershbell (1988). Plutarch’s Portrait of Socrates. Illinois Classical
Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2, PLUTARCH (FALL/1988), pp. 365-381 Published by:
University of Illinois Press.
Website Referred:
Retrieved from http://www.ucdoer.ie/index.php/Education_Theory/
Epistemology_and_Learning_Theories on 28.01.2020
105
of Education 5.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Etymologically the term philosophy is derived from the Greek words ‘Philos’
(love) and ‘Sophia’ (of wisdom), and it means ‘love of knowledge or wisdom’.
2. Locke, Berkley, Hume, Mill, Moore, Hegel, etc.
3. The term Philosophisation means not merely to read and learn rather to think
and feel philosophical.
4. Self-exercise.
5. The definition of philosophy given by J.S. Ross says that the relationship
between philosophy and education is just like two sides of the same coin,
it means the existence of either one is not possible with the other. Spincer
explains philosophy is concern with everything as universal science.
6. Metaphysics implies the study of the nature of ultimate reality, involves
speculation about the nature of existence.
7. Epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and logic.
8. The two major patterns of logic are deduction and induction. In deduction,
we move from general statement or principle to specific cases or examples,
whereas in induction, we move from particular examples to establishing theory
or principle.
9. As aims of education are related to the aims of life and again aims of life are
the creation of philosophy of a certain time, in this way, philosophy determines
aims of education.
10. Problem solving and project methods are advocated by John Dewey.
11. Self exercise.
106
Schools of Thought
UNIT 6 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Schools of Thought: An Overview
6.4 Idealism and Realism
6.4.1 Aims of Education
6.4.2 Curriculum
6.4.3 Methods of Teaching
6.4.4 Role of Teachers and Learners
6.5 Pragmatism and Existentialism

6.5.2 Curriculum
6.6 Naturalism and Humanism

6.6.2 Curriculum
6.7 Let Us Sum Up

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, you have studied the concept of philosophy and its relationship
with education. In establishing relationship between philosophy and education,
you have already come to know that philosophy is the base for theories and
principles of education and they are practiced in education.
In this Unit, an attempt has been made to discuss different schools of thoughts in
philosophy viz. Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Existentialism, Naturalism and
Humanism. They have been further enumerated in the sequence of understanding
the concept of different schools of thought, their basic principles, aims of education,
curriculum, methods of teaching and role of teachers and learners.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
 explain various schools of thought;
 identify the basic principles of different schools of thought;
 discuss educational implications of different schools of thought;
Dr. Gaurav Rao, Dept. of Education, MJP Rohilkhand University. 107
Philosophical Perspective  compare and appraise the curriculum of different schools of thought;
of Education
 describe different methods of teaching proposed by the schools of thought;
and
 aware of the role of the teacher and the student in different schools of
thought.
6.3 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT: AN OVERVIEW

You may be familiar that systems of education have been in existence since
civilization and their main purpose was acquiring and transmission of knowledge
from one generation to another. You have been also aware of different schools of
thought such as Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, etc. and they have proposed
principles of education and transaction procedures in view of the aims of education,
methods of teaching, curriculum, role of teacher, discipline, etc. For example,
Idealism school of thought gives importance on ‘Ideas’ and ‘Ideologies’ and
accordingly, imposes a strict discipline in curriculum development and uses teacher-
centred methods in implementation of the curriculum while Pragmatism gives
importance to ‘changes and progress’ and believes in flexible approach in
developing child-centred curriculum and its implementation. On the other hand,
Naturalism emphasizes on ‘natural freedom’ of the learners and to develop
curriculum based on the need and requirement of the learners. The differences in
the core concepts of the above schools of thought have been detailed out in this
Unit.
Figure 6.1
Different Schools of thought
6.4 IDEALISM AND REALISM

Idealism is one of the ancient schools of thought. It gives emphasis on ideas and
ideologies. It carries the principles and thoughts of traditional approach of education
where teachers are the major actor in imparting education in comparison to the
students. Teaching-learning techniques and methods are mostly based on teacher-
centred approaches. Value enrichment is one of the important aspects of education
as per the idealism school of thought is concerned. Let us try to understand more
108 about Idealism and its implications for the process of teaching and learning.
Idealism Schools of Thought
Idealism originated from the word ‘Ideaism’ i.e. Theory of Ideas, as it was
difficult to pronounce ‘l’ was added and ‘Idealism ‘was coined its name. Idealism
is a school of thought that believes in supremacy of spirituality. According to this
school of thought, spiritual or mental world is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular,
and universal whereas physical world is destroyable, transitory and false. On the
other hand the spiritual world of ideas, emotions and ideals is eternal and are true
for ever. According to this school of thought, the physical world is just a reflection
of some parts of the spiritual world. This school of thought does not consider
anything beyond ideas and spiritualism, hence idealism in comparison to natural
and scientific facts emphasizes upon the study of Human mind. This school of
thought was supported by Socrates, Plato, Descartes, Spinoza, Berkeley, Kant,
Fichte, Hegel, etc. Plato propounded this view about 400 years BC, in his
famous book, The Republic. According to this school of thought the supreme
power of this universe is idea. The Indian philosophers such as Swami Vivekananda,
Sri Aurobindo and Mahatma Gandhi are considered as Idealistic school of
philosophers.
Now, you may be familiar with the basic concepts underlying the Idealism school
of thought. There are some important principles and are mentioned hereunder:
 The world has two forms, the spiritual world and the material world:
According to Horne, Idealism school of thought believes that order of the
world is due to manifestation in space and time of an eternal reality and
spiritual reality. It gives more importance to the spiritual world. As per this
school, it is important to know the reality of the spiritual world in order to
know the reality of mind and soul.
 Ideas are more important than objects: As per the present school of
thought, knowledge of mind and soul could be obtained through ideas only.
In the words of Plato, ‘Ideas are of the ultimate cosmic significance.
They are rather essences or archetypes which give form to cosmos.
These ideas are eternal and unchanging.’
 Importance of human beings over nature: Importance to human being is
given in this school of thought because man is an individual who can think,
imagine and experience about the nature/surroundings material and develop
the object. S/he has a sense of discrimination between objects, ideas and
situations. According to R.R. Rusk, ‘the spiritual or cultural environment
is an environment of man’s making, it is a product of man’s creative
activity.’
 Trust/belief in the spiritual values: Belief in the spiritual values is given
the prime importance. These values are truth, beauty and goodness. It is
believed that these values lead the practitioner nearer to God and hence
divinity. This school of thought considers education to be a moral process.
As the nature of human is spiritual and Godly, the manifestation of which
could only be done through education.
Realism
In this school of thought, the word ‘Real’ has come from Greek word ‘Res’
which means ‘object’. Therefore the main emphasis of this school of thought i.e.
‘Realism’ means object related thought. Realism is a school of thought which 109
Philosophical Perspective deals with the existence of an object and considers this physical world to be real
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and true. As the physical world and object are the main reality hence it accepts
the physical objects and events as real or true, even if it does not come to our
cognizance but it is true and existing. Realism means a belief or theory which
works upon the world as it seems.
Aristotle is the father of Realism. He believed that reality exist independent of
the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. The focus
is on the body/objects. Truth is objective i.e. what can be observed. According
to Butler, ‘Realism is the common acceptance of the world as it appears to
us’.
Some of the principles of this philosophy are as follows:
 Phenomenal world is true: According to this school of thought, there is no
other world. This contemporary / existing world is true as one experiences
it.
 Senses are the gateways of knowledge: As we are aware that the real
knowledge is perceived by the sense organs. Therefore, real knowledge
about an object could be obtained with the help of our sense organs. These
sense organs give signals to our mind and then mind gets connected with the
outer world.
 Regularity in objective world: Realist considers objective regularity in the
processes of the physical world. It emphasizes that the object that we
experience in the real world from where we get direct experience through
our sense organs are the only real way to get knowledge.
 Realism does not accept transcendentalism: Realist believes that life
beyond this world does not exist. It emphasizes that, the life which exists in
the physical world is the only reality.
 Emphasis upon the present and practical life of Man: Realist only
accepts those Ideals, values and rules which are practical. It emphasizes the
theoretical knowledge which take us to an abstract world which lacks practical
knowledge and essence has no meaning and difficult to realize.

Every school of thought, based on the important premises, has prescribed certain
aims. The main aims of the idealist school of thought are as follows:
 Identify and develop abilities to the best level in an individual in order to
better serve the society.
 Enhancement of Personality or self-realization means the human can
understand his/her own personality and realize the self.
 To achieve spiritual development is one of the major aims of education.
 Conservation and transmission of cultural heritage is one of the important
aims of education.
 Conversion of innate nature into spiritual nature is a prime aim in order to
transform the human beings as spiritual human beings.
110
 Development of Intelligence and rationality of the human being are important Schools of Thought
in order to inculcate scientific judgments in them.
While on the other side, aims of education advocated by the Realism school of
thought are as follows:
 Preparation for practical life: Education helps learners to prepare
themselves for the real world.
 To lead a happy and successful life: The learners would be able to solve
their problems of life so that they could lead a happy and prosperous life.
 Adjustment between social and natural life: Adjustment between the
social and natural life is, as a learner, is the aim of education.
 Development of scientific view of life: This would develop the power of
intelligence, discrimination and judgment of the learners.
 Physical development of the individual: It is important as this is linked
with other developments of the learner.
6.4.2 Curriculum
Curriculum is an important component of any education process. Curriculum is
one of the important aspects of idealistic philosophy. Idealist curriculum emphasises
on ideas or thoughts, feelings and values. Language, Literature, History, Geography,
Mathematics and Science are the major areas of studies included under curriculum
for enhancing intellectual development. For Moral development, areas like
Philosophy, Religion and Ethics are included in the curriculum. Eternal values like
Satyam, Shivam and Sunderam are the three main foundations of an idealist
curriculum. Similarly, Culture of human race must be included in the curriculum.
The curriculum is concerned with the holistic development of human beings as
well as the humanistic society.
On the other hand, Realist appeals for a scientific, standardized and distinct-
discipline based curriculum. It should prepare the learners for day to day needs
of their lives and fulfill the basic needs of their life. Here, learners must be given
option to choose their subjects as per their interest, ability, relevance and usefulness.
Curriculum must have inter-linkages among different areas of studies or subjects.
Curriculum must have utilitarian ingredients of one’s daily life. Teaching of natural
phenomenon must be taught in their mother tongue. Further, vocational subjects
must be included in the curriculum in order to prepare them for the world of
work. It also emphasizes teaching of the physical world, particularly Science and
Mathematics in the curriculum at the school level.
Methods of teaching as per the interest and ability of the learner is the main focus
of idealists’ school of thought. As a result different methods of teachings are used
by the idealistic philosophers. For example, Question-Answer method by Socrates,
Discussion method by Plato, Deduction method was advocated by Aristotle,
Hegel used directive method and so on. Other methods advocated by philosophers
belonging to this school are play way, debate and lecture method. Hence, selection
of method of teaching depended upon the wisdom of the teachers. Teaching
methods like Introspection, Intuition, Insight and whole-part logic are the major
components of any method of teaching in various permutations and combinations
used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. 111
Philosophical Perspective On the other hand, the Scientific method has been advocated by the Realism
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School of thought as the focus was attainment of the objective knowledge by the
learners. Deductive and Inductive methods were highly prescribed for teaching.
Self-experience, Observation, and Experimentation were emphasized to develop
the knowledge of the learners. In situations, where teaching of algebra in Maths,
direct experience of the objects is not possible then models and audio-visual aids
are used appropriately. As per this school of thought, teaching methods should
focus on mastery of content and basic skills through demonstration and drilling.
Students must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically by
using observation and experimentation methods.

According to idealistic school of thought, teacher holds a high value and position
in the school. S/he is considered to be the gardener of this garden where s/he has
to facilitate the manifestation of the hidden characteristics of the learner. S/he is
the one who facilitates the attainment of holistic development of the learner.
Student remains passive listener because the central position is of ideals, values,
and ideas. Teacher becomes more prominent than the student.
On the other hand, the teacher under the Realism school of thought, though
occupies an important role and place in education but s/he has been visualized as
an expert who cannot be a person who knows everything. S/he tries to inculcate
the scientific temperament, scientific attitude and scientific view point. On the
basis of interest, aptitude and individual differences among the learners, s/he plans
and develops the curriculum. By using teaching methods, s/he supports the learner
to attain the conclusions logically. Here joyful, simple and self-interesting learning
methods are emphasized for learners. Thus a learner tries to explore the demand
of the society by his/her physiological and intellectual abilities made by him/her
together with the knowledge and wisdom perceived through his/her senses that
prepare him/her to establish him/herself in the society. To do this, the learner
under the guidance of his/her teacher develops scientific viewpoint for knowing
the reality of the world.
Activity 1
Critically analyse and highlight any two main points of Idealism and Realism
on the following aspects:
Aspects Idealism Realism
Aims of Education
Curriculum
Methods of Teaching
Role of Teachers
and Students
112
Schools of Thought
the Unit.
1. Write any two aims of idealist school of thought.
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............................................................................................................
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2. List any three aims of realist school of thought.
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3. Name any two method of teaching is suggested as per the realist school
of thought.
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............................................................................................................
6.5 PRAGMATISM AND EXISTENTIALISM

Pragmatism
This school of thought accepts only those things or situations that can be
experienced or observed. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles
Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that the thought must construct actions
as a result. Etymologically the word Pragmatism is derived from the Greek word
‘pragma’ which means activity or the work done. Another assumption that has
been derived from the word ‘Pragmatikos’ is practicability or utility. Thereby
meaning of practical utility is first to prove only and then the idea is accepted.
Contrasting to the realists, they believe that reality is continually changing and
knowledge is gained best through implying experiences and thoughts to problems,
as they arise. The universe is dynamic and developing, a ‘becoming’ view of the
world. This school of thought also says that there is no absolute and unchanging
truth, but on the other hand, it is what works in the present context.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied this philosophy in his progressive approaches
later. He emphasized that learners should adjust with each other and also with
their environment. As per this school of thought, the curriculum of any programme
of study must integrate societal or field experiences at all levels i.e. school level,
university level or any training programmes experiences. According to James B.
Prett ‘Pragmatism offers us a theory of truth of knowledge and a theory
of reality.’
Pragmatism school of thought has some basic principles. They are: 113
Philosophical Perspective  Truth is dynamic in nature or it keeps on changing.
of Education
 It is relational and contextual at times as it is formed by the results it gives.
 The motive force for all the truth seeking is the problems of life and with the
solution of the problem the motive of search for truth diminishes.
 Pragmatism emphasizes upon the social and democratic values of a society
as human are a social being and s/he has to ultimately give his/her service to
the society.
 A person without any social desirable value is unfit for the society, in other
words, any truth found if is not beneficial for the society will not be useful
and practical for a long time.
Existentialism
This school of thought focuses around the individual and his/her existence. There
are several different orientations within this philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-
1855), is considered to be the profounder of existentialism. This school considers
simple human values in special context. It believes that an individual by birth on
this earth will grow his/her individuality by his/her efforts only. For the development
of the personality and choices of the situations to develop ones personality is
individual’s decision. This school of thought has also emphasized upon the
behavioural problems and specific human situations. This philosophy or school of
thought believes that the man is continuously struggling with the complexities
created by him/her. As a result the humanity has faded in front of overcrowded
and complex scientific inventions. Thus the truth is as per the individual’s context.
Existentialism school of thought emerged as a contradiction to earlier schools of
thought, i.e. idealism, naturalism and realism. According to it, the intellectuals have
curtailed free growth of the human existence. The philosophers in this school of
thought believed in the existence of the human beings rather than the essence of
the being, due to his/her exponential potential of excellence to improve the future.
Supporting this Sartre stated ‘Existentialism is the philosophic stand point
which gives priority to existence over essence’. For this the base of the truth
is internal experience, any truth beyond experience is non-existing. It also
concentrates upon the internal states of mental situations of human beings like
happiness, depression and anxiety. Therefore the ultimate truth is self-evolved
concept of an individual. The part ‘Exist’ of Existentialist shows i.e., dynamism to
evolve from present and become better for tomorrow or future. Existentialism is
a school of thought which endeavours to analyse the basic structure of human
existence and emphasises individuals to an awareness of their existence in its
essential freedom.

Pragmatism school of thought, unlike idealist, does not believe in prefixed aim
of life. Here the aim of life keeps changing with the changes in life. They are as
follows:
 To develop ability in learners to understand his/her social environment,
experiences and decide the ideals of society.
 To be aware of and understand the dynamic situations of the surrounding and
114 adapt to it accordingly.
 To develop social skills in the learners. Schools of Thought
 To get holistic satisfaction in life is ultimate because satisfaction and happiness

to oneself is an important aspect for life.
While Existentialism school of thought proposes the following aims of education:
 Development of individuality of the learner: This is important because
identifying oneself, acknowledging oneself as a human being and as an entity
with intellectual processes is a function of education.
 Development of ego of the learner: This is important for developing his/
her personality. This ego gives him/her courage. An individual feels contended
only when s/he does a task with self-courage and confidence. As we know
that enthusiasm and courage are the two virtues that develops one’s
personality.
 Intellectual development for moral decisions: For the development of
the holistic personality, developments of all the dimensions are necessary.
Thus this school of thought emphasized freedom for the growth in all the
dimensions. Development of intellect is possible, with the help of an individual
who may be able to take moral decisions.
 Preparation for struggle of life: This school of thought considers focuses
to be around an individual and his/her situations. His/her journey from these
situations keeps him/her reminding of old situations or past experiences in
his/her conscious and sub-conscious mind. Hence preparing an individual for
the struggle of life with confidence and accountability is importance for his/
her existence.
6.5.2 Curriculum
Pragmatic curriculum is based on the principle of utility i.e. anything if is of use
for an individual it needs to be included or form an integral part in the curriculum.
Care has to be taken that curriculum must be based on the interest of learners
to enhances usefulness of the curriculum. Curriculum must be based on the
experiences of learners. Incorporation of experiences of the learner in the curriculum
has to be in proximity of the learner to facilitate easy learning. It must integrate
the knowledge of all different area of studies or subject areas of studies to
develop a deeper understanding in the learner. In the process of coming across
different subjects, curriculum should focus on solving problems through
interdisciplinary approach.
On the other hand, Existentialist does not believe in curriculum in itself. Various
interpretations are to be considered in to development of the objectives and
curriculum to be developed to fulfill these objectives. They want learners to realize
the free existence of his/her existence. They want to make them free from religious
orthodox, philosophy and God, therefore, don’t want to include these areas of
studies or subjects in curriculum. Existentialists want learners to be what they
want to be. This could only be possible when curriculum is broad enough and
learner is free to choose any subject. For mental and intellectual development of
the learners language and literature are to be included in curriculum. To develop
intellectual and decision making at different situations learner need to be creative.
To show the physical presence in the world some philosophers, under school of
thought existentialist, propose inclusion of activities and games in curriculum too. 115
Philosophical Perspective 6.5.3 Methods of Teaching
of Education
Pragmatism school of thought has two major dimensions. One is psychological
and the other social. The psychological aspects pertain to various characteristics
of the learner that are by birth like interest, inclination, attitude and ability. Hence
the topics must be linked to the present learners’ context and also be important
and beneficial. Learners learn from hands on activities and observations, hence
activity method is preferred. Knowledge comes as a unit for the learner to infer
or relate, hence unitary method of teaching becomes more effective if used. With
respect to the social aspect of the teaching methods must connect them with their
surroundings, thus learning becomes easier and faster. Sometimes they come
across a problem on their own, therefore, problem solving is also a recommended
method of teaching.
Teaching methods under the Existentialism school of thought focus on hands-
on activities, problem-solving, experimenting and conducting projects and prefer
group learning or team learning. It also believes learners should apply their
knowledge to real situations as this would prepare them for citizenship, daily living
and future careers.
As we know this school of thought supports freedom of the learner; as a result
of which some considers Socrates method to be the best method i.e. teacher and
learner are equal, both are free to ask questions to each other. Both can express
their ideas freely. Teachers view the learner as an entity within a social context in
which the learner must confront others’ views to clarify his/her or her own. By the
mutual efforts, new knowledge is constructed. Sartre says true knowledge is
something which is learned by the experience and efforts of oneself. Hence it
supports the activity method and experiential learning as methods of teaching.
Generally, group teaching is not advocated when individual focus is on learning is
required for the learners.

A pragmatic teacher does not act as information provider to the learner, but on
the other hand learners are encouraged to discover the knowledge by themselves.
Therefore the teacher acts as a facilitator and guide to the learner so that s/he is
able to construct knowledge. Teacher must make the learner aware of and sensitive
towards problem and its solution. According to pragmatist school of thought, a
teacher is not only the creator of learning environment but the complete environment
in him/her. Here, teacher has to be very active and observant towards the learner
behaviour and manage them with love and empathy.
According to pragmatist school of thought the learner needs to be developed
according to the needs and demands of the society. He/she needs to develop his/
her personality according to his/her own interest, ability and inclinations. He/she
needs to seek situations of self-development and develop him/herself. According
to do this, he/she has to be free from imposed expectations, but care has to be
taken for the all-round growth of the learner so that she/he would be productive
for the society.
You may like to appreciate that an Existentialist teacher first tries to create a
conducive learning environment in which the learner develops his/her own way of
learning in consonance with their surroundings. In doing so, consciously or
116 unconsciously, s/he explores, recreates, reinvents him/herself and realizes his/her
existence in the entire process. To do this, the teacher must also have a self- Schools of Thought
realization of him/herself.
Activity 2
Fill the blanks in each columns by mentioning the major focus of Pragmatism
and Existentialism on the following aspects
Aspects Pragmatism Existentialism
Aims of Education
Curriculum
Methods of Teaching
Role of Teachers
and Students

the Unit.
4. Mention any three principles for preparing curriculum according to
pragmatic school of thought.
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............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
5. Why project method as a teaching method emphasized by pragmatism
school of thought.
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............................................................................................................
6.6 NATURALISM AND HUMANISM

Naturalism is another school of thought that accepts the reality of nature. The
founder of this school of thought was Émile Zola (1840–1902). This school believes
that there is nothing beyond the nature. Here nature is considered in a wider
sense, on one side it is the physical material world that is observed by the human
beings and the other is the whole bio-system where life exists. Thus the nature can
be understood as the function of all the events and the materials occurred at any
time span. In other words, it can be said that naturalism is the school of 117
Philosophical Perspective thought which considers the nature as the ultimate. According to J. S. Ross,
of Education
“Naturalism is the term loosely applied in educational theory to systems
of training that are not dependent on schools and books but on the
manipulation of the actual life of the educated.”
The naturalists suggested many concepts and the main concepts of naturalism are
as follows:
 The true knowledge can be attained through senses only.
 The basis of truth is our sense experiences.
 Every object originates from nature and diminishes in it at last.
 Morality, values, soul, God, immortality, prayer-power and freedom of choice
are all a myth.
 Science has converted the life of the human being in the physical form.
Humanism is another important school of thought and was founded by Rousseau
(1712-1778) and Pestalozzi. They emphasized nature and the basic goodness of
human beings, understanding through the senses and education as a gradual and
leisurely procedure in which the progress of human character follows the unfolding
of nature. Francesco Petrarca is considered as the Father of Humanism.
According to this school of thought man is an end not a mean, free but not a
slave, that means the learner should be in control of his/her own destiny. Since
the learner should become a fully self-governing person, personal freedom, choice,
and responsibility are the focus. S/he is self-motivated to achieve the highest level
of opportunity. Motivation to learn is intrinsic in humanism.
Humanist school of thought is based on two basic concepts:
1. The values upheld by a people, affect history i.e. it is up to the person to
use the lessons from the history to overcome the problems and conflicts of
their own time; and
2. It gives emphasis on literature because it embodies different values of times
immemorial and from this a human takes lessons from the moral decisions
taken in the past.

In Naturalism school of thought, different philosophers have given different
orientations of Education. The following are the common aims of education in this
school of thought:
 Preparing the individual for survival: Survival is a scientific phenomenon
where the best ones manage to continue the race of the bests.
 Training for adaptation in the environment: Adaptation leads to continuing
of the characteristics that are adapted at different natural conditions that
support the existence in extremes or unfavourable situations. A learner must
also develop the adaptation skills to develop his/her own niche or protection.
 Attainment of higher progress in life: Struggle and adaption are actually
for an individual to attain progress in life.
118
 Natural development of individual and his/her individuality: Schools of Thought
Development of an individual and his/her individuality is a natural phenomenon
where an individual is let free to develop in his/her own way and imbibe
values from the surroundings and hence develop his/her individuality.
 Working for improvement of the basic instincts and strengths to attain
perfection.
 Preparing individual for self-conservation and self-satisfaction.
Humanistic school of thought is human centred. Its main objective is to develop
or prepare an individual a better human being. S/he has to be creative and
progressive with the humane values. Objectives of humanistic school of thought
are as follows.
 Physical and Mental Development of an individual: It means person
has to be physically healthy and mentally stable with logic.
 Social and cultural development: Humanistic philosophers expect a
continuous social improvement for an individual. They see the entire human
society as one. Hence development of the society and the culture becomes
ultimate.
 Development of higher level of human values: Development of humane
values is the biggest focus. According to them, it is ‘good for all’, love,
service, cooperation, etc. are the core values included in it.
 Development of productivity: Two basic requirements of human are
Emotional and Materialistic needs. For the fulfilment of emotional requirement,
social and cultural development is instrumental whereas for the attainment of
materialistic requirement the person has to be skilled enough to produce the
desirable products.
 Development of creativity: Humanists consider a person creative since
birth, thus education has to enhance creativity in human beings.
6.6.2 Curriculum
Curriculum emphasized under naturalism school of thought has to prepare learners
for development and further enhancement of their basic instincts. It takes care of
the interest of the learner, the natural process of development and individual
differences. Hence in the naturalistic curriculum, the subjects suggested to be
taught are Physical Sciences, Health Sciences, Mathematics, Life Sciences, Home
Science and Languages, Geography, History, Arts and Music in the curriculum.
On the other hand, Humanistic curriculum talks about good human being. As per
this school of thought, good human being is one who thinks good for all and
behaves accordingly. Similarly, the curriculum is designed to fulfill this objective.
According to Humanist curriculum, must have Health Science and Physical
Education. The latter is important to develop the healthy mind that can have a
better logic. For the cultural sovereignty, different languages, literature, Arts and
Humanities subjects need to be incorporated. For the inclination of high human
values, social service and for development of productivity enhancement of skill
oriented subjects are to be integrated. For the enhancement of creativity, science
and technological components need to be given due place in curriculum.
119
Philosophical Perspective 6.6.3 Methods of Teaching
of Education
Naturalism emphasizes upon the individual methods in the place of group methods.
Methods like learning by doing, activity based learning, learning by experience
and by play-way are to be used for teaching-learning process. This school of
thought establishes student as a free researcher, which has led to the emergence
of observation, play, Heuristic, Dalton Method and Montessori Method as teaching-
learning methods.
On the other hand, Humanism emphasized on the logic and wisdom. They have
accepted the inferred knowledge after they have been tested logically. Accordingly,
question-answer, debate, problem solving and logic are the best methods of
learning and teaching.

Naturalists believe that nature itself is the biggest teacher. The learner and his/
her natural abilities and characteristic could be developed optimally in the nature
only. This school of thought do not propagates artificial teacher and environment.
Rousseau believed nature to be the tutor of the learner and supports the
natural development of the individual. S/he supports the teacher’s facilitation
as an anchor which has to be supervisory and sympathetic.
While in the Humanism school of thought, teacher should be a subject expert
which s/he is going to teach and also know the learners in order to areas what
is to be taught and how it is to be taught. They must accept and respect the
individuality and personality of the learners and work for their overall development.
Teacher needs to be dynamic and progressive as s/he has to restructure the
society.
The student needs to accept and respect each other but don’t have to follow the
teacher blindly as they need to think freely and take decisions. Both the teacher
and student must have humane relationship and learners must learn in an environment
that is free from conflict, fear and stress.
Activity 3
Go through the given table and mention at least one major focus of Naturalism
and Humanism on the following columns against each aspect:
Aspects Naturalism Humanism
Aims of Education
Curriculum
Methods of Teaching
Role of Teachers
and Students
120
Schools of Thought
the Unit.
6. ‘Nature is a true teacher’! Justify this statement in the context of naturalism.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
7. Write any three characteristic of a humanistic teacher and learner.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6.7 LET US SUM UP

Dear learners, in this Unit, six schools of thoughts i.e., Idealism, Realism,
Pragmatism, Existentialism, Naturalism and Humanism have been discussed. The
contribution of these schools of thought on education and its principles and their
implications in education have been discussed. For an undergraduate in the area
of education, it is important to be aware of the different schools of thought and
their influence on the aims of education, curriculum, methods of teaching and role
of teachers and learners.
The idealist considers idea to be supreme or utmost important while for the
realists, the physical world is the ultimate truth. Need of the human is of utmost
priority for pragmatist, whereas existentialists consider the individual as supreme.
For Naturalist, the nature is the ultimate truth and humanism considers the values
and literature of man to be supreme.
According to different schools of thought, various changes have been taking place
in education system due to major change i.e. shifts from teacher centered approach
to learner centred approach. Further, curriculum is becoming interdisciplinary in
nature and learning is promoted through experiential learning rather than rote
learning and teacher centric methods.

Aggarwal, J.C. (2010). Theory & Principles of Education, New Delhi, Vikas
Publishing House.
Bhatia & Bhatia. (1994). Theory and Principles of Education, New Delhi, Doaba
House.
Ellis, A. K., Cogan, J. J., & Howey, K. R. (1991). Introduction to the Foundations
of Education (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
121
Philosophical Perspective Giroux, H. A., & McLaren, P. L. (1989). Schooling, Cultural Politics and the
of Education
Struggle for Democracy.
Gutek, G. L. (2004). Philosophical and Ideological Voices in Education. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Lal, B. (2012). Samkaleen Paschatya Darshan; New Delhi, MotilalBanarsi Das.
Oad, L.K. (2016). Shikshaki Darshnik Pristhboomi, Jaipur, Rajasthan Hindi Granth
Academy.
Pandey R.S.(2007). Principles of Education, Agra – 2 Vinod Pustak Mandir.
Saxena, N. (2014). Shikshake Darshink Evam Samayshastriya Siddhant, Meerut,
R. Lal Book Depot
Sharma, G. & H. Vyas (2013). Udayimaan Bhartiya Samaj Aur Shiksha, Jaipur
Rajasthan Hindi, Granth Academy.
Sharma, U. (2012). Shiksha ke Darshik Evam Samaj Shastriya Adhaar. Delhi,
Pearson.
Sinha, A. (1985). Samkaleen Darshan. Chandigarh, Haryana Sahitya Academy.
Tyagi, G. (2012). Shiksha ke Darshnik Evam Samaj Shastriya Adhaar, Agra,
Agrawal Publication.

1. Exaltation of personality or self-realization and to ensure spiritual development.
2. Preparation for practical life; making life happy and successful; and adjustment
between social and natural life.
3. Observation and Experimentation methods were suggested by the realist
school of thought.
4. Curriculum must be based on principle of use, interest of child and making
child participate actively. Curriculum must be based on experiences of child
and integrating all the knowledge of different subjects.
5. Project method is an activity oriented method and it requires actions and
active involvement of the students. It is therefore, project method is emphasized
by the pragmatics school of thought.
6. It emphasizes nature as a powerful teacher for development of the child.
Learning and natural development of the child is not possible without coming
contact to the nature.
7. Teacher should know what to teach, involve with the children whole-heartedly,
respect the personality of the child and must take responsibility of the overall
development of the child. Students need to be dynamic and progressive as
s/he has to restructure the society.
122
Contribution of Indian
UNIT 7 CONTRIBUTION OF INDIAN Philosophers
PHILOSOPHERS
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
7.3.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life
7.3.2 Educational Philosophy and Aims of Education
7.3.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students
7.4 Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

7.5 Rabindranath Tagore (1861- 1941)

7.6 Jiddu Kishnamurti (1895-1986)

7.7 Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950)

7.8 Gijubhai Badheka (1885-1939)

7.9 Let Us Sum Up

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Units, you have studied the meaning, concept and nature of
Education and Philosophy and how philosophy helps to understand Education
and vice versa. Further, you have also studied the concept, aims and methods of
education as visualized by different Schools of thought, such as: Idealism, Realism,
Naturalism, Pragmatism, etc. In this Unit, we will be discussing and describing the
Prof. Asheesh Srivastava, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar. 123
Philosophical Perspective contribution of Indian philosophers in understanding the Concept, Aims and
of Education
Processes of Education and its function for the individual in specific and society
in general. You may be aware of some of the eminent Indian philosophers who
have contributed towards the evolution and development of education in India.
The present unit will specifically focus on the educational philosophy, curriculum,
and process of teaching and learning as suggested by the Indian philosophers like
Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, Jiddu Krishnamurti,
Aurobindo Ghosh and Gijubhai Badheka. Discussions in this Unit also focus on
the educational philosophy of the above philosophers and their relevance on the
present educational system.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
 describe the views of Swami Vivekananda on education and its
implications;
 explain Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy on education and its implications
for basic education;
 explain Sri Rabindranath Tagore’s views on education with its implications
in education;
 explain Sri Aurobindo’s philosophy of Integral Education and its
implications for the present educational scenario;
 describe J. Krishnamurti’s concept on education and its implications in
education;
 explain Gijubhai’s concept on education and its implications to education
and schooling process; and
 discuss the relevance of Indian philosopher’s views on the present
educational scenario.
7.3 SWAMI VIVEKANANDA (1863-1902)

Among the Indian philosophers, Swami Vivekananda
is quite popular and inspirational for all. His philosophy
is based upon idealistic thought and spiritualism. Let
us discuss in details Vivekananda’s philosophy of life,
his concept on education, educational process and
implications in education.
Swami Vivekananda
(1863-1902)

Brief Life Sketch
Naren, popularly known as Swami Vivekananda, was born on 12 January 1863
in Calcutta presently known as Kolkata. During the childhood time he excelled
124 in music, gymnastics and studies. He was graduated from Calcutta University. He
had acquired a vast knowledge of different subjects especially in philosophy and Contribution of Indian
history. He used to practise yoga and meditation even from his childhood and was Philosophers
associated with Brahmo Movement for some time. He will be always remembered
for awakening young India in spiritual realisation and devotion. In the year 1893,
he gave his historic speech at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago, USA,
which is ever remembered by every Indians. Vivekananda has been hailed as an
intensely spiritualistic philosopher and scientific saint (IGNOU, MES-051, 2014).
Philosophy of Life
Vivekananda’s philosophy of life is based upon Vedantic philosophy and he looked
at Vedantic views from the stand point of spiritualism, modernity, science,
rationalism, and equality. His philosophy of life can be best interpreted in terms
of metaphysical, epistemological and axiological point of views.
In Metaphysical view, he explained Karma doctrine in terms of social significance.
His views on God are for service to the poor. In a radically changed social
context, by emphasizing the potential equality of all souls at the spiritual level, he
intended to make Vedantic prescriptions as the very basis for the regeneration of
Indian society. Vivekananda’s philosophy has been characterized as ‘Vedantic
Socialism’. The Epistemological views of his philosophy of life focussed on
scientific methods in interpreting reality from the Vedantic perspective. He accepts
empirical knowledge, rational knowledge, intuitive knowledge, and also revealed
knowledge. Another important aspect of Vivekananda’s epistemology was his
insistence that the explanation of all phenomena must be from ‘within’ the individual.
He was against resorting to extra-cosmic and supernatural explanation even with
regard to religious phenomena. The Axiological interpretation of Vivekananda’s
philosophy emphasises traditional Indian value structure which comprises dharma,
artha, kama and moksa. However, with the intention to rejuvenate the Vedantic
tradition, he reinterpreted purushartha without deviating from the basics with his
appeal to the youth to find moksa in social service. (IGNOU, MES-051, 2014)

Swami Vivekananda viewed education in comprehensive and practical sense with
a special emphasis on behavioural aspect of education. This could be well reflected
by Swamiji’s statement, “Education is not the amount of information that is
put into your brain and runs riot there undigested all your life. We must have
life-building, man-making, character making and assimilation of ideas. If
you have assimilated five ideas and made them your life and character, you
have more education than any man who has got by heart a whole library.
If education were identical with information, the libraries would be the
greatest sages in the world and encyclopaedias the rishis.”
According to Swamiji, through education an individual gets help for own physical,
mental and spiritual development. He used to say that, “Education is the
manifestation of the divine perfection already present in man.”
He strongly criticised bookish knowledge and used to say that for my young
students, ‘I would prefer them playing football rather reading Gita without
having capacity to understand its essence. Education is helpful in
understanding and realizing Reality (Sat), Consciousness (Chit), Bliss
(Anand) in true sense’.
125
Philosophical Perspective He has also expressed his ideas on mass-education, women-education, religious-
of Education
education, national-education and vocational-education. According to him, education
must emphasize on creativity, originality and excellence of an individual. As per his
thoughts, a good education is one that unfolds the hidden potential in human
beings. True education needs cultivation of a sense of humanity. This sense of
humanity is a foundation of man’s character, the true and essential prerequisite of
a balanced personality.
Basing upon the above concept of education of Swami Vivekananda, the important
features of education are as follows:
 God resides in every human heart.
 The best worship of God is service to mankind.
 Spirituality, ethics and morality should be the real basis of life as well as for
education.
 Love and renunciation should permeate the universe.
 Religion means self-realisation through self-control, yoga and meditation.
Aims of Education
Vedanta and its teaching were the main reference point for Swami Vivekananda.
The main aims of education are as follows:
 Expressing ‘internal completeness’ into external world so that one can realize
holistic development of oneself or Man Making Education.
 Development of Humanity.
 Serving Society and Humanity.
 Development of Physical Strength.
 Development of International Brotherhood and World-consciousness.

As deduced from Vivekananda’s concept and aims of education, the concept of
curriculum, pedagogy and teacher and students are as follows:
Curriculum
To achieve the aforesaid aims of education, Swamiji suggested curriculum to be
divided into two parts - materialistic (worldly) and spiritualistic (abstract) curriculum.
Development of soul and self-realization to be included in the spiritualistic curriculum
while teaching of Languages, Sciences, Psychology, Arts, Agriculture, etc. have
been kept in the worldly curriculum. According to him modern education is more
career-oriented and do not give emphasis on the cultivation of values and virtues,
disciplining the mind, strengthening morality and formation of strong character. He
suggested that education must not be for stuffing few facts or overloading information
into the brain, but it should aim at transforming the mind of human beings. True
education should not be only carrier oriented, but also for the national development.
Pedagogy
To him, ideology education must provide life-building, man-making, character-
126 building, assimilation of ideas, etc. The purpose of such education would be to
produce an integrated personality. Swamiji says that it is wrong to think that we Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
promote the development of a child, in fact, the child furthers his development
himself. Swamiji says, “Everyone develops according to his own nature.
When the time comes everyone will come to know this truth. Do you think
you can educate a child? The child will educate himself, your job is to
provide the necessary opportunity to him and remove the obstacles in his
path. He will educate himself on his own. A plant grows itself, does the
gardener grow it? He just provides the necessary environment to it; it is
the plant itself that does its own growing.”
The specific methods that he suggested to be used in the teaching-learning process
are concentration, yoga and meditation, intuition, lecture and discussion, self-
exercise, creative activities, etc. He believed that the child has enough power
which is divine in nature and the methods of teaching are the means to exhibit that
power.
Teacher and Students
Swami Vivekananda advocates the principle of self– education. It is therefore the
role of teacher is to facilitate students and to create an environment to develop
a sense of self-learning. In order to make education useful, it must be according
to the nature and needs of the learner and not determined by the teacher. The
teacher is supposed to see God in the soul of the child. Child should be considered
as manifestation of God. For the acquisition of knowledge, concentration is very
important. Thus to get success in life, this power is also very helpful. With the help
of communication power one is able to select and acquire the relevant information
and arrange it in his/her mind for use whenever and wherever necessary.
According to him, to vitalize the Indian society, practical wisdom and justice is
needed and it is only possible through education. He advocated spirituality as
social service and true religion.

the Unit.
1. Mention any two points that could be elicited from Vivekananda’s concept
on education.
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............................................................................................................
2. Name the two types of curriculum as suggested by Vivekananda.
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............................................................................................................ 127
of Education 3. What were the methods of teaching suggested by Swami Vivekananda?
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
7.4 MAHATMA GANDHI (1869-1948)

Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of life and his
concept on education is equally popular in the
present time. Gandhi’s thought on education is
being reflected in various policy documents of
education in India. In this section, we will discuss
the details on Gandhi’s philosophy of life, his
concept on education, teaching-learning process Mahatma Gandhi
and its implications in education. (1869-1948)

Life Sketch
Mahatma Gandhi, as we all are familiar, is the father of the nation, was born at
Porbandar in Kathiawar of Gujarat State on October 2, 1869. His father was the
prime minister of the State’s Porbandar and Rajkot. He went to England for
further education in Law. When we talk about Gandhiji, certain ideals come to
our mind as truth, nonviolence (ahimsa), simplicity, love for all, leadership, dignity
of labour and implementation of ideas in real life rather than just propagating them.
These ideals also reflected in his educational philosophy.
Philosophy of Life
Gandhi’s philosophical ideas are based upon concept of man, freedom of
individual and the concept of God and truth. According to him, man is not a
physico-chemical aggregation, but a socio-cultural and political-economic being.
Over and above, he is a spiritual entity. For him, individual is the supreme
consideration. Therefore, man and his moral regeneration occupy the central
position in the Gandhian thoughts. On freedom of individual, Gandhi says,
‘individual is spiritual in origin, social in nature and rational in selection’.
Freedom is inherent trait of an individual. It is within the individual and it does not
come from outside. His concept of individual freedom is in relation to socio-
political context, associated with democracy, self-rule and self-sufficiency. Gandhi’s
concept on God and Truth is the ultimate reality of life. He expressed ultimate
reality is the truth, truth is God and God is truth. To him, realisation of self is the
realisation of truth and God. God is the goal of all values and aspirations of man.
Gandhi’s educational vision took shape through his educational experiments and
experiences at the Tolstoy Farm in South Africa. He continued his educational
experiments for a short period at Shanti Niketan also and then at Sabarmati and
Sewagram ashram, and he established Sewagram ashram, located at Wardha and
from there he not only conceived the idea of his new education system but also
128 fought his battle for freedom.
By education, Gandhi means ‘an all-round drawing out of the best in the Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
child and man – body, mind and spirit’. As per his views, education is not
the same as literacy and vice versa. Nor does literary training in a school constitutes
education because generally literary training in a school lays more emphasis on the
tools or skill development and subject master rather than on the complete
development of personality of individual. According to Gandhi, the concern of
education is for all round development of individual personality. Education which
draws out the best or truth corresponds to the development of the mind and body
with an awakening of the soul.
Aims of Education
Gandhi’s aim of education can be clearly understood by his statement appeared
in the Harriman of 11th September, 1937. He remarked: ‘education ought to be
for them (the people) a kind of insurance against unemployment. The child at the
end of 14 years, after he had finished his 7 years of schooling – is to be discharged
as an earning unit, but it may be remembered that he never wanted the child to
be mere bread earner. He wanted him to learn while he earns and to earn while
he learns and it is the only immediate aim of education. According to him, cultural
aim of education lays emphasis on obtaining knowledge, apart from any material
use. The knowledge is to be the knowledge of Indian culture. Culture according
to him is the quality of the soul that deals with all aspects of human behaviour.
The complete development of the child is another aim that Gandhiji advocated.
According to this view, our innate and acquired powers should be developed as
to bring about a harmonious development of all those powers.
The moral aim also emphasised by him in the sense of character building or
character development. According to him, ‘character development implies the
cultivation of such moral virtues as courage, strength of conviction, purity of
personal life, righteousness, and self-restrained service of mankind’. This character
is to be build up in terms of non-violence and universal life. The ultimate aim of
education reflects Gandhi’s concept of the ultimate goal in human life – the realisation
of the ultimate reality, knowledge of God and Truth.
There are three major aspects of education which Gandhiji conceptualised as
aims of education. They are:
 Self-sufficiency aim – The aim of education should be to make the individual
economically independent and self-sufficient.
 Cultural aim – He advocated the preservation and transmission of Indian
culture.
 Character building aim – All education must aim at character building,
education is the means and character building is the aim.
Gandhiji educational philosophy and his ideas on education have been reflected
in curriculum, methods of teaching and role of teacher and students. He has given
top priority on basic education which is based upon craft-centred curriculum. In
this section you will study the nature and processes of craft-centred curriculum of
education. 129
Philosophical Perspective Craft-Centred Curriculum
of Education
According to Gandhiji, in order to train the whole man, education needs to be
craft centred, because it develops skills among the students and further it leads
them to be self-sufficient. Craft centred education lays emphasis on experiences
and activities as well as correlation of subjects with varieties of crafts. It helps to
develop an all-round personality, in which knowledge, action and feelings are
evenly balanced. The children after completing their course of education should
be able to earn their livelihood. He also suggested integration of craft in curriculum
not only to use craft as an isolated practice but as a means of livelihood.
The curriculum aims at the all-round development of the learner should have the
following:
 A basic craft in accordance with the local needs and conditions.
 Mother tongue be the medium of instruction.
 Arithmetic
 Social studies
 General Science including nature study, botany, zoology, physiology, hygiene,
chemistry and physical culture.
 Art work
 Music
 Domestic science for girls.
Gandhi’s craft–centred education encourages collaborative and co-operative
activities and out of these two, emerges a sort of social control or social discipline.
The concept of social discipline also is evident from his emphasis on the ideals
of citizenship through education. Craft-centred education is also known as basic
education. In the next section, the basic education system has been explained and
also the pedagogy to be used in order to provide this education.
Basic Education System and Pedagogy
In the basic education scheme, Gandhiji has given equal importance to community
life. Education through community develops the qualities like team spirit, co-
operation and a sense of mutual help. A child acquires competence of social
adjustment through community life. In basic education system, development of
children is imparted through co-curricular activities like community life, mass prayer,
common dinner, physical exercise, team works, games and sports, assignment
(homework), cultural programmes, celebration of special days, and creative
programmes. During residential education, children take up various activities in
various teams/groups or collectively. These include cleaning of room and ground,
dining, toilet and urinal and also fetching water, cooking, watering plants, washing
clothes, taking bath, etc.
In short, training is related to life was imparted in the basic education system. By
this, values like cleanliness, self-reliance, labour, team spirit, co-operation, endurance
power, loyalty, good conduct, honestly, discipline, obedience, punctuality, exercises,
games and sports related to physical education are also organized with a view to
developing health related values in children. In this education, celebrations such
130
as national festivals, birth anniversary, death anniversary, parents (guardians) day,
self-education day, environment day, world population day and such other days Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
are celebrated. Cultural programmes are organized on such occasions. Moreover,
community service programmes given by Gandhiji such as cleaning of village
roads and other areas, prevention of untouchability, communal harmony, prohibition
of alcoholic drinks, Khadi activities, adult education, women upliftment, health
education, nursing of lepers, addiction relief, etc. are celebrated in the basic
schools as well as in the community and hostels. All these help for developing
moral and other values among the children. He suggested that basic education
should be given in the mother tongue.
Gandhiji thinks that only the best and appropriate teachers can help in achieving
the aforesaid aims of education. These teachers should possess knowledge, skill,
enthusiasm, patriotism and special training. They should be inspired by social
attitudes and imbibed with ideals of non-violence or Ahimsa. In the Gandhian
scheme, teacher-taught relationship is not established through syllabus or curriculum,
but for acquiring the life skills education which helps to lead one’s life meaningfully.
Emphasizing the role of teacher, he believed, ‘one who cannot take the place
of mother cannot be a teacher’. The prime role of the teacher is to prepare
non-violent child through deeds of non-violence rather than words of non-violence.

the Unit.
4. Mention Gandhiji concept of Education and how it differs from the one
given by Swami Vivekananda.
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5. What is the ultimate aim of education as defined by Gandhiji?
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6. What is Basic Education scheme given by Gandhiji?
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of Education 7.5 RABINDRANATH TAGORE (1861-1941)
Rabindranath Tagore was a worldwide known poet
and educationist, versatile, synthetic and original
personality. Though he was inspired by the writers
and poets like Shakespeare, Goethe, Wordsworth,
Ruskin, Shelley, Keats and Browning, but roots of
his intellect, spirituality and philosophy lie in the
rhymes of Upanishads, in the poetry of Kalidas, in
the lyrics of Vaisnavas, in the mystic poems of Kabir
and the religious atmosphere of the Brahmo Samaj.
He was a believer in cultural synthesis and Rabindranath Tagore
international unity. His songs and messages were (1861-1941)
inspirations to both social and political workers. His educational thoughts also
stand as a landmark in the Indian education system. He tried to synthesise and
fulfil the spiritual and natural needs of human being through education.
Early in the twentieth century, Tagore demonstrated through his school in Shanti
Niketan, the true value of education in the vitalization of Indian society. There was
no discrimination on the basis of caste or creed. All were welcome (including
foreigners) to live and learn together as brothers and sisters, in Shanti Niketan.
To touch leather and make beautiful leather bags or sandals were not merely the
work of an untouchable cobbler, it is a work of art that all can undertake. The
dignity of Labour was demonstrated in Shanti Niketan. Education at all levels is
provided at Shanti Niketan or Visva Bharati i.e. from Kindergarten to University
level.
Brief Life Sketch
Rabindranath Tagore had little formal schooling and dropped out from the school
by the age of fourteen. He was basically a self-taught person. His childhood
experiences, especially the traditional educational methods followed in formal
schools, left a profound influence on his educational thinking. In the year 1901,
He started a school of his own, namely, ‘Shanti Niketan’, where he began his
educational experiments. In 1921, the school became the world famous
‘Vishwabharathi’, an International University.
Tagore’s Philosophy of Life
His philosophy of life emphasizes on humanism, individualism, universalism and
spiritual harmony. Advocating on humanism, Tagore said, human beings are absolute
entities. They are free from caste, class, religion, gender and even nationality. On
individualism, Tagore said, pure individual ultimately unites with universal humankind
and he upheld the uniqueness of the human individual and the right and freedom
of every individual to pursue a unique path for development. His concept on
universalism is not on political understanding but on spiritual understanding. On
spiritual harmony, Tagore said, spiritualist and spirituality was one of the main
tenets of his philosophy of life. He believed in the spiritual unity of the individual.
Rabindranath Tagore was a great educational practitioner. It was his believe that
132 “education is an all-round development of an individual in harmony with
the Universe”. His educational philosophy is based upon blending the idealistic Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
principles with some naturalistic practices which is today evident in Shantiniketan.
According to Tagore, ‘children should be brought up in an atmosphere of
freedom’. Too many restrictions should not be imposed on them. Schools become
like education factories without no life and colour.
Tagore believes that education should be given in the natural surroundings. Children
should be brought into direct contact with nature as child’s mind is curious, alert,
restless and eager to receive direct experience from the nature.
Tagore was a spiritualist as well as a naturalist. He was a great champion of
education for international understanding. His patriotism and nationalism leads to
internationalism in his educational endeavour.
Aims of Education
Tagore viewed education as the process for evolving new patterns of life culminating
in the realisation of Universalism. Aims of education suggested by him are presented
in the following points:
 Education should be real and create whole individual in terms of his/her
emotion, senses and intellect.
 Education should be aimed at development of the complete life, i.e. which
includes economic, intellectual, aesthetic, social, and spiritual development.
 Education is to help an individual realize the inner principle of unity of all
knowledge and all activities of our social and spiritual being.
 Education should be to achieve universality through individuality.
Curriculum and Concept of a School
Tagore recommended a curriculum must aim at spiritual, creative, aesthetic and
vocational i.e. on the wholistic development of an individual. He emphasized
cultural subjects to include in the construction of curriculum. He pursued culture
in the widest sense through art, dance, drama, music, crafts and practical skills
of daily life. Tagore was a strong supporter of activity based curriculum. For
harmonious development of the individual, he had given emphasis on spiritual side
along with the intellectual and physical sides of the individual in the curriculum.
Ideas of a School
The school, which may be termed as an ideal, according to Tagore, must be
located away from the turmoil of human habitation under an open sky and
surrounded by natural environment viz. vistas of fields, trees, and plants. The vast
background of nature helps in the development of grand and divine vision within
the children. He used the word ‘forest’ not in terms of dense jungle, but as
‘Tapovana’ in ancient Indian tradition.
Pedagogy
The medium of education is also an important point pertaining to Tagore’s idea.
The use of English in education as a medium made education confined only to
urban areas and the upper classes rather than rural areas. Therefore, if the vast
rural masses were to be benefited, it was absolutely essential to the use of mother
133
tongue.
Philosophical Perspective Tagore wanted science to be taught along with philosophical and spiritual knowledge
of Education
at Indian universities. He suggested use of activity-based, play activities, teaching
while walking, learning with joy, self-learning, heuristic, narration-cum discussion,
field-trips, and experience-based learning methods of teaching. He advocated
fullness of experience – physical, mental, aesthetic and emotional. All these truly
accords with the modern pedagogy.
According to Tagore, more important thing is that the educators must believe in
themselves as well as in universal-self, underlying his individual soul. An educator
should follow the principles of freedom, perfection and universality in his/her
teaching. Tagore’s scheme of education keeps the child in the centre and the role
of the teacher is to facilitate the child to learn his/her own. He emphasized that
the teachers should be a good learner first, unless she/he learns, it is simply
impossible to teach the students.

the Unit.
7. Mention the name of the school of thought as reflected from educational
philosophy of Tagore.
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8. Name the teaching methods suggested by Tagore.
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9. Explain the idea of a School according to Tagore
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7.6 JIDDU KRISHNAMURTI (1895- 1986)

Jiddu Krishnamurti was also not in favour of book
learning and the formal school system like
Rabindranath Tagore. He was a true practitioner
of education. In this section you will study his
educational philosophy, his concept of school and
pedagogy practices in the process of teaching and J. Krishnamurti
134 learning. (1895-1986)
7.6.1 Brief Life Sketch and Philosophy of Life Contribution of Indian
Philosophers
Life Sketch
J. Krishnamurti was born on 11 May 1895 in Madanapalle in Andhra Pradesh,

he established the Rishi Valley Education Centre, an institution in 1928. At the age
of 15, Krishnamurti accompanied Miss Annie Besant to England in 1911. Like his
father he also became a member of the Theosophical Society. In 1912, he wrote
a book entitled ‘Education as Service‘ in which he described the life of an ideal
school where love rules and inspires, students grow into noble adolescents under
the fostering care of teachers.
Philosophy of Life
Krishnamurti is truly a free thinker, therefore, refused to fit himself into any belief,
creed or system or to become a system himself. He proposed that nothing more
than a total transformation of individual self as a cure for conflict and suffering in
the world. His message to mankind was, ‘first understand the purpose of our
existence, the purpose of our life, and understand what we were thriving
for. Then utilize everything, to strengthen us. To find out what you really
love to do is one of the most difficult things. That is part of education.’
His teaching is his ideas on truth, mind, thought, intelligence, attention, perception,
freedom, love and self.

Educational Philosophy
He was very critical of the contemporary educational systems its aims, processes,
and content. He was against the present education on its excessive and exclusive
emphasis on techniques and neglect the human dimensions. He says merely provide
information to the students and fit them to pass the examination is the most
unintelligent form of education. He said, knowledge is essential only as a means
of cultivating the mind and not an end in itself. Jiddu Krishnamurti like Rabindranath
Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda and others founded his own
educational institutions to put into practice what he preached.
Aims of Education
The following aims of education were suggested by him:
 Development of an integrated/whole personality of the child who is able to

deal with his/her life at any moment and any situation.
 To make the child able to discover his/her own talent and suitable livelihood.
 Education brings freedom among the individual and not merely to produce
scholars and technicians.
 The purpose of education is to see the overall development of the self in

each and every individual.
 The purpose of education is to cultivate healthy relationships based on love

and compassion. 135
Philosophical Perspective 7.6.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students
of Education
Curriculum and Ideas of a School
According to Krishnamurti, an ideal school should have limited number of students
because mass instruction is not in a position to develop integrated, personality of
children must be dedicated, thoughtful and alert. The school must work for
understanding the children of their potentials and limitations.
Education was always close to Krishnamurti’s heart. He established some co-
educational schools in India and abroad to implement his ideas into practice. He
used to visit them every year for open interaction with the students and teachers.
Although the conventional curriculum was followed in these schools, his main
objective in starting these schools was to provide children adequate opportunities
and freedom so that they could grow up without any national, racial, class and
cultural prejudices and build harmony among human beings.
Pedagogy
The following teaching-learning methods were suggested by Krishnamurti:
 Question-answer method.
 Observation and experimentation
 Activities and field-visit experiences
 Exploration and discovery of facts
Teachers and Students
According to him, a true teacher, besides a content expert, is also the one who
shows the way to wisdom and truth to his students. According to Krishnamurti,
the concept of communication includes listening and learning. Understanding the
difference between the two is of great benefit to the teachers. Truth is more
important than the teacher himself. To create a new society each one of us has
to be a true teacher. This means that we have to be both the learner and the
teacher. He considers that the child has all the abilities for their own development,
but the role of teacher is to develop the child in his/her right destination.
Krishnamurti’s concept on methods of teaching, school organization and the role
of a teacher is truly progressive in nature. His emphasis on development of an
integrated personality through integral approach to education which is highly
recommended by almost all educationists and thinkers.

the Unit.
10. Explain the concept of education suggested by Krishnamurti.
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136 ............................................................................................................
11. Who is a true teacher as per Krishnamurti? Philosophers
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7.7 SRI AUROBINDO GHOSH (1872 – 1950)

Aurobindo Ghosh is one of the popular educational
thinkers of idealism philosophy in the field of
education. The concept of integral education and
practice of integral school by Sri Aurobindo is very
popular among the masses. This section will make
you understand about the educational philosophy
and other pedagogic aspects of education as
suggested by Sri Aurobindo.
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
(1872-1950)

Life Sketch
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh was born in Calcutta on 15th August 1872. In 1893, he
joined as professor of English at Baroda College in Gujarat. His ideas and theories
of education were as per the needs of the Indians. He initiated an International
Ashram and International Centre of Education and Social Activities. Auroville, ‘as
a city of human unity’, was his experiment in Pondichery in India.
Philosophy of Life
Integral is the concept that forms the basis of Aurobindo’s philosophical and
educational ideas. His educational philosophy is based upon the ideas of idealism
school of philosophy. He believed that reality is the truth and an integral whole
of the individual and its action. Aurobindo’s educational theory centres on his
concept of mind. He considers the true sense of education is the study of human
mind. Aurobindo’s theory of mind culminates in his belief in the existence of super
mind. According to him, super mind represents a higher place of consciousness.
Aurobindo’s philosophy is an affirmation of Indian belief which is spiritual in
nature and rational. His philosophy aims to attain knowledge of the ultimate
reality.
Aurobindo’s Idea on Education
According to Sri Aurobindo, true education is not only spiritual but also rational,
vital and physical. In other words, it is the Integral Education in which education
should have five major aspects relating to the principal activities of a human being:
the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual. This type
education is complete and complimentary to each other and continues lifelong.
Aurobindo’s scheme of education is integral in two senses:
 Firstly, it is inculcating all the five aspects of a human being. 137
Philosophical Perspective  Secondly, education is not only for the evolution of the individual alone, but
of Education
also for the nation and humanity.
The ultimate goal of education is the evolution of total humanity. In this evolution,
the principle of development is ‘unity in diversity’. This unity subsequently,
maintains and helps the evolution of diversity. The ultimate aim of education is
man-making.
Aims of Education
According to Sri Aurobindo, the main aim of education is to help the growing soul
to draw out that the best and make it perfect for a noble cause. Education should
enable him/her to realize his/her inner self which is a part of the universal
consciousness. According to him, senses can be trained fully when manas, chitta
and nerve are pure. Another important aim of education is to develop
consciousness. According to him, the aims of education have the following four
levels.
(i) Chitta
(ii) Manas
(iii) Intelligence
(iv) Knowledge
A teacher should develop all these four levels harmoniously. This will promote the
development of conscience. According to him, ‘the utilisation of the Super
mind for the development of an integrated human personality should be
the true aim of education’.

According to Sri Aurobindo, colleges and universities should educate through
their academic as well as social activities. The schools are a unique part of a
society. Education cannot give in isolation. The school has to develop different
types of activities such as collaboration, consultation and lectures in an integral
manner. The school needs to provide opportunities for integral development of
learners. Therefore, aims, curriculum and methods of teaching to be the light of
the concepts of integral education.
Idea on Curriculum
According to him, curriculum should be confined to a limited syllabus and a few
text books. It must include all those subjects which promote mental and spiritual
development of the learners. Education is a means towards an end, not an end
in itself. There must be due flexibility to meet individual needs. Subjects of curriculum
should be able to motivate the learners. Curriculum should involve creativity of life
and constructive activities and be interesting. He has prescribed the following
subjects in the curriculum.
 Primary stage: Mother Tongue, English, National History, Art, Painting,
General Science, Social Studies, and Arithmetic.
 Secondary stage: Mother tongue, English, French, Arithmetic, Art, Chemistry,
Physics, Botany, Social Studies, Physiology, and Health Education.
138
 University Stage: Indian and Western philosophies, History of Civilization,

English, Literature, French, Sociology, Psychology, History of Science, Contribution of Indian
Chemistry, Physics, Botany, International relations and integration. Philosophers
 Vocational Education: Arts, Painting, Photography, Sewing, Sculpture,

Drawing, Typing, Shorthand, Cottage Industries, Carpentry, Nursing,
Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Indian and European music, and
dramatization.
Pedagogy
The following teaching methods/pedagogy has been suggested:
 Love and sympathy for the child
 Education through mother tongue
 Education according to the interests of the child
 Education through self-experience
 Emphasis on learning by doing
 Education through co-operation of teacher and students in the education
process
 Free environment to the child to gain more knowledge through his/her own
efforts
He believed that nothing can be taught, but everything can be learned. The
teacher is a helper/facilitator and guide, but not an instructor or task master. A
teacher should not impart knowledge but should show the path to acquire
Knowledge which is already within a learner. It is wrong to mould the child into
the shape as desired by the elders ignoring and destroying the divine in the child.
Education should be according to the nature of the child.

the Unit.
12. Name the five principal activities of human being as per Integral Education.
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13. Explain the concept of curriculum as per Aurobindo’s Integral Education.
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139
of Education 7.8 GIJUBHAI BADHEKA (1885-1939)
Gijubhai Badheka is one of the famous educationists
who focused on child-centeredness of school education.
His educational thought is quite relevant for the present
educational scenario of the country. His educational
thought reflects use of constructivist approach in
teaching and learning.
Gijubhai Badheka
(1885-1939)

Gijubhai Badheka was a famous patriot, a devoted teacher and an inspiring pillar
of education. He was born on 15 November, 1885 in Gujarat. He gave an
important place to child in his educational thoughts. Gijubhai advocated child
centred education. Perhaps he was the first educator in India who focused his
attention at the pre-primary stage of education.
Educational Philosophy
His principles of child-centred education like freedom, respect, spiritual
development, creativity and development of good qualities of citizenship
emphasized on the method of self-learning through self-dependence, self-discipline,
self-expression, sense training and nature study. Gijubhai dreamt for such a school
for children that cannot instil fear in their mind and is a place where they would
go happily and willingly.
His dream was turned into a reality in his ‘Bal Mandir’, a school set up by him
for children between two and half years to six years of age in 1920 at Bhavnagar,
Gujarat. In this Bal Mandir, he provided free opportunities to children for playing,
singing, poetry reciting, story-telling, gardening, nature study and used the play-
way method for teaching-learning activities. Thus, Bal Mandir, in the real sense,
provided a healthy and playful environment so that children enjoy full happiness
during their stay at school.
Aims of Education
The following major aims of education were suggested :
 To provide education in a fear-free environment where children should feel
free to perform their activities.
 Dealing children with empathy.
 Development of child’s individuality and completeness.
 Emphasizing education through sense training, motor-efficiency and self-
learning.
 Development of atmosphere of ‘education for learning through living’.
140
7.8.3 Curriculum, Pedagogy, Teacher and Students Philosophers
Curriculum and Pedagogy
Gijubhai cites several useful learning activities like story-telling, drama, games and
paper folding that could serve many objectives of teaching-learning at the pre-
primary and primary level and make it relevant for children. However, teacher’s
intuition to link all these methods to curriculum is the real challenge. Children do
not depend merely on textbooks or teachers as the only source of information.
This way, he advocated for meaningful education for children in different areas,
such as: History, Language or preparing for exams or school function. He had a
firm faith in alternative methods/structures he wishes to try with children and made
possible changes. Gijubhai makes it possible by saying that ‘experimentation’
is the key to bring the change. A very novel experiment by him was to divide the
day into activities, games, and stories and not go by strict authority of the pre-
set time table.
Gijubhai believes that teacher should figure out the underlying concept and then
help children to identify that through interesting activities. He happened to use his
own instinct to organise his days with the children. Several other features of good
and useful teaching-learning practices one could find in his works. Gijubhai had
an intense love for children. His philosophy is based on the following observations
made by him. Gijubhai further said, “A child is a complete person who has
intellect, emotions mind and understanding, has strengths and weaknesses
and has likes and dislikes. He believed the concept of teacher as a friend,
philosopher and guide’.

the Unit.
14. Explain the concept of child-centred education as focused by Gijubhai.
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15. Name the teaching activities as suggested by Gijubhai.
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7.9 LET US SUM UP

This Unit is in continuation of the previous unit in which concept of education and
various aspects of education such as aims of education, curriculum, methods of
teaching and role of teachers and learners have been discussed. In this unit, you 141
Philosophical Perspective have studied educational concepts and thoughts of some Indian philosophers.
of Education Swami Vivekananda, in his educational thought, stressed upon ‘education is the
manifestation of divine perfection already existing in man’. Therefore,
emphasized that each and every human being has enough divine power to
accomplish knowledge and it is education that helps them to exhibit that knowledge.
While Gandhiji’s educational thought, emphasized on all round development of
personality, which include development of physical, social, emotional, intellectual,
spiritual, moral and value education of the child. Accordingly, Tagore stressed on
both aspects of a human being, i.e. naturalistic as well as idealistic aspects can
be dealt effectively on system of education. Aurobindo Ghosh highlighted the
importance of the integral system of education in which he emphasized the
importance of five aspects of education. Jiddu Krishnamurti and Gijubhai Badheka
highlighted on their experimental schools and child-centeredness of education.

Aggarwal S. (2007). Philosophical Foundations of Education, Author Press,
New Delhi.
Altekar (1975). Education in Ancient India (7thEd.). Varanasi :MonoharPrakashan.
Badheka, Giju Bhai. (1990). Divasvapna An Educator’s Reverie translated by

Chittaranjan Pathak. NBT, New Delhi.
Brubacher J.S. (1969). Modern Philosophies of Edu cation. New York: McGraw
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Chaube S.P. (1988). Indian and Western Educational Philosophers, Vinod

PusthakMandir, Agra.
Dhavan, M.L. (2005). Philosophy of Education Delhi, Editor, Isha Books.
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‘Education: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives’. M.Ed.:IGNOU.
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Krishnamurti Foundation The “official” Krishnamurti site Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1974)

On Education, Pondicherry, India: All India Press.
Krishnamurti, J. (1953). Education and the Significance of Life, London: Victor

Gollancz Ltd.
Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1956). 5th Public Talk, 18th March, at Bombay.
Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1962). 2nd Public Talk, 7th June, at London.
Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1964). This Matter of Culture, London: Victor Gollancz.
Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1975). Dialogue on Education, at Ojai.
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Foundations of Education, Mangalam Publications Delhi. Pandey
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Nayar, P. R., Dave, P.N., and Arora, K. (1982). Teacher and Education in Contribution of Indian
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New Delhi.

1. Vivekananda stressed upon the knowledge that has already with the child
which is a divine power. The child should get proper education and exposure
to exhibit that divine power.
2. Materialistic (worldly) and spiritualistic (abstract) curriculum.
3. Yoga and meditation, intuition, lecture and discussion, self-exercise, creative

activities, etc.
4. Self-exercise.
5. The ultimate aim of education is realisation of the ultimate reality, knowledge

of God and Truth.
6. A basic craft in accordance with the local need and conditions; Mother
tongue; Arithmetic; Social studies; General Science including nature study,
Botany, Zoology, Physiology, Hygiene, Chemistry and Physical Culture; Art
Work; Music; and Domestic science for girls.
7. Idealism and Naturalism.
8. Teaching through tours and trips, learning by activities, narration-cum-

discussion and debate and heuristic method.
9. A school should be established away from the human habitation under an

open sky and surrounded by fields, trees, and plants.
10. According to Krishnamurti, education is about preparation for the whole life
not part.
11. A true teacher is not simply a source of information, but is the one who
shows the way to wisdom and truth. 143
Philosophical Perspective 12. The physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual.
of Education
13. According to Aurobindo, curriculum is not confined to a limited syllabus and
a few text books; it should include all those subjects which promote mental
and spiritual development.
14. Freedom for the child, spiritual development for the child, creativity of the
child and development of good qualities of citizenship of the child.
15. Story-telling, drama, games, paper folding etc.
144
Contribution of Western
UNIT 8 CONTRIBUTION OF Philosophers
WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Plato (427 BC to 347 BC)
8.3.1 Concept and Aims of Education
8.3.2 Process of Education
8.3.3 Curriculum
8.3.5 Criticism
8.4 Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

8.4.2 Curriculum and Methods of Teaching
8.4.3 Role of Teacher
8.4.4 Rousseau’s Contribution to Education
8.4.5 Negative Education
8.4.6 Women Education
8.5 John Dewey (1859 – 1952)

8.5.3 Curriculum, Teaching Methods, Role of Teacher and Discipline
8.6 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

8.6.3 Discipline
8.6.5 Nature of Education and School
8.7 Let us Sum Up

8.9 Answers to Check your Progress
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we are going to learn about contribution of selected western
philosophers in in detail on the Concept, Aims and Processes of Education. These
Philosophers are Plato, J.J. Rousseau, John Dewey and Immanuel Kant. The
thoughts and ideas of these philosophers are universal in nature and applicable to
the field of education for all the stakeholders i.e. students, teachers and society.
Their ideas have been relevant to the system of education from the times of these
philosophers and thinkers and are still applicable. There is lot to learn from these
ideas especially when the present system of education and society is full of multiple
problems in education and challenges of the present day.
Prof. Neerja Dhankar, Formerly with School of Education, Central University of Haryana.
145
of Education 8.2 OBJECTIVES
 explain the educational ideas of few western philosophers i.e. Plato, Rousseau,
Dewey and Immanuel Kant;
 describe and differentiate between the processes of education as given by these
philosophers;
 reflect on the relevance of their thoughts in the present system of education;
and
 implement their ideas in the teaching-learning process.
8.3 PLATO (427 BC to 347 BC)

Plato was a great philosopher, scholar, educationist
and thinker. He was one of the first founders of
idealism school of thought. As per idealist
philosophical thought, the mind and the self are the
ultimate truth or reality and creation of the universe
is a reflection of the mind. In other words, he
believed that the human mind is the supreme element
in life and the universe is not composed of material
in its ultimate nature or form. For example, the pen/
pencil you use for writing is not material, it only
seems material. Its essential form is the reflection Plato (427BC – 347 BC)
of the mind i.e. a pen or pencil and used
for writing. He wrote several books on education and the two important ones are
‘The Republic’ and ‘The Laws’.

Plato’s ideas on education are very important. He believed that progress of any
nation depends upon its youth. Good education is able to prepare skilled citizens
with good character. By education he meant that training by which development
of morality takes place through good habits.
Plato’s ideas were tried and tested upon by him in a school which he established
for this purpose. This school was called Academy. He believed in tested and
established principles for education. He included Philosophy, Music, Mathematics,
Political Science and Psychology as teaching subjects in that academy.
Plato’s philosophy is idealistic. He believed that the real world is the world of ideas
only. Only ideas are true. The physical or material world is based on ideas. Only
Brahma or God is true and complete and the world is a myth and everything else
is incomplete. Ideas are eternal, perfect, unchangeable and everlasting. According
to Plato’s idealistic thoughts; there are two worlds, the world of ideas and the
material world which is experienced through senses. This material world is temporary
and is given shape through senses or ideas only. World of senses is destructible
and exists according to time and space. According to him, education of both
knowledge and morality should be provided. Education is an instrument to attain
146 Truth, God and Beauty i.e. ‘Satyam, Shivam, and Sundaram’.
He suggested the following Aims of Education: Contribution of Western
Philosophers
 Self-realization : It is the duty of the teachers that through the process of
education they develop such abilities in the students that they are able to self-
realize the truth or reality or God.
 Cultivation of truth, beauty and goodness: Another most important aim
of education as given by Plato is to arise faith in the Truth, the God and the
Beauty. In the initial stages of education; such environment should be provided
to the students that they learn to love and appreciate beauty in the universe
which in the later stages must develop into love for God.
 Development of spiritual values: He emphasized the need for development
of spiritual characteristics along with mental and moral characteristics in
learners/students.
 To develop personality: It is through education that the integrated personality
of learners should be developed. Development of good habits and character
is also part of personality development.
 To develop qualities of good citizenship: Through education, such qualities
should be developed in the students so that they become socially adjusted
and useful citizens. They should be able to discharge their duties towards the
society according to roles assigned to them. They should live in harmony with
fellow citizens.
 To manage conflict and establish equilibrium in human life: The aim of
education should be to prepare students for identification and management
of conflicts and establish equilibrium in life to live it with full satisfaction. An
educated person should be able to work in conflicting and opposing situations
also.
 To form unity in the State for the State: According to Plato, an important
aim of education is development of the state. Therefore, the individuals should
be ready to sacrifice their personal interests. Unity of the state is supreme.
Feelings and values of national integration should be developed among the
children through education.

According to Plato, intellect is gifted by nature. Therefore, depending on their
intellect, individuals can be divided into philosophers or scholars, soldiers or
warriors those are bold and strong and can be given training in warfare and on
the other laborers who produce and do hard physical work. Plato has categorized
people into three types i.e. gold, silver and copper metals respectively. He believed
that teaching is the process through which improvement in the nature of individuals
can be made.
8.3.3 Curriculum
Plato recommended different types of curriculum for different stages of education
as given here under:
a) Pre-Primary Education (from birth to 6 years)
This period of education has been further divided into two parts:
147
Philosophical Perspective i. Infancy (from birth to 3 years): During this period, there should be
of Education
emphasis on child’s proper rearing and health. The child should be
provided with balanced food and happy environment so that he/she
grows into a happy and healthy individual.
ii. Nursery (from 4 to 6 years): During this period imagination power

of the child should be developed through education. For the development
of good habits and character with moral values and mythological tales
should be told to children. Further development of sound body and mind
should be the focus. Development of values of the Truth, the God and
the Beauty should start at this stage. Mother is an important teacher as
the home is the main education place for the child during this stage.
b) Primary Education (from 7 to 16 years)
He divided this stage of education also into two parts as follows:
i. Primary Education (from 7 to 13 years): During this period

arrangement for separate education of boys and girls should be made.
Sports, Physical Education, Music, Religion, Moral Education and
Mathematics should be taught at this stage. Music, Physical Education
and Sports aims at development of physical, intellectual and emotional
dimensions required for a balanced personality among the students.
ii. Middle Education (from 13 to 16 years): Education under this stage

should start middle education. Song, Music, Poetry and Mathematics
should also be taught. At this stage, students can understand micro
principles and difficult subjects. This forms the basis for higher education.
Students should be provided education in morality, religion and literature
full of patriotism to prepare them for good citizen of the state/nation.
c) Soldier or warfare education stage (from 16 to 20 years)
This stage has also been divided into two parts:
i. From 16 to 18 years: During this period students should be provided

with training to make their body strong and healthy. For this, participation
in sports, exercises and wrestling should be encouraged.
ii. From 18 to 20 years: During this period students should be provided

with training in warfare. Horse riding, skill of using weapons and other
techniques of war should be taught so that at the time of need, the state
should be protected. He further recommended that along with warfare
education, general education should be avoided so that students can focus
on their physical training.
d) Higher Education (from 20 to 35 years)
This stage has also been divided into two parts :
i. Higher Education (From 20 to 30 years): Provision of entrance

examination for admission into higher education has been recommended
by him. Those who qualify in the entrance examination should be given
admission in higher education and those who do not qualify should be
engaged in public services. He emphasized upon study of mathematics
148
and science in higher education. At this stage education should aim at Contribution of Western
Philosophers
acquiring knowledge and aesthetic sense. He believed that students must
develop ability for integration of logic, practice and sciences at this stage.
ii. Upper Higher Education (From 30 to 35 years): Plato kept this stage
for administrative officers. For entry into this stage also entrance
examination was must. Those who passed the entrance test were given
admission in this stage. Those who could not qualify were adjusted in
junior administrative posts in the State. In this highest stage of education,
study of philosophy was compulsory. Along with philosophy, political
science and law were also studied. This stage was to prepare efficient
administrators for the state’s highest posts.
e) Professional Education (from 35 to 50 years)
Plato considered education of this stage as professional education. During this
period, citizens work as administrators and rulers and take responsibility of
the efficient administration of the state. They are leaders of the state and the
society. After the age of fifty years, they are relieved from the regular services.
They now indulge into endeavors for self-realization but keep on giving their
services as advisors.
f) Education for Women
He did not discriminate between men and women, so he did not advise
different types of education for women. But he considered women, physically
weaker than men. He has written in his book ‘The Republic’ that women and
men both are capable of protecting the state but women are comparatively
weaker than men in the physical power. Difference is only in quantity, not
quality. He recommended same education for both men and women. He said
that women can be selected for any administrative post in the state. Women
should also be provided education or training in industrial, warfare, philosophical
and higher education. They should also be taught music, physical education,
political science, art and craft, etc. They should not be restricted to household
work only.

According to Plato, the aim of education is pursuit of knowledge, so teaching
methods should be suitable for this purpose. In the Plato’s scheme of education,
the major subject is logic or debate among intellectuals. So the most important
method is the method of logic.
Second method, as recommended by him is question-answer method. This
method was started by Socrates. It has three stages; example, definition and result
or interpretation. The example starts from discussion, then common characteristics
are fixed and at the end, result or interpretation is made.
Third method is discussion method. It became a popular method of teaching in
higher education. Apart from the above, he also recommended imitation-method,
story-telling and self-study method.
8.3.5 Criticism
Plato considered society is above individual and is not in favour of individual
freedom. He could not establish equilibrium between individuals rights and duties. 149
Philosophical Perspective On one hand he talked about holistic personality development of an individual
of Education
through education and on the other hand the freedom from individuals and gives
it to the State. Individual has to perform all duties for the state but does not have
any rights. He did not consider professional and vocational education as important.
Plato considered it necessary for the administrators to study philosophy but it is
a point of debate to see the relevance of studying philosophy in any way helps
in good administration. Family is considered important in child’s education but Plato
does not recognize family’s contribution to child’s education. As nature and needs
of men and women are different, there may be somewhat different education for
women but he does not mention different education for women.
Activity 1
You have studied Plato’s ideas about women education. What is your stand
in it? Give your comments.
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the Unit.
1. Fill in the Blanks.
a) Plato was disciple of ______________________.
b) The world of ______________________ is the real world
according to Plato.
c) Plato divided education into ________ stages.
d) According to Plato the Greatest of Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram
is________________________.
e) Plato established an educational institution
named____________________________.
2. Name two books written by Plato.
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150
3. Write any two aims of education as given by Plato Philosophers
............................................................................................................
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4. Mentions any three methods of education as suggested by Plato.

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8.4 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)

”Everything is good as it comes from the hands
of the Author of Nature but everything
degenerates in the hands of man.” Rousseau
Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in Italy on 28th

June 1712 and one of the famous philosophers of
Naturalism school of thought. His ideas on education
have been clearly understood through his books. He
J. J. Rousseau
has written six great books and they are:
(1712-1778)
 The progress of Art and Science
 The Origin of Inequality among Men
 Discourse on Inequality
 The New Heloise
 Social Contract
 Emile ences of his school life as teachers used to give corporal punishment
to children and he was afraid of teachers. As the school environment was not
amicable to the growth of children, he considered school education is of no
use.
According to him, nature is the only pure, clean and ennobling influence on children.
Human society is thoroughly corrupt. Therefore, man should be freed from the
bondage of society and should live in the nature. Human nature is basically good
and it must be given ample opportunities for the free development in an open
atmosphere (IGNOU, 2000).
His famous book, ‘Emile’, is in the field of child education. Here he described
the process of education through education of an imaginary child ‘Emile’ who was
given education in a natural environment away from the society and school. In this
book, psychological principles of education were given more importance as the
child was left free to explore nature so that she could develop physically as well
as mentally in the lap of nature. 151
Philosophical Perspective 8.4.1 Concept and Aims of Education
of Education
Concept of Education
Rousseau suggested the given practices in education:
 Complete freedom to the child/learner.
 No imposed physical punishment, only the child can experience natural
punishment, that can subsequently help/teach the child to do the right and good
things.
 Follow the natural law(s), because neglect or violation invariably leads to pain
and suffering.
 Naturally possessed fine character.
Aims of Education
The following aims of education were suggested by Rousseau:
 Emphasis on natural activities of the child
According to Rousseau, “Goodness is an innate quality of the children. All
that is good which we get from nature.”
 Child as the centre of education
Nature and abilities of children should be kept in mind while planning for their
education. Child is not a young adult.
 Emphasis on Nature
According to Rousseau, Nature, Human and Physical environment are the
sources of education. Learning by doing and getting experience is the best
learning. Education is gardening of children. As plants develop through care
and nutrients and human develop through education. Children must realize their
weaknesses, inabilities and dependence so that they can overcome these with
hard work and efforts. Rousseau wants life of hard work and not comfort,
luxury and weakness. According to him the child should be provided education
according to child’s nature and love towards nature should be developed in
the child. Love of nature will develop all other faculties in the child. He
considered natural education as the real education and criticized regular and
artificial education imparted in the schools.
8.4.2 Curriculum and Methods of Teaching
The curriculum and methods of teaching as suggested by Rousseau were as follows:
Table 8.1: Curriculum and Methods of Teaching
Stages Curriculum Methods of
Teaching
Infancy  Development of body and senses  Training of sense

(0-5 Years)  Moral conversation through mother organs
tongue
 Counselling
 Debar from developing any bad method
habit
152
Childhood  Learn everything through direct  Play way method Philosophers
(5-12 Years) experience and observation.
 Practical work
 No prescribed text book.
 Negative education  Self-learning
method
 Free play, movement and action
 No rigid curriculum suggested at  Learning through
this stage self-experience
Adolescence  Suggest formal curriculum including  Learning by
(12-15 Years Natural Science, Language, doing
Mathematics, Woodwork, Music,
 Observation,
Paining, etc.
enquiry and
 Active work based curriculum; experimental
not on books method.
Youth  Moral and religious education  Heuristic method
(15-20 Years) through actual experience not
 Demonstration of
through formal lectures.
real objects in
 Education for bodily health, music teaching
and hands on activities
(Source: BES-122, IGNOU, 2016)
To analyse the curriculum and methods of teaching suggested by Rousseau, it can
be said that he was against book reading and rigid curriculum, especially at the
early stage of life. He suggested formal curriculum only at the stage of adolescence.
The methods which engage the child in hands-on activities and learning by doing
something had given importance by him.
8.4.3 Role of the Teacher

According to him, a teacher is not the source of information but must act as a
motivator for learning. Children should not be directed but guided. Teacher must
understand the nature of children. So, he/she should be tolerant and able to check
his/her emotions. He/she must not think of keeping the child under his/her control
as the child needs to be provided with full freedom for exploring and learning. Proper
guidance should be provided by the teacher to the child.
8.4.4 Rousseau’s Contribution to Education

He discovered and recognized the childhood traits. He advocated basis of child
psychology as the founding step for education of children. This lead to child centered
education in the modern period. He was the forerunner of modern educational
psychology. He said that children should be treated as children and not as young
adults, so methods of providing them education should be different. He said that
the children should be given problems to solve without any help and instructions.
Therefore, let them find out the truths themselves by exploring the environment.
He laid the foundation of free and positive discipline. He said, “Let the child move
freely in nature and learn from his/her own personal experience and through actual
participation in day to day life activities.” He condemned the punishment which
destroys original and natural curiosity and intellect of the child due to fear of
153
punishment. He was against strict discipline enforcement on children. He was in
Philosophical Perspective favour of providing full freedom to children to do their work in their own creative
of Education
ways and not interfering in what they are doing.
8.4.5 Negative Education
He emphasized on negative education as compared to positive education as
formal and rigid education tries to prepare the child for adult roles before time by
providing lot of information and instructions in an artificial environment. Negative
education is without any ties and control mechanism. In this the child learns
according to his/her nature and at his/her own pace. In this type his/her all faculties
develop naturally. Advocating negative education, Rousseau emphasized on the
following:
 No learning through books rather learning through direct experiences from
the nature
 No time saving (provide enough time to the child to live in nature)
 No habit formation
 No social education for the children (as the upper class society was corrupt
at that time)
 No direct moral education
 No strict and formal discipline
 No traditional education method
8.4.6 Woman Education
Rousseau was not in favor of same education for men and women as he believed
that their nature of responsibilities is totally different. He said that women are born
to serve and men are born to enjoy. The role of women is to bring up children,
help them to grow up as adults, to provide them with advice to make their life
comfortable and acceptable. So instead of providing women with higher education,
they should be taught household, stitching, embroidery and education of religion.
He advocated moral and religious education for women. This may be a part of
debate. Rousseau said, “A woman of literary education is the plague of her family,
her servants and everybody.” It needs critical reflection in the context of present
day society with technical and enlightened society.

the Unit.
5. Fill in the Blanks:
a) In Rousseau’s book named _______ there is a story of education
of an imaginary child.
b) According to Rousseau ____________ is a great teacher.
c) Rousseau had ______________attitude towards women education.
d) Rousseau emphasized on _______________ education.
154 e) The famous slogan given by Rousseau was___________________.

6. How many stages of child development have been given by Rousseau? Philosophers
Name these.
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7. Write any one aim of education as given by Rousseau for each stage of
child development
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8. What were Rousseau’s views about Women Education? Discuss.
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9. Mentions any three methods of education as suggested by Rousseau.
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8.5 JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)

John Dewey is considered as a great philosopher,
thinker and educationist of the modern era. He is
one of the best known philosophers in the United
States. After graduating from the University, he
started his career as a school teacher. Later on
obtained his Doctorate Degree in Philosophy from
John Hopkins University. In 1884, he began his
teaching career at the University of Michigan in 1894
and later joined University of Chicago as head of
its newly created department of Philosophy,
Psychology and Pedagogy (IGNOU, 2011). John Dewey
(1859 - 1952)
His philosophy has been mainly referred to as ‘Pragmatism’. He has been one
of the most influential thinkers of modern times whose educational ideas have left
a long lasting impact on contemporary educational thinking and practice. Some of
his famous educational works include the following:
 The School and the Society (1899)
 The Child and the Curriculum (1902)
 How we Think (1910) 155
Philosophical Perspective  Interest and effort in Education (1913)
of Education
 Democracy and Education (1916)
 Experience and Education, The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relations
of Knowledge and Action (1929)

Concept of Education
“Education is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will
enable him/her to control his environment and fulfill his/her possibilities.” Education
is a social need. It is progressive in nature both for the individual and the society.
It is a bipolar process having two aspects; psychological and social. Both are equally
important. Psychological aspect takes care of the child’s interests, capabilities,
talents and aptitude and the social aspect takes care of the social environment of
the child in which he/she takes birth and is brought up.
According to John Dewey, ‘education is life itself and not a preparation for
life’(Quoted from IGNOU, 2011). Education is for the child and not the vice versa,
i.e. child is not for education. Child is not a Tabula Rasa (clean slate) on which
anything can be written. Child is born with certain innate powers and capabilities
which can be developed in the right direction. Education develops the child in such
a way that he/she is able to find values and truth in every activity and experiment
done at all levels and is able to face the future challenges with confidence.
Aims of Education
According to Dewey, idea develops after an experience or an action. That
knowledge is true which is gained by direct experience. When an individual performs
any action and face challenges and difficulties in performing it, he/she thinks how
to overcome these. Thus thoughts and ideas are produced and actions are
performed further. Dewey calls these thoughts as education. He has given the
following as aims of education:
 Philosophy as a product of education: Dewey does not consider education
as the dynamic aspect of philosophy rather he considers philosophy as the
byproduct of education. He says, “Philosophy is the theory of education in
its most general phases”.
 Education means life: According to Dewey “education is life itself and not
a preparation for life” (Quoted from IGNOU, 2011). Education is a process
of living and not a preparation for future living. Only theoretical knowledge
is not useful, knowledge which can be used in life should be given more
importance. So behavioural and vocational skills are more important. Learning
by doing is important so that children get direct experiences. There should
not be a distance gap between future and school life. The real life experiences
should be provided in the school.
 Education is a miniature society: Development of an individual takes place
in the society. He/she gets many experiences while living in the society. So
the education of the child must takes place through society. According to John
Dewey, “Education is the social continuity of life”. He considers schooling as
an instrument of destroying social evils. He considers it as a small form of
156 society where the best practices of civilization are available. According to
Dewey,” An individual is the soul of the body which is society”. Individual Contribution of Western
Philosophers
and society are dependent on each other, so development of both is necessary.
 Education is the process of reconstruction of experiences: In a
democratic world, education is the right of every individual. So the state must
take up total responsibility of children. By democratic society, Dewey meant
not only political democracy but democracy as a way of life. He is of the
opinion that individuals have different experiences so they have differences
of actions. So individuals are complimentary to each other and opponents in
a democracy. In such an environment, only social and individual development
takes place. Child gets true knowledge by experience. Slowly as his/her
experiences increase, his/her knowledge also increases. On the basis of
experiences there is change in the behavior of the child and on the basis of
that he/she gains more experiences. In this way there is reconstruction of
experiences are taking place continuously.

Dewey emphasized to provide education through activities and not through
theoretical subjects. The experiences one gets in life are not subject specific. So
knowledge should be associated with actions and experiences. It should be in
accordance with direct experiences and fulfillment of social needs.
8.5.3 Curriculum, Teaching Methods, Role of Teacher

and Discipline
Curriculum
Curriculum should be prepared according to children’s needs, interests, aptitude
and nature of social needs. It should be flexible, dynamic and change as per the
need of time and situation.
 Education at different stages: Dewey has divided his plan of education
into three different stages, they are:
- play period (4-8 years);
- period of spontaneous attention (8-12 years); and
- period of reflective action (12-18 years).
Play period was especially dedicated for teaching in activity based method,
spontaneous attention period was dedicated for independently solving problems
of life and reflective action period was referred for come out as responsible citizen
of the society.
Teaching Methods
For strengthening experiences of the child and involving them with varieties of
learning activities, Dewey suggested problem solving method, learning by doing,
project method, and field-based activity method for study.
Role of Teacher
According to Dewey, teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide. S/he is the major
agent for the socialization of the child. S/he is the representative of the society.
S/he has right to motivate and inspire the child but not to burden the child with 157
Philosophical Perspective his/her own thoughts. A teacher’s role is to prepare students for living in the society
of Education
effectively. A teacher must have knowledge about the interests of child, changing
social environment and to guide children.
Discipline
Pragmatists unlike idealists for strict discipline and naturalists for unlimited freedom
for child have devised middle path between these two extremes. Dewey gave
importance to social discipline which is based on child’s nature, actions and social
answerability. According to him discipline is a mental state to develop social activities
which are necessary. He is not in the favour of artificial or unnatural enforcement
of discipline by creating fear in the children. He considers self-discipline is more
important than externally forced discipline.

the Unit.
10. Fill in the Blanks:
a) Philosophy of Education, given by John Dewey is known
as.................................. .
b) According to Dewey school is ....................... form of society.
c) Education is a ............................................ process, according to

John Dewey .
d) John Dewey emphasized on ................................... discipline.
e) Dewey emphasized on learning by ................................... .
11. In how many parts John Dewey has divided his educational planning?
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12. What were John Dewey’s views about teacher and their role in child
education? Explain.
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13. Mention any three methods of teaching as suggested by John Dewey.
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158 ............................................................................................................
8.6 IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804) Philosophers
Immanuel Kant, a great German Philosopher was

born in Konigsberg, Germany on 22 April, 1724. He
studied Latin, Greek and Theology. Experts in the
history of German Education describe the eighteenth
century as the ‘Age of Pedagogies’. He also made a
lot of contribution to education in pedagogical
philosophy or philosophy of education. He delivered Immanuel Kant
lectures on pedagogics from 1776 to 1787 and were (1724-1804)
published in 1803.
Immanuel Kant developed a system based on the idea that in order to understand
the nature of reality, one must just examine and analyse the reasoning process that
governs the nature of experience. “The idealism of transcendentalism gave way to
existential angst a long time ego”. He expressed his views that only human being
need education out of all living beings. Education includes nurturing when the child
is an infant, discipline when he/she grows up a little more and training when he/
she is able to understand instructions.

The following aims of education have been given by Immanuel Kant:
 Development of what is already there in the human beings and that is natural
goodness.
 Education is also continuous betterment of society through educated persons

thus ensuring better future.
 To develop all natural gifts of a human being is the true education.
 Good education feeds to the true perfection of human nature which is naturally
good. Its planning should be cosmopolitan and best. Children should be
educated not only for present but for better future.
 To maintain dignity of self and others by all individuals. He said that the sense
of quality and respect for others should be instilled in children from an early
age.
 Education relating to gradual improvement of the world should be provided

by the educational institutions.
 To prepare individuals for future world ethics. In this way he wanted to

develop global moral society.

Kant gave his ideas on education of all age groups i.e. from infancy to adulthood
are into following types :
 Basic education, 159

Philosophical Perspective  Family education,
of Education
 School education,
 University education,
 General adult education, and
 Senior citizen education.
As per his views, the basic nature of the child should not be distorted by artificial
means. Children need to be happy, open hearted and their gaze as bright as the
sun. Children may have natural inclination to go their own way, that needs to be
checked if it becomes harmful/dangerous, as in the process they may harm
themselves. But in the process of controlling them, they should not be threatened.
Neither they should treat everything as a game nor should they try to reason out
everything. Children must not be restraint in their freedom but at the same time
due care must be taken so that they do not harm themselves and restrict freedom
of others through their actions. Children must work as well as play. There is no
need to abandon one for another and proper balance must be maintained.
8.6.3 Discipline
Disciplined behaviour and actions save human being falling in danger. In the early
years, children need to be sent to school not for instructions but to learn to stay
still and do what they are asked to do. In this way, they learn to discipline
themselves which must be difficult to be taught at home. This function needs to
be performed by education as God has already given power to human being for
reason, now the good and bad of self depends upon themselves only. The basis
of education needs to be cosmopolitan or international in nature so that world peace
is established.

Curriculum must suit the age group. Children learn better when curriculum fits their
capabilities according to age. Education should not be a mechanical process.
Methods of teaching and learning must stimulate the children to think. Keeping in
view the above, Kant advocated Socratic Method for learning. Children may not
be able to understand central propositions without help from the teachers. But
teachers cannot instill perception of reason into children, slowly it will come from
within. The Socratic Method should also be the basis for imparting mechanical
instruction if needed. Kant is not against natural inclinations, interest and pleasure.
But these need to be exercised keeping in mind love for and well-being of other
human beings.
8.6.5 Nature of Education and School

The following nature of education and concept of school were suggested by Kant:
 Public vs Private Education: Kant gave his clear views whether education
should be provided by the state or by private institutions. Education should
cater to the needs of the learners or stakeholders. For example, if rulers
160 provide education, they will have welfare of the state into mind and not
development of the individuals through education. So education should not Contribution of Western
Philosophers
be the responsibility of the rulers who may themselves be not educated and
disciplined. They must provide funds for education but not with the aim of
making profit out of it. Private educational institutions must take up cause of
educating youth for their personal and social development.
 Experimental Schools: According to Kant nothing should be taught before

doing experiments on it so that it becomes worthy for teaching. For this
experimental schools are necessary. In these schools teachers should be free
to try their content and methods of teaching which they think will be
appropriate for a certain age group of students. Only reason cannot establish
suitability of material and methods of teaching, so experimental schools should
be established before the normal schools. The experimental school he
established is named as ‘Dessau’.

the Unit.
14. Fill in the Blanks.
i) Immanuel Kant was a ................. Philosopher.
ii) Kant’s lectures on education are called .........................................
iii) According to Kant, education must make the child

...........................................................
iv) Kant’s ideas on education were tested in an experimental school

called by the name ................................ .
v) Kant emphasized on learning by ............................ method.
15. Why did Kant emphasize upon opening experimental schools before
general schools?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
16. Write aims of education as given by Immanuel Kant.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
161
of Education 17. Discuss Kant’s views about public vs private education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
8.7 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we have learnt selected Western Philosopher’s thoughts on education.
These philosophers are Plato, Jean Jacques Rousseau, John Dewey and Immanuel
Kant. You might be able to recall now that Plato is an idealistic thinker, Rousseau
a naturalist, John Dewey a pragmatist and Kant different from the three philosophers.
All of them have suggested on aims of education and also suggested these aims
according to different developmental stages of human beings. In addition to the
aims, methods to be used for teaching, qualities and roles of teachers in the students
life and the society, importance of different subjects to be taught to the students
and then ideas on disciplining and morality have been discussed.
While going through the previous and the present units, we came to know that
the ideas suggested by the Indian and Western Philosophers, thinkers and
educationists have given us for shaping educational process. Their views on
education are varying. They provided us with ideas as how education was
considered important part of human life in their times and how it was well planned
and managed.
Now you must have come to know that these ideas are eternal and still relevant
in the contemporary education system. Therefore, the present society and the
present system of education will give it a new life. As the present society and the
system of education need to reflect on how to manage value crisis and degradation
due to many unforeseen forces. All relevant ideas should be implemented and used
so that we may be able to bring back relevant and meaningful education system.

Bryushinkin, V. N. (2005). Filosofiyanaputi k prosvescheniyu. Vstupitelnayastatya
[Philosophy and the Path to Enlightenment. Prefatory note]. In: Kant,
I.Izbrannyesochineniya [Selected Works] 2. Immanuel Kant Russian State
University Press, pp. 3.
Fichte, J.G. (1982). The First Introduction. The Science of Knowledge.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 7-29.
Gulyga, A.V. (1977). Kant. Moscow: Molodayagvardiya, pp. 247.
Hinske, N. (1998). ZwischenAufklärung und Venunftkritik:

StudienzumKantschenLogikcorpus.
162
IGNOU (2016). Contemporary India and Education (BES-122), Block-3, pp.29- Contribution of Western
Philosophers
30.IGNOU B.Ed.: New Delhi.
IGNOU (2011). Education: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives (MES-

051). Block-2, p.81, IGNOU M.Ed.: New Delhi.
IGNOU (2005). Education: Nature and Purpose (MES-012), IGNOU M.A.

Education Programme: New Delhi.
Kant, I. (1992a). M. Immanuel Kant’s Announcement of the Programme of his

Lectures for the Winter Semester 1765 — 1766 (1765). In D. Walford (Ed.),
Theoretical Philosophy, 1755–1770(The Cambridge Edition of the Works of
Immanuel Kant, pp. 287-300). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Kant, I. (1992b). The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures (1762). In
D. Walford (Ed.), Theoretical Philosophy, 1755–1770 (The Cambridge Edition
of the Works of Immanuel Kant, pp. 85-88). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Kant, I. (1996a). An answer to the question: What is enlightenment? (1784). In

M. Gregor (Ed.), Practical Philosophy (The Cambridge Edition of the Works
of Immanuel Kant, pp. 11-22).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kant, I. (1996b). The Metaphysics of Morals (1797). In M. Gregor (Ed.), Practical

Philosophy (The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, pp. 353-
604). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kant, I. (1998). Critique of Pure Reason. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kant, I. (2006). Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
Kant, I. (2007). Lectures on Pedagogy. Anthropology, History, and Education.

Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 434-486.
Kant, I. (2011). Remarks in the Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and
Sublime (1764–65). In P. Frierson & P. Guyer (Eds.), Kant: Observations on the
Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and Other Writings (Cambridge Texts in the
History of Philosophy, pp. 63-202).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Kant, I. (2015). Critique of Practical Reason. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
Popov, P.S., Styazhkin, N.I. (1974). RazvitiyelogicheskikhideyotAntichnosti do

epokhiVozrozhdeniya [Development of Logical Ideas from the Antiquity to the
Renaissance]. Moscow: Moscow State University Press, pp. 37.
Safaya, R.N., Shaida, B.D., Shukla, C.S.(2009). Teacher in Emerging Indian

Society. Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company, New Delhi
Websites Referred
https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/s 163
Philosophical Perspective https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
of Education
277651549_Kant’s_View_on_Education
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
33039935_Kant_on_Teaching_Philosophy
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/education-philosophy/
https://www.cram.com/essay/platos-education-philosophy/FK4F8LNSC
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/...of_Education_and.../Educational_Philosophy/
Plato
https://www.biography.com/scholar/plato
https://www.plato-philosophy.org/why-plato/
https://www.ukessays.com/.../education/educational-theory-of-jean-jacques-
rousseau-e...
https://www.scribd.com/document/83628224/Rousseau-and-Educational-
Philosophy
https://study.com/academy/.../john-dewey-on-education-theory-philosophy-
quiz.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey
HYPERLINK “http://www.wilderdom.com/experiential/
JohnDeweyPhilosophyEducation.html
“ www.wilderdom.com/experiential/JohnDeweyPhilosophyEducation.html

1. a) Socrates; b) Ideas; c) Five; d) Shivam or God; e) Academy
2. Two great books written by Plato are ‘The Republic’ and ‘The Laws’.
3. Two aims of education as given by Plato are to develop personality and good
citizenship of the individuals and to know God and develop faith in the Truth,
Beauty and God.
4. Logic, Question-answer and Discussion Methods.
5. a) Emile; b) Nature; c) Negative; d) Physical; and e) Back to Nature
6. Rousseau gave four stages of child development i.e. infancy, childhood,

adolescence and adulthood.
7. Infancy:The main aim of education during this period should be physical

development;Childhood:The aim of education during this period should be
the development of all senses of the child;Adolescence: Personality
164
development and sense training; and Adulthood: Development of feelings and Contribution of Western
Philosophers
emotions through education.
8. The role of women is to bring up children, help them to grow up as adults,

to provide them with advice to make their life comfortable and acceptable.
So instead of providing women with higher education, they should be taught
household, stitching, embroidery, etc. Rousseau’s views on women education
are of no relevance in present system of education.
9. Direct experience, learning by doing and play-way methods.
10. a) Pragmatism; b) Extended; c) Social; d) Self; and e) doing.
11. Dewey had divided his plan of education into three periods such as Play period,
period of spontaneous attention and period of reflective attention.
12. According to Dewey, teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide. S/he is the
major agent for the socialization of the child. S/he has right to motivate and
inspire the child but not to burden the child with his/her own thoughts. A
teacher’s role is to prepare children for living in the society effectively. The
teacher’s role is to prepare the learners for life.
13. Learning by doing, problem solving and project method of teaching.
14. a) German; b) ‘On Pedagogics’; c) Think; d) Dessau; and e) Socratic.
15. According to Kant, nothing should be taught before doing experiment and
experiments must go on and provide new sets of principles for continuous
improvement in the scheme and process of education.
16. Continuous betterment of society through educated persons; develop all natural
gifts of man is the true education and children should be educated not only
for present but for the better future.
17. Public education focuses on the development of the States and it is therefore
State neglect individual need in education whereas Private education focused
on the need of the individual and their true development. It is therefore Kant
has the view to true development of individual by private education.
165
of Education
166
BESC-131
Education: Concept,
Indira Gandhi
School of Education
Block
3
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION
Unit 9
Education and Society 169
Unit 10
Education and Socialization 185
Unit 11
Issues and Concerns in Education 198
Unit 12
Interface between School and Community 216
Sociological Perspective
of Education BLOCK 3 SOCIOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION
‘Sociological Perspective of Education’ is the third Block of the Course,
BESC-131 ‘Education: Concept, Nature and Perspectives’. Every discipline
has its contexts and perspectives. The discipline of education has also
specifically addresses the sociological perspective of education with special
reference to understanding society and its inter-dependence on education,
contribution of education to the socialization of the child, interface between the
school and community and addressing different issues in education.
The first Unit (Unit-9) of this Block, ‘Education and Society’ provides an
understanding about the inter-relationships between education and society and
it discusses education as a process for social, human and cultural development.
Further, the Unit elaborates the concept of the role of education for social change
and mobility, as society is ever changing and dynamic in nature. Being education
as a sub-system of the society, the Unit describes school as a social organization.
The second Unit (Unit-10) of this Block, ‘Education and Socialization’,
discusses the role of education to socialize the child as education is considered
as a process of socialization. Further, the Unit analyzes the role of different
agencies of education such as family, school, community, media and peer-group
in the socialization of the children.
The third Unit (Unit-11) of this Block, ‘Issues and Concerns in Education’
explains the educational issues such as access, enrolment, retention, quality,
equality and equity in education and elaborates on the intervening strategies for
achieving these educational issues. The Unit also illustrates the needs of diverse
groups in education such as weaker sections and disadvantaged groups of the
society and implement on various strategies to address their needs through various
educational programmes and schemes.
The fourth Unit (Unit-12) of this Block, ‘Interface between School and
Community’ explains the inter-relationships between school and community and
their roles in their mental development. The interface between the school and
community is just like two sides of the same coin. One’s development depends
upon the others. School never functions well without the involvement and support
of the community and on the other hand, development of the community depends
upon the intervention of education and school. The Unit further analyzes the
provisions of Right to Education Act, 2009 with special reference to establishment
of School Management Committee (SMC) for the development of the school.
168
Education and Society
UNIT 9 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Education as a Sub-system of the Society
9.3.1 Education as a Sub-system
9.3.2 Characteristics of Education as a Sub-system
9.4 Education as a Process of Development

9.4.1 Education as a Process of Social Development
9.4.2 Education as a Process of Human Development
9.4.3 Education as a Process of Cultural Development
9.5 Social Change and its Concept

9.5.1 Definitions of Social Change
9.5.2 Nature of Social Change
9.5.3 Factors Affecting Social Change
9.5.4 Education and Social Change
9.5.5 Role of Teacher in Social Change
9.6 Education and Social Mobility

9.6.1 Definitions of Social Mobility
9.6.2 Types of Social Mobility
9.6.3 Dimensions of Social Mobility
9.6.4 Role of Education in Social Mobility
9.6.5 Merits of Social Mobility
9.7 Acculturation and Enculturation

9.8 School as a Social Organisation
9.9 Let Us Sum Up
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Education and society are closely connected to each other. In the previous units
of this course, you have studied how community and school are inter-dependent
upon each other. The betterment of community depends upon the educational
standard(s) of that community and accordingly for running the school smoothly,
society and community should actively contribute in the process of education. The
same has also been addressed in the Right to Education Act, 2009; it is important
for bringing school and community together by forming a School Management
Committee in every school. It is therefore, education and society are invariably
associated with each other. That’s why, Education is also called as a sub-system
of the society.
Dr. Shrikant Dwivedi, School of Education, Galgotias University.
169
Sociological Perspective This Unit will make you understand about education as a sub-system of society
of Education
and education as a process of human and social development. It also clarifies the
inter-relationships of education with the development of society in terms of human,
cultural, economic and social aspects. This unit will also acquaint you with the role
of education in bringing about social change and social mobility. The concept of
the school as a social organization has also been discussed in this Unit. Thus, this
Unit provides a background to teachers to guide their social role with efficiency
and diligence.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
 explain the concept education and how it is as a sub-system of the society;
 discuss education as a process of social, human and cultural development;
 understand various factors of social change;
 explain the role of education for social change and social mobility;
 differentiate the concept of acculturation and enculturation; and
 describe school as a social organization.
9.3 EDUCATION AS A SUB-SYSTEM OF THE

SOCIETY
In the context of education, ‘social system’ refers to the internal association and
process of education analysed as a rational unit which is distinguishable from other
aspects of society. The members of different sections of society cannot be separated
from its social setting because they bear with them the symbols and orientations
of education. Children learn certain culture from them. They learn patterns of
speech, behaviour and orientations of life from their family and neighbourhood.
Social background and peer relationships are equally important as it familiarizes
a child to enter into a certain patterns of relationship, or to have certain responses
to the school and social background.
9.3.1 Education as a Sub-system

Education is a process which helps in the achievement of determined living for
every person in society. Educational arrangement acquires intricacy through a
process of social change. Education in this respect is a process which helps the
members of the society to adapt to the constantly changing aspects of society.
Education may be viewed as a self-contained social system with a distinctive
organization and unique patterns. Education is an important subsystem of social
system. It has a well-defined structure and sets of roles and it affects other social
systems. According to Clark, “Education system has a definite bearing on the
society which possesses it. The economy, political organization, social stratification,
culture, kinship and social integration of any society are closely linked with
education.” Thus, education is an agent for transference and progression of
knowledge as well as socialization of individuals. It is a social sub-system and is
accountable for bringing about positive changes in other social system.
170
The education system is composed of many distinct sub-system or parts, each Education and Society
with their own goals. Together, these parts make up a functioning whole. Each
part is directly or indirectly dependent on the other for smooth functioning. Willard
Waller gives five reasons for education to be regarded as social system:-
 In education, different personnel are work, who contributes towards
achieving educational goals.
 Education has a social structure as the result of social interaction within the
school.
 It has bound by strong social relationship.
 It is bound by a feeling of belonging.
 It possesses its own culture, tradition, and way of doing things.
 Education helps in transmitting folkways, more institutional patterns in social
organization.
(Source: DDCE, Utkal University, http://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syllabus/
MA_Education/Paper-2.pdf)
9.3.2 Characteristics of Education as a Sub-System
The following are the characteristics of education as a sub-system:
 Education is a powerful and strong agency towards building social
individualism.
 Education system emerges as a result of the operations and dynamics of
different institutions of the society.
 Education system through its experiences strengthens the discipline of education
and gives new directions towards the solution of issues and problems.
 Educational institutions such as schools and colleges provide opportunities to
cater to the needs of man to pass on the desirable characteristics of his
culture in the form of values, norms, etc.
 It also helps to mould the society in the desired direction.
 It develops respect for social norms as well as values, knowledge and
understanding in an individual for making him/her responsible and effective
member of the society.
 It studies the interaction system which emerges from the structure and
functioning of human groups, and also helps the child to understand these
interaction parameters.

the Unit.
1. Write any two reasons why education is considered as a social system.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 171
of Education 2. Write any two characteristics of education as a sub-system.
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
9.4 EDUCATION AS A PROCESS OF

DEVELOPMENT
The innate behaviour of a person is assumed to be just like an animal. Education
is used to alter and mould his behaviour. Man secures his experience with help
of education and hands them over to the next generation. On the basis of this
knowledge, the next generation goes further and adds to it its own experiences
and thoughts. Thus, the social civilization and culture develop. It is not possible
without education. It is clear that education is a process of advancement. Education
causes continuous change in the development of different habits and thinking of
a person and also in the construction of means and aids to make their life pleasant.
The other name of this change is development. It is clear from this argument that
education is the core agency that enables processes of the development of people.
According to John Dewey “Education is the process of living through a continuous
reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those capacities in the
individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his
potentialities.” (Quoted from Saxena and Dutt, 2009).
In the words of T. Raymont, “Education is the process of development in which
consists the passage of human being from infancy to maturity, the process by
which he adapts himself gradually in various ways to his physical, social and
spiritual environment.” (Quoted from Saxena and Dutt, 2009).
9.4.1 Education as a Process of Social Development

Man is a social being. Today when we talk about social development in the
context of education, it includes all such things as training the children in language,
living manner, customs and conduct of society. It enables them to adjust in the
society, and to make them sensitive to the good and evils of the society as well
as to develop the qualities of leadership in them in order to eradicate social evils
by bringing qualities in it. Love, sympathy and cooperation have significance in
developing inter-relations within the society and for social change. So it is necessary
to bring about relative development of these qualities in the children and this is
included in the extent of social development. For the development of all this, we
make use of group methods of working in schools. The children learn the language
and code of conduct of the society in the school and adjust with the society and
execute different task with love, sympathy and cooperation. They lead their specific
groups and it brings about their social development in its true sense.
9.4.2 Education as a Process of Human Development

It is believed that a human is born with animal tendencies. It is education that
makes the human species a social animal. The values, societal norms, social
172 desirable practices, togetherness in living, cooperation, etc. they learn from the
family members as well as from the society. During the early days of child’s life, Education and Society
family plays an important role to nurture the child and to develop good habits
among them. When the child gets grown up, he/she comes to the contact with the
community and society and gets new experience about social living and feels he/
she is a part of the society. The sense of cooperation and social living though
starts from the family; it gets closer when he/she comes in contact with the social
and community members. At the early years of life, though this process is not the
part of schooling but this can be considered as part of education in different
nature. In the course of time, the child enters in the school and formal education
starts. They learn languages to communicate with peers, learn subjects as prescribed
and develop many life skills for better adjustment in the society. Education also
promotes the child to become an efficient citizen of the society and to undertake
social responsibilities. It also develops the individual as a professional to practice
like an artisan, craft person, musician, painter, doctor, engineer, teacher, lawyer,
bureaucrats, business person, self-employed, etc. It is therefore, education is
called a tool and by using education all types of social and human development
are possible.
9.4.3 Education as a Process of Cultural Development
Culture of one’s society also plays a very crucial role in the development of the
society. Education and culture are deeply rooted and connected. Education helps
a child to understand one’s cultural heritage and to practice it. It equally helps
in preservation, development and transmission of the culture. When we educate
a child, we put many examples of our cultural heritage; that may be a dance form,
art form, language practices, craft culture, customs, costumes and food, etc. This
provides ample opportunities to follow and learn. Child learns many things from
the cultural practices of the society. Education helps to preserve the cultural
traditions in a systematic way like the oral traditions can be systematically recorded
and preserved in a written and audio-video form for easily transmitting to other
societies and places. By organizing social and cultural events, cultural transmission
can also be possible. For the above cultural development, we use education as
a tool to realize our objectives. It is therefore, education can be said as a process
of cultural development.

the Unit.
3. Explain briefly how education is a social process.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4. Write the role of education in cultural development.
............................................................................................................
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173
of Education 9.5 SOCIAL CHANGE AND ITS CONCEPT
The world is dynamic in nature. Hence, change is the eternal law of nature and
the law of life. Whenever there is a change, there is life. Thus, there is a close
relationship between natural life and change. The term social change is used to
indicate the change that takes place in human interactions and interrelations.
‘Education’ is one of the intervening variables in the phenomenon of social change.
‘Durkheim’ conceives education as “the socialization of the younger generation”.
According to James Walton, education consists in “an attempt on the part of the
adult members of human society to shape the development of the coming generation
with its own ideals of life.” As Samuel Koenig has pointed out, it is a “process
whereby the social heritage of a group is passed on from one generation to
another”.
Any alteration, modification or difference in any situation is called change. Social
change means a change in the system of social relationships. Social relationship
is considered in terms of social processes, social interaction, and social
organizations. It alters in the structure and functions of the society.
9.5.1 Definitions of Social Change

The answer to what social change actually means is perhaps the most difficult one
within the scientific study of change. What is to be considered social change? The
query regarding what ‘kind’ and what ‘degree’ of change is not well taken.
Sociologists of different places and times have defined the term ‘social change’
differently.
“Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of any
aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organization”-
Jones
“By social change, I understand a change in social structure, e.g., the size of the
society, the composition or the balance of its parts or the type of its organization”.
-Morris Ginsberg
“Social changes are variations from the accepted modes of life; whether due to
alternation in geographical conditions, in cultural equipment, composition of the
population or ideologies and brought about by diffusion or inventions within the
group”. - Gillin and Gillin
“By Social change is meant only such alternations as occur in social organization
– that is, the structure and functions of society”. - Kingsley Davis
“Social change refers to a process responsive to many types of changes; to
changes the man in made condition of life; to changes in the attitudes and beliefs
of men, and to the changes that go beyond the human control to the biological
and the physical nature of things”. - Maclver and Page
From the above definitions, we may conclude that social change refers to the
modifications which take place in the life patterns of people. In other words, it
means variations of any aspects of social process, social patterns, social interactions
or social organization. It is a change in the institutional and normative structure of
society. Social change signifies social growth, social development, social evolution,
174 social progress, social revolution, social reform etc. Therefore, we may define it
thus, “Social change is process of any variation whether describe or not in the Education and Society
existing social structure, social behaviour and cultural values occurring as a
consequence of the explosion of scientific and technical knowledge followed by
new inventions and discoveries”.
9.5.2 Nature of Social Change

The nature of social change is as follows:
 Social Change is Universal: Social change is a universal phenomenon and
it occurs in all societies. No society can escape from social change. The
speed and extent of change may differ from society to society.
 Social Change is Continuous: It is true that social change is a continuous
process. Society goes with endless changes that cannot be stopped. At
every moment, there are certain changes in our society. It is never a static
phenomenon, but, it is ever dynamic, changeable and elastic. Old rules of
the society get developed with new concepts and practices.
 Social Change Occurs as an Essential Law: Change is the law of nature.
Social change is also natural. Change is an unavoidable and unchangeable
law of nature. By nature, we desire change. Our needs keep on changing
to satisfy our desire for change and to satisfy these needs, social change
becomes a necessity.
 Social Change is related to Time: Social change is temporal. The nature
and speed of social change is affected by and related to time because
society exists only as a time sequences. We know its meaning fully only by
understanding it through time factors.
 Prediction of Social Change is Very Difficult: It is impossible to make
out any prediction on the exact forms of social change. Modernization,
industrialization and urbanization have brought about a series of interrelated
changes in our family, society and marriage system. But we cannot predict
the exact forms which social relationships will assume in future. Similarly,
what shall be our ideas, attitudes and value in future, it is not predictable.
 Social Change is not uniform: The speed of social change is not uniform.
In most societies social change occurs slowly while it takes place in some
other societies rapidly. We can such social change occurring in urban areas
faster than in rural areas, but, as it has discussed earlier in this section, social
change is a continuous process and it is an ever dynamic and pragmatic
process.
9.5.3 Factors Affecting Social Change

Social change is a complex and multi-faceted concept. There are both endogenous
(internal to the society concerned) and exogenous (external to the society) factors
affecting social change. The following are the main factors contributing and
influencing social change:
 Psychological Factors: Psychological factors are important factor in social
change. Human by nature is a lover of change. Human being is always trying
to find out new things in every sphere of their life and is always anxious for
new experiences. As a result of this nature and habit the most traditions,
175
Sociological Perspective customs, etc. of every human society undergoes with certain perpetual
of Education
changes.
 Values and Beliefs: The role of values in social change has been clearly
brought out in Max Webber’s (2003) book the ‘Protestant Ethics and The
Spirit of Capitalism’. Webber proposed that in some historical situations,
doctrines or ideas may independently affect the direction of social change.
He tried to show that the rise of modern capitalism was mainly rooted in
religious values as contained in Asiatic Protestantism. The beliefs and values
of the society affect change in the society in different ways and many a time
it makes the societal changes slower.
 Ideological Factors: Social change occurs in the society because of ideas
and ideological factors. Political, social and religious ideologies can bring
changes in social structure and relationships. Social change is also influenced
by the doctrines of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism
and other doctrines.
 Culture: Culture not only influences our social relationships but also influences
the direction and character of technological changes. Every society practices
its culture. The customs and traditions, beliefs and values, norms and standard
of individual and group living influences towards the social change. As change
is not a matter of overnight journey, it is therefore, the ever practicing
cultural norms and standards influences towards the change in the society.
 War: War is also a cause of social change because it affects the population,
the economic status and ratio of gender, living standards, etc. Many wars
in the history results in bringing changes in the society.
 New opinions and thoughts: Another factor of social change is the
appearance of new opinions and thoughts. Contribution of social reformers,
sociologists, educationists, statesman, technologists, innovators in the field of
science and technology, etc. at different times over the globe have proved
themselves as instrumental to bring social changes.
 Acceptance by high status individuals: Any change would become more
easily accepted in the society if the persons who are in top position would
accept the change.
 Demographic factor: Population plays an important role for social change.
Due to increase or decrease in population the possibility of social change is
also affected. Because of these factors, structural change in society of the
country is taking place at a rapid speed. Any change in the population has
an immediate effect upon economic, institutions and associations. The ratio
of male and female in a society affects marriage, family and the condition of
women in a society.
 Education: There is no doubt that all of the above are the main components
of social change. But, Education always plays a very crucial role for bringing
social changes. Sociologist said that all the changes that take place in the
society are performed by education; it may be in terms of development in
science and technology, art and music, values and ethics, language and
literature, etc. It is clear that education is the main factor of social change.
In the next section, we will discuss details about education and social change.
176
9.5.4 Education and Social Change Education and Society
We cannot imagine social change without education and in the same manner
education is not even possible without society. Thus, there is mutually very close
relationship between education and social change. They are regarded as the two
sides of the same coin which cannot be separated each other. Education is a
powerful tool of social change. It is through education that the society can bring
desirable changes and modernize itself. Education can transform society by providing
opportunities and experiences through which the individual can cultivate self for
adjustment with the emerging needs in the changing society. A sound social progress
needs careful planning in every aspect of life, may it be, social, cultural, economic
and political. Education must be planned in a manner which is in keeping with the
needs and aspirations of the society and people as a whole.
9.5.5 Role of the Teacher in Social Change

Teacher is the central figure in any formal educational system. A teacher has to
play an important role in bringing about social change. Teacher is regarded as an
effective agent of social change. This has been observed in our society that the
teachers in different times proved themselves as social reformers and they have
engaged themselves in bringing constructive changes in the society. Any social
change without teacher is a mere imagination. The teacher should know well the
requirement of the society and the nature and direction of social change. The
present democratic society expects that the teachers should really act as an agent
of social change.
The following are the role of the teacher in bringing about change in Indian
society:
 Teacher is considered as an agent of social change as the teacher educates

the whole nation and education is the tool of social change. So, indirectly,
teacher engages him/herself for the cause of social change.
 Teacher acts as a role model for every type of change and modernity.
Constructive changes enter in the society through the teacher.
 Teacher is considered as a person of good ideas, think tank and also a

master of implementing the ideas. It is evident that changes come through
new ideas and it starts from the teachers in the education set up.
 In all the times, the changes that have been emerged are due to the involvement
of the teachers. It is therefore, teachers are considered as the path shower
of the society.
 Teachers are the powerful elements in the society who has fought against all
the social evils, ill practices, conservatism, and have removed the social
obstacles.
 Teacher provides training to society and also directs the society towards a
proper way for the betterment of the common individuals of the society.
 Teacher makes the society and its members self-sufficient and self-reliant.
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of Education Check Your Progress 9.3
the Unit.
5. Define social change.
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6. Write the role of a teacher in social change.
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9.6 EDUCATION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility is the indicator of social change and social progress. It is the
movement of an individual or a group in a social structure. It means the
transformation in the social status, which may be upward or downward according
to his/her duties and efforts. It may be taken as a movement from one social
status to another. It must be kept in mind that the material changes or physical
movement of an individual or group or sections of population are migration and
not the social mobility. Social mobility is promotion or demotion from the lower
to higher class or vice versa. Social mobility is a normal characteristic in our social
life. When some change takes place in the structure of society, the pattern of
social relationship also gets changed. We call that the society is mobilized and the
process of social mobility has started.
9.6.1 Definitions of Social Mobility

According to P.A. Sorokin “Social mobility means any transition of an individual
from one position to another in a constellation of social group and strata”.
In the words of William Cecil Headrick “Social mobility is the movement of
persons from one social group to another social group.”
Wallace and Wallace define social mobility as “Social mobility is the movement
of a person or persons from one social status to another.”
In the modern society, we may define social mobility as ‘the upward or downward
movement of the person from existing social position to another either in profession,
occupation, leadership or responsibilities due to his/her efforts or any other criteria.
9.6.2 Types of Social Mobility

Sorokin has classified social mobility into two categories in accordance with the
direction of movement of the persons in the society.
178
Horizontal Social Mobility: Horizontal social mobility or shifting is meant for Education and Society
transition of a person or social object from one social group to another social
group on the same level. In horizontal social mobility the position of an individual
may change but his status remains the same. In other words his salary, grade,
prestige and other privileges remains the same. If a person who has been working
as a social worker in an organization becomes a foreman of the same organization
in the same grade it shall be termed as horizontal social mobility.
Vertical Social Mobility: When an individual changes from one social status to
another is known as vertical social mobility. If an individual attains high education
and becomes prosperous, it is known as vertical social mobility. In the words of
Sorokin, “By vertical social mobility we mean the relations involved in a transition
of an individual or a social body from one social stratum to another.” He discussed
two types of vertical social mobility:
Ascending Mobility: In ascending mobility a person goes up. If an individual
becomes wealthy, all of sudden it is known as ascending social mobility. He
moves from lower to higher position. Promotion of a primary school teacher to
a post graduate teacher and promotion of a clerk to an officer are examples of
ascending mobility.
Descending Mobility: In descending mobility an individual goes down from
higher position and status to lower ones. If an individual becomes poor after
having been wealthy for several years it is known as descending mobility or social
sinking.
Activity 1
As per the discussion made in the Section of Type of Social Mobility, put
few examples of your own on the following:
1. Horizontal Mobility
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2. Vertical Mobility
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3. Ascending Mobility
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of Education 4. Descending Mobility
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9.6.2 Dimensions of Social Mobility

According to Lipset and Zitterberg (1959) the following are the areas of social
mobility:
 Occupational ranking: Occupation is a common ground of social mobility.
It may be noted that occupations, which have similar social and economic
foundations, are called an occupational class. It is a matter of experience that
each occupational class has its distinct social prestige and status. Not only
this, there is a huge difference in the ideals, values, feelings and habits of
persons engaged in different occupations.
 Social class: It is comparatively easier for an individual to shift from one
occupation to another, but it is very difficult for anyone to shift from one
social class to another. In this connection, it is note that people of privileged
sections of society do not associate with person of lower social status.
 Consumption ranking: Economic condition is ascertained according to
expenditure whereas business status is ranked according to income. As
expenditure is directly related to styles and standard of living, hence people
having the same or similar living styles and habits of life are known as same
consumer’s group of society. It is generally observed that life of persons of
the same occupation have different modes of social life. Social status or
social prestige is determined not only by income but also by expenditure and
standard of living.
 Power ranking: Role relationship of people with reference to society
determines their power ranking. Thus, Persons of the same power impact
form a power group. These power groups are independent. Even an
underprivileged labour leader can achieve greater political power and influence.
9.6.4 Role of Education in Social Mobility
Education plays the most important role in promoting social mobility. An educated
person gets recognition, position, and prestige all over the society. Education tries
to develop ability and capacity in person to gain higher status, positions or prestige
and promotes effective social mobility. It is an objective of education to develop
within an individual such motivation as make him to work hard for the enhancement
of his/her social position. A strongly motivated individual will be willing to sacrifice
his/her immediate comforts and pleasure for a better future. A poor student may
work hard to get higher education in order to have upward social mobility.
9.6.5 Merits of Social Mobility
The following are the merits of Social mobility:
 It helps the person to achieve full and wholesome development.
180  It increases income and standard of living of individual.

 It raises the social rank and prestige of the individual. Education and Society
 It leads to social and economic development.

 It promotes national solidarity in the face of danger.
 It develops social efficiency and social progress.
 It helps to achieve higher position for worthy person.
 It drives the person to do their best to achieve higher social status and
prestige in the society.

the Unit.
7. Explain the concept of Social Mobility.
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8. What do you understand by consumption ranking in Social Mobility?
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9.7 ACCULTURATION AND ENCULTURATION

Acculturation and enculturation are the terms used in sociology and social
anthropology, to explain different processes of absorption of cultural traits by the
people. Both processes help in explaining socialization on individuals in a society.
Enculturation helps a person living in a society, imbibe and immerse social values
of the culture that surrounds him. There is another term acculturation that is
sometimes used for this very process and confuses many.
Meaning of Acculturation
Acculturation can be identified as the second socialization process of a person.
This happens when two or more cultures meet up together and there is a
possibility for cultural interchange. When two cultures mix together, there can
be exchanges in beliefs, customs, traditions, clothing styles, types of food, etc.
This change could be visible and influenced to both cultures. At the time of
colonialism, the dominated cultures mostly adopted the cultural traits of the
dominant culture. There, acculturation was visible in many cultural aspects. In
addition, group acculturation can occur when a whole group adopts the traditions,
customs and change the social institutions. In individual acculturation, not only
material aspects but also a big psychological change is also involved. He would
change the daily activities, clothing patterns, beliefs and so many other things. 181
Sociological Perspective The refugees and immigrants also go through the acculturation process in adjusting
of Education to a new place. Acculturation, however, is a necessary and universal phenomenon.
Enculturation
When an individual is born into the world, he needs to learn how to survive
in the society around him. This acquisition of social values and norms is known
as the process of socialization. Thus, enculturation is a similar word for
socialization. Culture includes social values, norms, arts, beliefs, customs,
traditions, food patterns, clothing styles and many more things that are needed
in order to survive in that particular society. A person should conform to these
patterns and values to be accepted by others; otherwise, they would be
considered to be deviants by the rest of the society. Relatives, guardian, peers,
colleagues and other social members help one to acquire the necessary social
skills; throughout our lifetime we learn several cultural traits and try to adhere
to those. Thus, enculturation teaches an individual of his position, roles,
expectations and behaviours of the particular culture in which he lives in.
Difference between Enculturation and Acculturation
 Both enculturation and acculturation are processes of socialization taking
place in a society.
 Whereas enculturation is a process that helps a person to imbibe social
values, norms, customs etc. of the culture he lives in, acculturation is a
two way change process that takes placed when there is a meeting of
two cultures.
 In acculturation there are changes felt in both cultures though mostly it is
the minority culture that gets changed by way of changed language, clothing,
customs and practices.
 Enculturation helps a person to survive and better fit into the culture he
finds himself surrounded.
 No difference between the two terms is accepted in some countries where
acculturation is considered as same as enculturation.

the Unit.
9. Define enculturation.
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10. What is acculturation?
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Education and Society
9.8 SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
In Unit-3 of this Course, you have studied School as an Agency of Education.
In which you have studied that the school is a miniature of the society and can
also be said that it is a sub-system of a society. It is a place where the real life
activities of child are simplified and purified. So that children should get initiated
to the social life. Therefore we can say that school is a part of social life and it
should cultivate gradually out of the home life.
This is also rightly said about school as a social organization. It is a social
organization as there is enough scope of peer and group interactions, activities,
dealings, discourses, etc. A child when enters in the school, he/she finds a complete
new environment in comparison to his/her family. There he/she learns to participate
with others and express him/herself according to the situations. They get complete
guidance and grooming to be a responsible citizen of the country. All the social
norms, practices in the society are also being practiced in the school. It is a social
organization in terms of cooperative living, learning from each other, scope to
express, and also living together. Like a society, schools also have certain norms
and standards, rules and regulations, customs and traditions, hierarchy of members
such as students of senior and junior classes, etc. A definite purpose is also fixed
in the schools, so that the teachers as well as the students work together to
achieve the goal.
9.9 LET US SUM UP

Every society has its own sub-systems which together help a society to fulfill its
commitments and obligations towards its citizens. School is a major sub-system
of every society. It reflects the ideals and processes to further refine its
understanding and processes. This unit has tried to explain how schools function
as a sub-system of the society of which they are part and also develop their own
process.
Social Change and mobility is a dynamic process. Changes take place continuously
coping with the changing need of the societies. It is therefore, changes occurs in
the society in different areas like changes in science and technologies,
communications, living standards and inter personal relationships, economic
standard of the person, etc. Social mobility takes place horizontal and vertical and
it is also ascending and descending. All these aspects are discussed in this Unit
with illustrations.

Abraham Francis & Margin John (2002). Sociological Thought, McMillan India
Ltd.
Bhat M.S. (2013). Educational Sociology. APH Publications, New Delhi.
Max Weber and Michael, D. Coe (2003). The protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism. 4th Ed., Dover Publications.
Lipset, S.M. and Zetterberg, H. (1959). ‘Social Mobility in Industrial Societies’
in S.M. Lipset and R. Bendix, Social Mobility in Industrial Society, London:
Heinemann. 183
Sociological Perspective S. S. Mathur (2008). A Sociological Approach to Indian Education, Vinod Pustak
of Education
Mandir, Agra.
Shankar Rao (2004). Sociology of Indian Society, New Delhi: S. Chand &
Company.
Srinivas, M.N. (2009) Social Change in Modern India, McMillan India Ltd.
Swarup Saxena, and Dutt, N.K. (2009). Principles of Education. R. Lall Book
Depot, Meerut.
Vidya Bhushan, (2011). An Introduction to Sociology, Kitab Mahal Allahabad.
Website Referred
https://sol.du.ac.in/mod/book/view.php?id=1449&chapterid=1330 retrieved on
20.07.2019
DDCE, Utkal University, Sociological Foundation of Education, Retrieved from
http://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syllabus/MA_Education/Paper-2.pdf on 11.06.2020.

1. In education different personnel work, who contributes towards achieving
educational goals; and education has a social structure as a result of social
interaction takes place within the school.
2. Education is a powerful and strong agent towards building social individualism
and education system emerges as a result of the working and dynamics of
different institutions of the society.
3. In an education system, all the rules of the society are being practiced. Like
a society, in education also learning takes place in peers and group interactions.
It is therefore, education is also called as a social process.
4. Education brings changes in the culture. It also preserves, develops and
transmits the culture of the society.
5. Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of any
aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social
organization.
6. Self-exercise.
7. Social mobility means any transition of an individual from one position to
another in a constellation of social group and strata.
8. Social status or social prestige is determined not merely by income but also
by expenditure and styles of living. It denotes consumption ranking in social
mobility.
9. Enculturation is a process that helps a person to imbibe social values, norms,
customs, etc. of the culture he lives in.
10. Acculturation is a process of socialization that takes place whenever there is
a meeting of two different cultures. These changes take place can be seen
both at cultural as well as psychological levels.
184
Education and Socialization
UNIT 10 EDUCATION AND
SOCIALIZATION
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Education as a Process of Socialization
10.4 Agencies of Socialization
10.4.1 Family and Socialization
10.4.2 School and Socialization
10.4.3 Community and Socialization
10.4.4 Media and Socialization
10.4.5 Peer Group and Socialization
10.5 Other Factors Influencing Socialization of Children

10.6 Let Us Sum Up
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, you have read about how ‘education’ facilitates social
development in the children. Hence, education is the core component that brings
social change in the society. You have also understood that children in society
differ from each other in terms of gender, family, social environment, class, caste
and racial backgrounds. They are exposed to different child rearing practices that
are known to have a permanent influence on their personality and cognitive abilities.
Due to such practices adopted by family members and social environment, the
children become socialized. In this Unit, we seek to understand the manner in
which socialization of children takes place. The unit will focus on the role of
different agencies like Family, School, Community, Peers and Media on socialization
of children. In addition to this, the unit will throw light on various other factors
influencing socialization of children.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
 comprehend the meaning and process of socialization;
 list down different agencies of socialization;
 analyze the role of family, school, community, media and peer group in
socialization of the children; and
 identify various other factors influencing socialization of the children.
Prof. Vishal Sood, School of Education, Central University of Himachal Pradesh. 185
of Education 10.3 EDUCATION AS A PROCESS OF
SOCIALIZATION
You are aware that society is nothing but a set of institutions. All social institutions
define the pattern of relationships and behaviour expected of the persons who
belong to them. The principal social institutions are concerned with regulation of
economic, political, familial, educational and religious aspects of human life.
Specifically, the institution of education is involved in preparing people to fit into
the complex social structure through the process of socialization. It helps the child
to grow up for the future roles of adult life. Children have to learn and understand
the roles to be as fathers or mothers, teachers or civil servants, shopkeepers or
priests. They have to learn to be members of more than one institutional group
also. Therefore, the child needs to prepare him or her to take multiple roles
through the process of socialization in general and education in particular. Education
in this context may be informal education received in the family or form the peer
groups or formal education received in the school.
The society establishes schools for the provision of education for its members.
Child learns manners, habits, friendship, patterns of behaviour and other social
processes in the society. We use language which has got significant importance in
the society. Accordingly, the children have to learn all these social processes, and
then s/he would achieve proper development of his/her personality. In simple
words, we can say that “socialization refers to the process by which persons
acquire the knowledge, skills and dispositions that make them able members of
the society”. Socialization is the process by which the new generation learns the
knowledge, attitudes and values that they will need to become as productive
citizens in the society. It is the process by which an individual becomes a recognized
and valued member through his/her interaction with the social environment.
Socialization cannot take place in vacuum. Individuals, groups and institutions
create the social context for socialization to take place. It is through these agencies
that we learn and incorporate the values and norms of our culture. They also
account for our positions in the social structure with respect to class, race and
gender. The habits, skills, beliefs and standard of judgment that we learn in the
socialization process enable us to become functional members of a society.
At the time of birth, the human child knows nothing about what we call society
or social behaviour. As the child grows up, s/he keeps learning not just about the
physical world, but about what it means to be a good or bad person in the
society. Socialization can be defined as the process whereby the child gradually
becomes a self-aware, knowledgeable person; skilled in the ways of the culture
into which s/he is born. Indeed without socialization, an individual would not act
like a human being. While socialization has an important impact on individuals, it
is not a kind of cultural programming, in which the child absorbs passively the
influences with which he or she comes into contact.
Education, both formal and informal, plays a large role in the socialization of the
children. Accordingly, various theories regarding its nature and objective have
come into being. Let us now examine some of the significant functions of education.
 To complete the socialization process: The main social objective of
education is to complete the socialization process. The school and other
186
institutions have come into being in place of family to complete the socialization Education and Socialization
process. Now, the people feel that it is, “the school’s business to train the
whole child even to the extent of teaching him/her honesty, fair play,
consideration for others and a sense of right and wrong”. The school devotes
much of its time and energy to the matters such as cooperation, good
citizenship, doing one’s duty and upholding the law, patriotic sentiments are
instilled directly through textbooks and indirectly through celebration of
programs. The nation’s past is glorified, its legendary heroes respected and
its military ventures justified.
 Formation of social personality: Individual must have personalities shaped
or fashioned in the ways that fit into the culture. Education everywhere has
the function of the formation of social personalities. Education helps in
transmitting culture through proper molding of social personalities.
 Education for occupational placement: Education should help the
adolescents for earning their livelihood. Education must prepare the students
for future occupational positions. The youth should be enabled to play a
productive role in the society.
 To transmit the cultural heritage: Transmitting cultural heritage is also one
of the important functions of education. Culture here refers to a set of belief
and skills, art, literature, philosophy, religion, music etc. that are not carried
through the mechanism of heredity, these must be learned. This social heritage
(culture) must be transmitted through social organizations. Education has this
function of culture transmission in all societies.
 Reformation of attitudes: Education aims at construction of positive attitudes
among the children. For various reasons, the child may have absorbed a host
of attitude, beliefs and disbeliefs, loyalties and prejudices, jealousy and hatred,
etc. which need to be reformed. It is the function of education to see that
unfounded beliefs, prejudices and unreasoned loyalties are removed from the
child’s mind. Though the school has its own limitations in this regard, it is
expected to continue its efforts in reforming the attitudes of the child.
Activity 1
Socializing, has been discussed as one of the functions of education in
the above section, now you mention the other educational functions that
would you suggest for socializing the child.
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of Education 10.4 AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
The child is socialized by several agencies and institutions in which she/he
participates, viz. family, school, community, peer group, neighborhood and
occupational group and by social class, caste, religion and region etc. The details
about different agencies of socialization are as follows:
10.4.1 Family and Socialization
As a social institution, the family has to perform the function of socialization. The
family teaches the accepted ways of behaviour within the group to the child.
Through it, the children are grown and molded into the patterns of life of the
society. The children learn the patterns of behaviour that are needed to lead a
good life in the society. They learn their roles and the roles of others and thus their
socialization takes place.
In the education of the child, the family plays the most important role. Child borns
in a family and this is the first agency through which s/he gets education on
sociability. The family is a primary social group. It is the first and the most
important agency of socialization. Family is the basic unit of society. Child comes
in contact with the mother, father, brothers, sisters, grandfather and grandmother
etc. and the qualities like love, sympathy, cooperation, tolerance, consideration
and so many other qualities are first learnt in the family. All these members
transmit the family ideals to the child. The social and moral development of the
child emerges during his/her early life in the family only. S/he becomes conversant
with traditions, customs etc. from the family members. Living with family, the child
gets the primary knowledge about set of desirable and undesirable behaviors.
Family plays a pivotal role in the socialization of the child. The details in this
context are as follows:
 Parents have a regulating effect as well as their influence on the behaviour
of their children. It has been found that delinquency in the children is often
the result of rejection of the children by their parents. In some families, a
typical situation exists such as, the parents reject the child but show too
much affection to him. This state is described as that of overt acceptance and
covert rejection. In such situation, the child’s confidence is undermined;
initiative and enterprise abilities are arrested with disapproval. The children
withdraw themselves and their socialization become extremely difficult. On
the other hand, a caring and loving attitude with appropriate discipline helps
in positive behaviour and attitude development among the children.
 Education of the child can never takes place in a desirable manner till the
cooperation of the family is forth coming. A child spends about one fourth
of time in the school out of twenty four hours. The rest of the time of the
day s/he spends with his/her family. Therefore, a great responsibility for his/
her education lies upon the family besides any other agencies.
 First of all, the children express their interests and hatred in their family. If
the family encourages good things and discourages bad, it hugely helps in
positive growth of the interests among the children. But for this, it is necessary
188 that the family environment remains peaceful and healthy.
The family transforms an infant into a mature member of human community and Education and Socialization
acts as the first medium for transmitting culture to the children. It is the family that
provides affection, protection and socialization which are the basic sources for a
child during the crucial years. It is also the time when he/she learns the basic
behavioural patterns, habits, attitudes, customs and conventions while interacting
with family members. The family instills in him/her desirable social attitudes and
mould in a manner that suits the family status and reputation.
Functioning of the family has irreplaceable importance in the process of socialization
of the individuals in the family orient the child to initial human behaviour patterns
and initial interpersonal relationships. The process of socialization remains informal
at this level. Some sociologists refer to family as a mini society that acts as a
transmission belt between the individual and the society. You may have observed
how child rearing practices differ from family to family. Each child is unique and
is uniquely inducted to the culture of his family. But there is a common consensus
that warm parent-child relationship contributes to positive development outcomes.
A nurturing relationship, where parents are sensitive to the needs of their children
and stimulate their curiosity, can contribute positive ways to socialize them. The
child’s upbringing by the family members contributes to developing respect for
elders, tolerance, and adaptability.
The important position of the family education can never be denied because it is
the first and lifelong for each person. Different children from different families bear
sophisticated characteristics. For children, the families are the first socialized
environments. Families help children to aware of what is right and what is wrong’
and stimulate their mind with lots of encouragements and praise; for example
when the children do right things such as greeting parents while they come home
from work, giving feet and hands a clean wash, taking medicine when seek etc.
On the other hand, if socialization in the family is done in the backdrop of mistrust,
autocracy and conflicts, children growing up in such family would develop anti-
social behaviour. However, it may be noted that many other factors like size of
the family, socio-economic background, occupation of parents, over parenting,
parental negligence, and parental pressure all can both positively and negatively
influence socialization of the children. The child’s behaviours that adults in the
family encourage or discourage and the type of discipline that they impose upon
also impact child’s orientation to life.

the Unit.
1. Name various agencies of socialization.
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2. What values children learn from family?
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............................................................................................................ 189
Sociological Perspective 10.4.2 School and Socialization
of Education
School is a very important agent of socialization. School is in a position to
familiarize the children with social culture and inspire them to construct a new
society after the evaluation of social customs. School is also a kind of society.
Here social interaction continues among students and principal, as well teachers
and principal. The child’s socialization takes a turn when s/he goes to the school.
Only through school education, students become familiar about social responsibilities
as social being. School provides democratic climate which helps children to acquire
democratic norms. Children learn how to live with democratic norms and how to
behave with each other which help in his/her socialization. School encourages
children to participate in various kinds of co-curricular activities. These activities
help children to develop leadership among them. The school provides social
environment before children by organizing community work, social service camps,
social functions and annual functions, so that all the social norms and values
namely; sympathy, co-operation, tolerance, social awareness can be developed
among them.
In the schools, the teacher is an important socializing agent. The teacher can exert
socializing influence on her/his pupils. This can be done by: (a) motivating the
students to engage in intellectual activities, (b) providing students with feedback
about behaviour and offering them suggestions about desirable ways of behaving,
(c) presenting his/her own example to the students to follow so far as role
prescriptions and role taking are concerned, and (d) giving knowledge of various
positions in the society and preparing children for role-behaviour.
a. At the pre-primary school level, the great accent is put on developing good
manners and etiquettes, etc. There is major emphasis on training the children
to become less dependent on their parents and siblings. Children are trained
to imbibe and practice equality by sharing of toys, play material, etc.
b. At elementary school level, efforts are made to become responsible citizens
of the school community. Work habits are inculcated among students so that
they are trained to cooperate with fellow students as well as to obey the
teachers. All this provides experiences of relationship with the seniors as well
as with equals.
c. At the higher secondary stage, the greatest emphasis is put on achievement
both scholastic and co-scholastic abilities. Children develop various skills
and aptitude which enable them to plan their future life. The peer group
relationships and development of adaptive skills for emphasizing proper
socialization process.
d. A particular class in the school provides innumerable opportunities to the
children to move and mix with an egalitarian group. Here children get many
chances to mix-up without any distinction of caste, colour or creed. However,
the teacher needs to be cautious about unhealthy behavioral practices like
untouchability.
In schools, children belonging to different families read together, interact in various
patterns and imbibe various traditions of the society. Participation in educational
and social functions of the school also inculcates social qualities, attitudes, habits
and patterns of behaviour in children, which brings about their socialization. Thus,
we can say that school is very significant agency which helps in bringing socialization
190
of children. The children without adequate schooling lack in terms of various Education and Socialization
attitudes, skills and behaviour needed to lead a good and healthy life.
10.4.3 Community and Socialization

In simple words, a community may be defined as a cluster of people living within
a small area and sharing a common way of life to a considerable extent.
The community comprises a group of people living in the same territory under
common laws who have a sense of fellow feeing among themselves. The community
is structured with the following functions: production, consumption, socialization,
social control, social participation, and mutual support. The community influences
the process of socialization through available adult role models. Certain social and
personal factors, such as the neighborhood setting and patterns of community
interaction, influence socialization.
Community is an important informal and active agency of socialization. Just as the
family and school have a great influence upon the child, much in the same way
the community also modifies the behaviour of child through social contacts, group
activities and group dynamics in such a way that the child begins to participate
in all the desirable activities of the community of which s/he is an integral part. In
fact, the child does not develop in the environment of his/her family alone; the
environment of the community also moulds and modifies the behaviour of the child
according to his / her ideas, ideals and goals. It is the miracle of community
environment alone in which the child develops his/her language and standard of
living. In brief, the community environment exerts its impressions upon the
developing children in all perceptible and imperceptible ways. Since each community
has its own culture, we find a great difference in the culture and behaviour
patterns of children belonging to different communities. Every community has its
various needs and problems. When the needs are met and the problems are
solved, the standard of community rises higher. This progress goes on gradually
and continually. On the contrary, a community which is unable to provide right
type of education to its members remains stagnant with the result that its progress
is blocked and stunted.
Community involvement influences children’s socialization. The community is a
socializing agent because it is the place where children learn the role expectations
for adults as well as for themselves. Community is an important agency of
socialization and education. It is child’s laboratory, which provides him/her firsthand
learning experiences of different kinds. The community with its various resources
can enrich and supplement learning of social values and skills. Communities socialize
the child through its various institutions. It provides concrete, seeable and tangible
resources which are dynamic, interesting and meaningful for the children. Various
social functions and community activities such as fairs, festivals, functions, and
ceremonies, etc. provide ample opportunities to children to participate whole-
heartedly in it and develop socially desirable qualities among themselves.
All these activities stimulate children to imbibe social ideas and a spirit of social
service more and more with the result that they learn about the social customs,
traditions and beliefs in a natural way. They offer the child an opportunity to
participate in them and to acquire a firsthand knowledge of social life, social
service and social sense. They also learn the socially desirable values namely
sympathy, co-operation, tolerance, sacrifice and adjustment. Not only that, through
contacts with the other members of the community, children also learn very deeply 191
Sociological Perspective that duties and rights, freedom and discipline are greatly essential for the natural
of Education
and wholesome development of their personality that exerts a great influence of
the social development of the children. Through socialization in the community,
child understands that rights involve duties and freedom implies restraint. It remains
no secret that every member of the community is responsible for its good name
and welfare. In short, we can say that community develops civic virtues among
children and inculcates spirit of service, sacrifice and cooperation among them.

the Unit.
3. How teacher’s role helps in socialization of the children?
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4. Community is laboratory for practicing social values. Comment.
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10.4.4 Media and Socialization

Today, the dynamics of rapid changes can be felt in every society and every
institution. This necessitates the forging of new social forms and new methods of
communication like mass media. The mass media is a vehicle for spreading
information on a massive scale and reaching to a vast audience or a large number
of people. The mass media comprises the print media such as books, newspapers,
magazines, etc., and also non-print media such as radio, television, and movies
as well social media. The goal is to reach out to the mass or large number of
people without establishing any personal contact between senders and receivers.
It spreads into all aspects of society, be it political, linguistic, cultural or spiritual.
Mass media had become one of the most powerful forces that connect people
to other people. Because of this, mass media can be considered as a significant
agent of socialization.
In a developing country like ours, television and internet have become very
important agencies of socialization. The influence of television on the young minds
can be seen at present. Internet and smart phones are increasingly establishing
commonness and connectedness among people all over the world. Now children
are getting exposed to a world beyond their homes and community to the global
community and are being socialized in such a way that they fit into a global world.
Social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, You Tube that
open up a new world altogether and expose the child’s mind into different cultures
that s/he did not know and are introduced to a whole new world. Mass media
192 helps children in forming own kind of beliefs and what realities they shall choose
to promote because the impact of media, both in content and in process, on all Education and Socialization
areas of society is undeniable. Every sector of life is touched and influenced by
the power of mass media. Mass media attract children to certain social beliefs by
persuasion and selectively appropriating their messages. Social media programs
are helpful to make connections with one’s family members, friends, classmates,
clients or customers. It provides a platform for people to share their common
interests, likes and dislikes and build social contacts. This is facilitated by multimedia
and the new electronic communication technologies, such as email and other
internet based services.
It is a fact that the role of mass media as agents of socialization has been both
strengthened and changed by the modernization of the world. Technology had
increased the spread of mass media’s reach. People spend most of their time in
touch with the world through the different forms of mass media. Sometimes, the
time allotted to other agents of socialization is even sacrificed just to give time to
the usage of mass media.
Media is one of the most significant agents of socialization that help people in their
formation of beliefs and norms. The power of mass media had allowed it to
penetrate the lives of more people and therefore influence how they act and think.
Mass media had redefined our social role and the realities of our lives are also
dependent on what we gain from the different forms of media. It is through mass
media that we learn more about our world and what are its realities. It is also
through mass media that we form our own opinions and stands. Social deviance
is also a result of different agents of socialization because these deviances are
formed by the beliefs of the people. Social deviance is also given more exposure
by mass media because of the way deviance mainstream to popular culture.
10.4.5 Peer Group and Socialization

Another socializing agency for a child is the peer group. Peer groups are friendship
groups of children of a similar age. The word ‘peer’ means ‘equal’. Peer group
is constituted by members who have some common characteristics such as age
(same stage of development and maturity) or sex, etc. In some cultures, particularly
small traditional societies, peer groups are formalized as age-grades. Even without
formal age-grades, children over four or five usually spend a great deal of time
in the company of friends of the same age. There is a greater amount of give and
take as compared to the dependence inherent in the family situation. In peer
groups, a different kind of interaction, within which rules of behaviour can be
tested out and explored.
Peer relationships often remain important throughout a person’s life. Informal
groups of similar ages in various contexts are usually of enduring importance in
shaping individuals’ attitudes and behaviour. Peers may also have interests and
social positions in common and hold close social proximity. For young adolescents,
acceptance by peers is the most important aspect of socialization. Therefore, they
exhibit willingness to conform to the peer group and foster loyalty. Peer group
influence may be traced from the time a child is three or so when s/he begins to
mingle with people outside the immediate family. From such an early age, children
form meaningful relationships with their peers, who seem to exert influence on
them. Since they mostly belong to the same age group, they tend to interact freely
without inhibitions. This type of constant socialization with the peer group helps
the children acquire very important lessons. By becoming part of a peer group,
193
Sociological Perspective children begin to break away from their parents’ authority and learn to make
of Education
friends and take decisions on their own. If you watch children at play, you may
observe how they incorporate various strategies like negotiation, dominance,
leadership, cooperation, compromise, etc. without any directions from elders.
Peer socialization equips them with the ability to understand the nuances of group
interaction and act accordingly.
Peer influence is such that some children begin to challenge the dominant power
of parents and family. It overshadows the parental influence as time goes on
especially in the adolescent stage. When children realize that the standards of their
peer group are not similar to the standards upheld by family, they feel disillusioned.
In rapidly changing societies, parents are often heard complaining that their children
are becoming more and more rebellious. This is true because the child refuses to
accept parental authority blindly.
In nutshell, we can say that peer group also helps in learning of social values, skills
and formations of social beliefs and attitudes among children. Therefore, it can be
considered as an important agent of socialization.

the Unit.
5. Social media has both positive and negative impact on socialization of children.
How far do you agree to the statement? Give reason.
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6. Peer group can socialize the child in both positive & negative directions.
Comment.
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10.5 OTHER FACTORS INFLUENCING

SOCIALIZATION OF CHILDREN
Apart from these major socializing factors, there are many other factors that help
in socialization of children. A brief explanation about such factors is given below:
Sports: Sports also help socialize the child. There is a natural display of social
194 interaction in sports. It is in the sports that a spirit of healthy struggle and competition
is displayed. ‘Defeat or victory should not create ill-will”, this feeling is created Education and Socialization
by play. It facilitates natural development of feeling of cooperation among the
players. There is no discrimination on the basis of caste and community in the
sports and games.
Rear and Care of Child: Careful upbringing of the child is very helpful in the
process of socialization. If family environment is not soothing for the child and s/
he is not getting proper care and attention from his/her parents, s/he may develop
anti-social tendencies. It happens when family is broken or there is tension between
father and mother or child is an orphan from any side. Such children are vulnerable
to social maladjustment.
Sympathy and Love: A drastic change can be brought in a child just by a word
of sympathy and love. During infancy and early childhood, a child is fully dependent
on his/her family and other relatives. If child is sympathetically and lovingly dealt
by kith and kin, s/he will behave with others in the same manner.
Strict Supervision: For successful socialization, strict supervision by the family
members is necessary. Child may commit many things wrong just in order to get
pleasure of doing. Hence, if his activities are properly monitored, he will not be
able to develop anti-social behaviour.
Cooperation: Cooperation given to the child creates ‘we’ feeling in him. He
comes to know that any difficult task can be fulfilled very easily if cooperative and
united efforts are there. In this way, child also extends hands of cooperation for
other members of the society.
Advice: A child generally acts in accordance with the suggestions given by his/
her well-wishers. If suggestions are given timely, s/he does not face the negative
consequences of his/her actions. It will improve process of socialization and lead
to a better socialization.
Religion: Religion has important contribution with regard to the socialization of
child. As the child interacts with other children belonging to his/her own religion
and the children having faith in other religions, s/he inculcates sympathy, cooperation,
respect for the sentiments of others, fellow-feeling and attitude of adjustment
leading to socialization in the true sense.
Social Category: The social category/caste of children tries to socialize them
according to its specific ideals, attitude, customs, traditional and culture. This is
the reason why the process of socialization of children belonging to different
castes is different and apparently visible.
Neighourhood: Neighbourhood is like a wider and enlarged family. If the
neighbourhood is wholesome, constructive and conducive; then, socialization of
child will be in a positive direction. On the contrary, bad neighbourhood is likely
to spoil the development and socialization of children.
In addition to these factors, physical factors in the community have impact on
socialization. Such factors are: population density and characteristics, noise,
arrangement and types of houses, and play settings. Economic factors in a
community also play a central role in shaping the daily lives and socialization of
the children.
195
of Education Activity 2
How the following factors influence the socialization of the child?
Sports
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Religion
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Neighbourhood
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Social Category
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10.6 LET US SUM UP

After reading this Unit, you would have come to know about the meaning and
process of socialization. Socialization is a big factor in shaping children to become
who they are. Our social relations help us in forming our individuality and sense
of self towards others. Socialization is the process whereby we learn and internalize
the values, beliefs, and norms of our culture. The process of socialization is not
an overnight development, but, it is a continuous process that starts from the birth
of the child. For socializing the children, various agencies such as family, school,
community, media and peer play a very vital role. When children come in contact
with family members, they get socialized and develop positive attitude towards
others, further, when they grow up, they get socialized themselves coming contact
with peers, school, community members, media, etc. Therefore, all the above
agencies help socialize the children in due course of time and enable them to
196 develop desirable attitude and shape their personalities.
Education and Socialization
Arnott, J.J. (1995). Broad and Narrow Socialization: The Family in the context
of a cultural theory. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(3), 617-628.
Ballantine. J.H. and Spade, J.Z. (2015). Schools and Society: A Sociological
Approach to Education. New Delhi: Sage Publications, Inc.
Brown, Francis J. (1954). Educational Sociology. New York: Prentice Hall.
Chanda, S. S. & Sharma R. K. (2002).Sociology of Education, New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers.
Chandra, S. S. (1996). Sociology of Education, Guwahati, Eastern Book House.
Durkheim, E. (1996). Education and Sociology, New York: The Free Press.
Gore, M.S. and P. Desai (1967). Papers in Sociology of Education in India,
Delhi: NCERT.
Handel, G. Cahill and Elin, F. (2007).Children and society: The sociology of
children and childhood socialization. London: Oxford University Press.
Hemlata, T. (2002). Sociological Foundations of Education, New Delhi:
Kanishka Publishers.
Mossish, Loor (1972). Sociology of Education: An introduction. London: George
Lalen and Unwin.
Pandey, K. P. (1983). Perspective in Social Foundations of Education, India:
Amita Prakashan Gaziabad.
Shukla, S. & Kumar, K. (1985). Sociological Perspective in Education, New
Delhi: Chanakya Publication.
Sodhi, T. S. & Suri, Aruna (1998). Philosophical and Sociological Foundations
of Education, Patiala: Bawa Publication.
Stub, Holger, R. (1975). The Sociology of Education, Illinois: The Dorsey
Press.

1. Family, School, Community, Media, Peer Group, etc.
2. Respect for elders, tolerance, adaptability, sensitivity towards others, etc.
3. Teacher’s role help in socializing the child in the following ways: motivating
the students to engage in intellectual activities; providing students with feedback
about behaviour and offering them suggestions about desirable ways of
behaving; presenting his / her own example to the students to follow so far
as role prescriptions and role taking are concerned; and giving knowledge
of various positions in the society and preparing children for role-behaviour.
4. Self-exercise.
5. Self-exercise.
197
6. Self-exercise.
of Education UNIT 11 ISSUES AND CONCERNS IN
EDUCATION
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Access and Enrolment in Education
11.3.1 Issues of Access and Enrolment
11.3.2 Strategies for Enhancing Access and Enrolment
11.4 Retention in Education

11.4.1 Issues of Retention
11.4.2 Measures for Enhancing Retention
11.5 Quality in Education

11.5.1 Quality Issues in Education
11.5.2 Enhancing Quality in Education
11.6 Equality and Equity in Education

11.6.1 Dimensions and Causes of Inequality
11.6.2 Measures for Achieving Equality and Equity
11.7 Education for the Diverse Groups

11.7.1 Needs of Diverse Groups in Educational Setting
11.7.2 Addressing the Needs of the Diverse Groups
11.8 Let Us Sum Up

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is a prime determinant of progress and development of a nation.
Realizing the importance of education for the development of the nation, it
(education) has been included in the Concurrent list of Indian Constitution in the
42nd amendment of Indian Constitution in 1976. Starting from the independence
of India to till now, the Government of India is in the process of implementing
numerous plans, programmes and schemes on education including most
comprehensive programmes on education like Samagra Shiksha and Rashtriya
Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan for the overall progress and development of education
in India. Though regulated efforts are being made at the level of both governments
as well as non government (by involving Non-Governmental Organizations) levels
including general public level for promotion of Indian education. But, till now we
are not successful in achieving our educational targets satisfactorily because of a
number of issues and problems in our education system. Referring to these contexts,
in this Unit, we will discuss the issues and concerns in Indian education with
specific reference to the access, enrolment, retention, quality, and equality and
equity in education along with addressing the needs of diverse groups in education.
198 Dr. Tapan Kumar Basantia, Dept. of Education, Central University of South Bihar.
Issues and Concerns in
11.2 OBJECTIVES Education

 describe the issues of access, enrolment, retention, quality, equality and equity
in education;
 explain the intervening strategies or measures for achieving access, enrolment,
retention, quality, equality and equity in education;
 define the needs of diverse groups in education;
 illustrate the different ways for addressing the needs of diverse groups in
education; and
 familiarize with selected programmes and schemes that are in operation for
addressing the needs of weaker sections of society in education.
11.3 ACCESS AND ENROLMENT IN EDUCATION

Access and enrolment in education remain at the threshold or beginning point of
any education system. Access in education basically refers to the provision of
facilities and opportunities in education. Enrolment of students in education implies
admission or registration of students in education. Access is a pre-condition for
enrolment in education. Access for school education implies adequate provision
of school facilities for children. This provision may be defined in terms of number
of schools required for the children, infrastructure facilities in the schools, location
of schools in a reasonable distance from the residence of the children, adequate
teaching learning facilities in the schools and so on. After arranging the adequate
number of schools and facilities in the schools, the next point is to see whether
adequate numbers of children are admitted or not in the schools.
The 86th amendment of Indian Constitution (2002) provides right to education to
all children in the age group of six to fourteen years as a fundamental right. The
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (2009) mentions that all
children in the age group of six to fourteen years shall have the right to free and
compulsory education till the completion of elementary education in a neighborhood
school. Free and compulsory education always requires equal access in education
for all children irrespective of differences in gender, caste, class, colour, race,
culture, place of birth or residence, etc.
The flagship programmes like Samagra Shiksha (an overarching programme which
subsumes the three schemes i.e. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Rashtriya Madhyamik
Shiksha Abhiyan and Teacher Education) and Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan
including many other programmes of government are in operation in the country
for promoting access, enrolment achievement, etc. in education at different levels
of education extending from the level of basic education to the level of higher
education.
There is need to increase access and enrolment in different levels of education.
Appropriate provision for access and enrolment in education must be made for
the students coming from disadvantaged sections with respect to their residence
or location, gender, physical deformity, social and cultural background, etc. For
example, a student with physical disability must be provided a barrier free 199
institutional climate where he/she would not find much difficulty in his/her movement
Sociological Perspective and access to various school facilities. A girl child should not feel unprotected and
of Education
should not be deprived from getting many benefits in an educational institution
because of her gender. Many times we find students from rural areas or
geographically disadvantaged/backward areas have less access to education. Their
enrolment is also less. Hence, there is need to maintain parity and equity in access
and enrolment in education for all categories of children.
Let us discuss some of the issues of access and enrolment in education, and
strategies for enhancing its access and enrolment.
11.3.1 Issues of Access and Enrolment

A number of issues or barriers are found in the way of increasing access and
enrolment in education. Here we will discuss some important issues of the access
and enrolment:
Location of the institutions: Scattered settlement around educational institutions,
uneven routes to educational institutions, too much distance of the residence of
students from the educational institutions, etc. become the cause for decreasing
enrolment of students in educational institutions.
Less number of institutions: If the supply of number of institutions providing
education is less than the number of the institutions demanded for students then
it hampers the overall enrolment of students. If adequate numbers of educational
institutions are not established in geographically disadvantaged and remote areas,
then the enrolment in education in those areas are hampered.
Poor facility in the institutions: Institutions having poor quality of classrooms,
teaching learning materials, teaching learning processes, laboratories, teachers,
playgrounds, sanitation, drinking water, etc. cannot attract large number of students
to be enrolled in the institutions.
Poor condition of the family: In poor family, the children start to earn from
their tender age to support economically to their family, and that is why they
hardly attend educational institutions.
Costly education: Except elementary stage, in all other stages (i. e. secondary
stage, higher secondary stage, etc.), education is a costly affair. Even elementary
education in public schools is a costly affair. If education does not become
affordable then it becomes out of reach of many students.
Pressure of domestic work: The children of some families like single parent
family, family having old age parents, nuclear family, poor family, etc. remain busy
in household works/domestic works or in earning money in many circumstances.
They act as the helping hand for their family members, and therefore, they do not
attend the educational institutions.
Illiteracy and lack of awareness of parents: Many parents do not value the
education of their children because of their own illiteracy and lack of awareness
towards education. Such parents engage their children in household activities,
firms, business, etc. instead of sending them to educational institutions.
Social and cultural norms: Social and cultural norms relating to blind belief,
superstition, etc. of family members affect negatively on education of the children
of the family. For example, in many cultures, a boy is given preference over girl
200 for getting education.
11.3.2 Strategies for Enhancing Access and Enrolment Issues and Concerns in
Education
In order to increase access and enrolment in education, many strategies may be
adopted. Let us find some common strategies that are useful for increasing access
and enrolment in educational institutions.
 Arranging proper transport and communication facilities to the educational
institutions.
 Establishing the number of educational institutions according to requirement.
 Creating adequate facilities in educational institutions which include facilities
of physical infrastructure (i.e. building, class, library, laboratory, furniture,
etc.), teaching learning material, teaching learning process, students’ evaluation
and so on.
 Providing age appropriate admission facility for the out of school children.
 Establishing residential and/or mobile educational institutions wherever required.
 Providing awareness and counseling for the parents regarding the education
of their children.
 Making education affordable for the students. Further, adequate funding
must be given for education.
 Opening alternative modes to formal education like distance education, non-
formal education, open education, etc. to meet the educational demands of
those students who cannot enter into formal education.
 Making special provision in education for children of disadvantaged areas
like rural areas, slum areas, mountain areas, jungles, etc.

the Unit.
1. What is access in education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Name the schemes that the programme Samagra Shiksha subsumes.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................ 201
of Education 3. How does poor facility in educational institutions affect access and
enrolment in education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
11.4 RETENTION IN EDUCATION

Retention of a student in education generally implies a condition or situation in
which the student remains/participates in a level of education or a course of
learning in which he/she is admitted till he/she completes the level of education or
course of learning. If a child is admitted in elementary school and leaves the
school before he/she completes his/her elementary education in the school, then
he/she is treated as not retained till completion of his/her elementary education.
Generally, retention rate is counted on the basis of a level of education or a course
of learning. The efficiency of an education system is understood to many extents
through the retention of its students in the system. Retention is strongly influenced
by drop out in one end and promotion in another end. Let us understand the
meaning of drop out and promotion given below:
Drop out: Drop out of a student in education implies to a situation in which the
student leaves a level of study or course of learning before he/she completes the
level of study or course of learning. Drop out is opposite of retention. Drop out
or discontinuation in education is a kind of wastage in education.
Promotion: Promotion of a student in education refers to a context in which the
student successfully completes a level of study or course of learning within a
stipulated time. If a student takes more than the given/stipulated time to complete
a particular level of study or course of learning, then it is called stagnation.
Stagnation is almost synonymous to failure. Stagnation is a kind of detention or
repetition in education. Stagnation or repetition adversely affects promotion.
Mere enrolment in education has no meaning unless there is retention. After
enrolled in a particular level of education (for example, senior secondary level of
education), a student must be retained in it and successfully complete it in order
to have his/her senior secondary education fruitful or successful. High drop out in
education system makes the system failure in many extents. Higher is the dropout
rate in education system, greater is the wastage in the system.
Drop out is a serious concern in different levels of education in the country. In
elementary level of education, though the country followed no-detention policy for
long time, but, the dropout rate of students did not reduce satisfactorily in the
elementary level of education. There has been a steady decline in dropout rates
in primary education since 2009-10. Between 2009-10 and 2012-13, the annual
average dropout rate in primary education declined from 9.1 percent to 4.7
percent. The dropout rate, though declining from year to year, still remains a
major challenge (NUEPA, 2014, p-xviii). The dropout rate is very high in secondary
stage of education in comparison to other stages of education.
Dropout in education poses a threat to the education of the country. It creates the
202 alarming situation for education by lowering down the retention in education.
Retention in education is too less among the children of poorest families, socially Issues and Concerns in
Education
disadvantaged families and families of rural and remote areas. Let us find below
some important issues of retention and measures for enhancing retention in
education.
11.4.1 Issues of Retention

Retention of students in education is reduced because of its large number of
hindering factors. Some of such factors are described below:
Institutional facilities: Lack of proper facilities in terms of classrooms,
playgrounds, toilets, water supply, hostels, etc. in the institutions decreases the
retention of students in the institutions. Further, lack of quality education in
institutions in terms of curriculum, pedagogy, teacher competency, etc. adversely
affects the retention of students in the institutions.
Institutional environment: If the environment of the institutions is hostile,
autocratic and affected by narrow politics, then the students feel disturbed in such
environment and this reduces the retention rate of students in the institutions.
Corporal punishment to the students decreases the rate of retention of students
in the institutions.
Teacher shortage and absenteeism: Shortage of teachers and high absenteeism
of teachers in institutions reduce the quality of teaching learning in the institutions.
Less quality of teaching learning in institutions reduces the retention of students in
the institutions.
Curriculum load: Many students, especially the students of first generation and
students belonging to disadvantaged sections, cannot cope up or adjust with the
curriculum of the institutions in many times. When the curriculum becomes unrealistic
and over loaded for students, the students cannot adjust with it and drop themselves
from the institutions.
Lack of parental interest and involvement: Some students discontinue their
school education because of lack of parental interest and involvement towards
their education. Retention of students in higher education also to a considerable
extent is determined by the interest and involvement of their parents towards their
education.
Financial constraints: Poor and needy parents may not send their children for
getting education because of their financial problems. Even if they send their
children for getting education, but, in many cases, they force their children to leave
the education before completion of the education (with respect to a particular
level of education or course of learning) because of their financial constraints.
11.4.2 Measures for Enhancing Retention

Some significant measures which can be taken for enhancing retention of students
in education are given below:
 Providing quality education in terms of better institutional infrastructure and
environment, curriculum, teaching learning process, evaluation system and so
on.
 Appointing required number of competent and committed teachers and
reducing teacher absenteeism. 203
Sociological Perspective  Regularly conducting parents and teacher meeting for better participation of
of Education
students in education.
 Monitoring the attendance of students from time to time in institutions.
 Evaluating the performance of students continuously. Further, arranging the
remedial classes for weaker students.
 Providing guidance and counseling services as well as mentoring services to
students for motivating and retaining them in learning.
 Providing mid-day lunch (or mid-day meal) to students if possible.
 Making institutional climate learner friendly, secured and democratic.
 Providing multiple assistances to the deserving students in forms of study
materials, text books, stipend, scholarship, dress, travelling incentive and
many other incentives.
 Providing financial assistance to the poor parents through student support
services in order to motivate them to send their children to institutions for
education.

the Unit.
4. What is promotion of a student in education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
5. If a student takes more than the given/ stipulated time to complete a
particular level of study or course of learning, then it is called-
a) Retention
b) Drop out
c) Discontinuation
d) Stagnation
6. What should be the nature of institutional climate for enhancing retention
in education?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
204
11.5 QUALITY IN EDUCATION Education
The ultimate goal of any educational system is to achieve quality in the system.
Before understanding quality in education, it is better to understand the meaning
of quality at first. Quality is a multi-dimensional and relative concept. It has not
any absolute or definite meaning. However, in many cases, it is defined as the
degree of excellence of something or it denotes to the standard of a matter/
material. In other words, it refers to ‘how far the features and characteristics of
something meet the demands of its stakeholders’. Quality is defined in terms of
worth or value of something. It helps to judge good or bad features of something.
An educational system is called more qualitative when it offers better education
in terms of physical infrastructure, teaching learning process, learning outcome,
etc.; and on the contrary, an educational system is called less qualitative when it
offers poor standard of education in terms of physical infrastructure, teaching
learning process, learning outcome, etc.
Quality is not merely a measure of efficiency; it also has a value

dimension. The attempt to improve the quality of education will succeed
only if it goes hand in hand with steps to promote equality and social
justice (National Curriculum Framework, 2005, P-102).
Quality of an educational institution has strong impact on its students in its different
parameters i.e. enrolment, retention, participation and finally achievement. If an
educational institution provides quality education in terms of its better physical
infrastructure (like classroom, laboratory, library, etc.), rich curriculum, better
teaching learning process, student friendly evaluation, etc., then there is maximum
chance for increasing enrolment, retention, participation and achievement of students
in that institution. Though there are many parameters (i.e., enrolment, retention,
participation, etc.) for judging the quality of an educational institution, but, the role
of the parameter ‘achievement’ is very important in judging the quality of the
institution. If enrolment is considered as first step of education, and retention is
considered as second step of education, then achievement may be considered as
next or subsequent step to enrolment and retention in education. Securing better
achievement or success of students is the ultimate goal of any education system.
The poor performance of students in education system is because of the lack of
quality in different aspects of the system. Let us see in the following sections some
quality issues in education and means for enhancing the quality in education.
11.5.1 Quality Issues in Education
In our entire edifice of education, we find large number of quality issues or
problems of education. Some important quality issues of education are discussed
below:
Focus or objective related issues: If the focuses or objectives of education in
institutions are not set in pace with current change and development in society and
individual life, advances of knowledge, etc. then the quality of education of the
institutions is affected adversely. Narrowly defined and unevenly set objectives of
education in institutions decrease the quality of the institutions.
Resource issues: Lack of different resources in institutions like lack of adequate
classrooms, laboratory, library, drinking water and sanitation, playground, sitting
facility, etc. adversely affect the quality of the institutions. 205
Sociological Perspective Curriculum and learning material related issues: Problems in curriculum
of Education
such as: unrealistic curriculum, over burdened curriculum, curriculum that includes
irrelevant contents, poorly designed curriculum in respect of time and subjects of
study. lower down the quality of education. If the learning materials are not
supplied in time or not available in market in time, then the quality of education
is also hampered. Further, supply of poor standard learning materials like poor
standard text books, work books, educational aids and kits, reference materials,
etc. decrease the quality of education.
Teaching learning process related issues: If the teaching learning process is
not joyful and learner centered then it makes the educational process less qualitative
and less effective. Large sized classes, heterogeneous classes, multi-grade classes,
etc. require special pedagogical focus, and if same pedagogy is used in these
classes without considering the nature of the classes, then quality of teaching
learning in these classes are hampered.
Assessment related issues: Lack of continuous and comprehensive assessment
and feedback of students’ behaviour in education decreases the quality of education.
Further, lack of individual attention to each student; remedial inputs to the weak
students; and advanced exercise and task to bright students, etc. weaken the
quality of the education in different ways.
Teacher related issues: Teacher absenteeism and lack of adequate number of
qualified and competent teachers poorly affect the quality of education. Lack of
properly motivated and committed teachers towards their profession also affects
the quality of education very badly.
Management and supervision related issues: Lack of proper management of
different aspects of institutions like management of time (for example, class
schedule, academic calendar, etc.), material resources (for example, teaching
learning materials, teaching learning aids, etc.), human resources (for example,
teachers, supporting staff for teaching, etc.) and different activities (for example,
classroom teaching learning, evaluation, etc.) reduces the quality of education in
the institutions. Further, lack of planned supervision and monitoring of different
activities of the institutions decreases the quality of education of the institutions.
Activity 1
Apart from the quality issues of education discussed above, mention what
are the other issues that you consider which affect the quality in education?
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
11.5.2 Enhancing Quality in Education

Some important means for enhancing quality in education are as follows:
 Increasing institutional infrastructure in terms of buildings, classrooms, furniture,
206 learning materials, laboratories, libraries, sanitation facilities, etc.
 Setting goals and objectives of education according to the changing needs of Issues and Concerns in
the learners in the society. Education
 Bringing curriculum reforms in order to make the curriculum need based for
the students.
 Adopting diversified learner centered pedagogical techniques according to
the demand of the different teaching learning contexts.
 Using innovative practices including ICT based materials in teaching learning
for enhancing quality in education.
 Assessing different aspects of behavior of the learners continuously.
 Appointing adequate number of competent and committed teachers and
providing continuous training to the teachers according to the needs of the
educational system.
 Strengthening teacher education system in the light of the changing need of
teachers and teaching pedagogy.
 Providing an effective leadership and management style to the education
system for effective management of different resources of education.
 Securing active involvement and support of community members in education.
 Promoting research and innovation in institutions for achieving quality in the
different aspects/parameters of the institutions.
 Making the institutional climate democratic and institutional activities
decentralized for overall growth and development of the institution.

the Unit.
7. Describe the teacher related issues that adversely affect the quality of
education.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
11.6 EQUALITY AND EQUITY IN EDUCATION

Equality in education refers to a state or condition in education in which all
individuals or stakeholders of the education are given same kind of opportunity
or treatment in the education regardless of the differences among them. On the
other hand, equity in education refers to a state or condition in education in which
individuals or stakeholders of the education are provided opportunity or treatment
in the education according to their needs, interests, abilities or capacities, etc.
Providing same education to all children is an example of educational equality 207
Sociological Perspective whereas providing education to each child according his/her needs, interests and
of Education
capacities is an example of educational equity. Providing the same amount of
stipend to all children is an example of educational equality, but, providing the
amount of stipend to children by considering their performances in learning, class
or stage of study, socio-economic background, etc. is an example of educational
equity. Implementing the same curriculum in educational institutions of different
regions of a country is considered under educational equality whereas implementing
the different curricula in educational institutions of different regions of a country
according to the requirements of the regions of the country is considered under
educational equity.
In some situations, equity acts as a pre-condition for achieving equality. Since
equity promotes need based and fair provision of resources, so, in different ways
it helps in achieving equality. In some other situations equity and equality are used
synonymously. For example, when we say gender equality, practically it does not
refer to treat the different genders (male, female and transgender) exactly alike
rather it refers to treat them according to their needs and requirements. The needs
and requirements of people of different genders are not same in all contexts.
Hence, gender equity and gender equality are used synonymously.
Equalization of educational opportunity has its reflection in its different aspects/
stages of education like in access or provision, enrolment or admission, process
or operation and finally outcome or result. The scope of equalization of educational
opportunity is not limited only in opening the adequate number of educational
institutions, but, it also includes the operational aspects of the institutions or type
of teaching learning of the institutions and success level of students in the institutions.
In this context, the National Policy on Education (1986) emphasized that ‘to
promote equality it will be necessary to provide for equal opportunity to
all not only in access, but also in the condition for success.
Let us discuss in the following heads the dimensions and causes of inequality, and
measures for achieving equality and equity.
11.6.1 Dimensions and Causes of Inequality
Inequality in education arises when certain individuals or groups are in disadvantage
situation in comparison to other individuals or groups in different aspects of
education i.e. access, enrolment, processing, achievement, etc. Indian land occupies
2.4% of the entire land of the world, and India is the second populated country
of the world. Landmass wise India is the 7th ranked country in the world. Indian
geography is a diverse geography and Indian culture is a cosmopolitan culture. In
this vast country, inequality and unity are observed together in different dimensions
of individual life and society, and such inequality and unity have strong impact on
the education system of the country.
Some common dimensions of difference that are remarked in India are race,
religion, language, caste, class, geographical location, etc. Though, these are different
diversities in our society still we consider and practice these diversities as our
strength but not weaknesses. These diversities help us to bind and unite us in a
single thread. Let us discuss some of the causes of inequality in education in India.
Prevailing social disparities: Narrow interpretation of Prevailing social disparities
in terms of race, caste, class, culture, religion, etc. creates inequality in education
system.
Gender disparity: Prevailing social customs, traditions, superstitions, etc. relating
208 to gender affect education of people of different genders. Girls and transgender
children enjoy low socio-economic and educational positions in comparison to Issues and Concerns in
boys. Education
Difference in physical and mental ability: Children who have physical, sensory
and intellectual challenges or who have disability are deprived to get adequate
facilities for their education in many cases. This creates inequality in educational
opportunity or attainment.
Difference in home environments: Difference in home environment creates
gross inequality in educational status. For example, a child of a poor family living
in slum area may not get equal opportunity in education like a child belonging to
a high status family living in core area of a city. The educational aspirations and
motivations of a child are determined according to his/her family background.
Standard of institutions: Children studying in high standard institutions (in terms
of physical infrastructure, curriculum, teaching learning process, teacher, etc.)
generally show better performance in education in comparison to the children
studying in poor standard institutions. So, the difference in standard of institutions
creates inequality in education.
Poverty: Huge educational inequality is created due to poverty. Poor parents
cannot bear the education fees and costs of study materials for their children and
because of this their children either leave educational institutions or show poor
performance in the educational institutions.
Regional imbalances: All the regions of India are not equally developed because
of historical, geographical, political and other reasons. Further, many differences
are found between rural areas and urban areas in terms of their progress and
development. Educational opportunities are found less in underdeveloped regions
in comparison to developed regions.
Lack of consciousness of people: Educational inequality is created because of
lack of consciousness of people towards education. Conservative attitude, false
ideas, wrong beliefs and ignorance towards education create a lot of inequality in
education.
Faulty educational administration: Because of corruption and nepotism in
educational administration, and faulty educational administration, the inequality in
education is not reduced properly. Further, improper implementation of educational
schemes and policies increases the educational inequality in different forms.
11.6.2 Measures for Achieving Equality and Equity
Equality and equity in education directly as well as indirectly contribute for bringing
the overall development of a nation in one hand and promoting justice in the
nation in another hand. Equality and equity in education have a great role in
democratizing education system of a country. The following measures may be
undertaken for achieving equality and equity in education:
 Providing education to all people of the society in accordance with their
needs, interests and capabilities.
 Promoting universal and/or compulsory education up to a certain level of
education (for example, up to elementary level or secondary level or any
other level of education).
 Providing compensatory education for them who couldn’t attain a particular
target level of education in an appropriate age for it.
 Implementing all the Constitutional directives of equality and/or equity in 209
Sociological Perspective education. For example, implementing Article 21A of the Constitution (free
of Education and compulsory education to all children of the age of 6-14 years), Article
29 of the Constitution (protection of language, script, and culture of minorities)
and so on.
 Special provision in education like reservation in education, scholarship/stipend
in education, etc. for weaker sections of the society like schedule castes,
schedule tribes, other backward classes, economically weaker sections,
minority communities, women, persons with disability, etc.
 Special provision in education for children belonging to disadvantaged areas
like slum areas, remote rural areas, rough hills, delta areas, jungle areas,
rough mountains, etc.
 Promoting a core or common framework of education for the people of the
whole country.
 Adopting a fair and impartial policy in admission as well as treatment in all
the educational institutions.
 Establishing many alternative institutions to formal education institutions like
non-formal education institutions, correspondence education institutions, etc.
for meeting the educational demand of the masses.
 Parental awareness must be created in order to make the parents aware to
send their children to educational institutions.
 Provision/arrangement of individualized instruction, remedial teaching, guidance
and counseling services, etc. should be made in educational institutions for
promoting equality and equity in education in the institutions.
 The administrative system of the education needs to be reformed by removing
existing corruption in the system, removing monotony in the system, developing
commitment towards the system and removing narrow politics in the system.

the Unit.
8. How does parental poverty create educational inequality?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
9. ‘Free and compulsory education to all children of the age of 6-14 years’
is mentioned in which article of Indian Constitution?
a) 15
b) 20
c) 20A
d) 21A
210
11.7 EDUCATION FOR THE DIVERSE GROUPS Education
Indian diversity is unique in the whole world. India is not only diverse in its
physical and geographical features, but, the people of diverse socio-cultural and
linguistic groups live in India. The historical tradition, political condition, cultural
scenario and other such features of India allow the people of different castes,
tribes, classes, races, religions, languages, etc. to live together in India. The
culture and tradition, life style, value pattern, ethos, rites and rituals of the people
of India are determined to many extents by their languages, races, castes, religions,
economic positions, social status, etc. Because of huge diversity among the people
of India, Indian culture seems to be beautiful, cosmopolitan and multicultural.
11.7.1 Needs of Diverse Groups in Educational Setting

Within the diverse nature of Indian socio-cultural set up, many hierarchies and
disparities are found among Indian people. Uneven economic distribution among
the people of India characterizes economic disparity in Indian society. Schedule
caste, schedule tribe and people with disabilities are most vulnerable section in the
society from different fronts. Other backward class and economically weaker
section people enjoy very low socio-economic and educational status in the
society. There are religious minorities, linguistic minorities and many other minority
groups who are in disadvantaged position in society in educational front and many
other fronts. Women and girls enjoy very low social status in comparison to men
and boys. Discrimination against women and girls is easily visible in home, public
places and even government offices. Transgender people are only recently
recognized by the Supreme Court of India (in 2014) and they also enjoy a low
social position in comparison to people of other genders. Persons with disability
of hearing, vision, locomotor, intellectual or developmental are unfortunately aren’t
treated equally like other members of the society because of their disability.
Education system doesn’t function in isolation of the society. All the social issues
and problems affect education system in different ways in a society/nation. For
example, the participation of schedule castes, schedule tribes, other backward
classes and economically weaker section people is very low in education because
of their low socio-economic status in society. The access and success levels of
religious minorities and other minority groups in education aren’t satisfactory. The
linguistic minority people face difficulty in protecting their own language and culture
through education. Girls’ enrolment and success in education are not satisfactory
in comparison to enrolment and success of boys in education. Girls especially
from minority communities, schedule castes, schedule tribes and poor families
have very low representation in education. Transgender people have also very
negligible representation in education. Children with disability have low participation
in education because of lack of opportunities to participate in education and lack
of required resources in our educational institutions. Hence, in educational system,
diverse groups have diverse needs. Since the nature of problems of each group
of people is unique and special, so, each group of people should be given special
kind of facility and / or treatment in education for their better educational attainment.
11.7.2 Addressing the Needs of the Diverse Groups

Addressing the needs of diverse groups in educational setting is a basic condition
for attainment of educational equity and justice. All the aspects of an educational
setting which include objectives of teaching learning, curriculum, teaching learning 211
Sociological Perspective materials, teaching learning process, educational evaluation, educational environment,
of Education
etc. must be designed in an inclusive style for catering diverse needs of students
coming from different sections of the society. For example, the teacher should be
secular while dealing the students of different religions in the class, girls should feel
secured in the institution, sign language and Braille should be included as the part
of curriculum and pedagogy for deaf and blind children respectively in class, etc.
Remedial instruction and special coaching, mentoring, etc. may be provided to the
academically weaker students. Students with disability may be given more time
and assistance to complete the assigned task if they require the same. The entire
environment of the institution must be inclusive for all the students coming from
different family, community and social backgrounds.
Curriculum design must reflect the commitment to Universal

Elementary Education (UEE), not only in representing cultural diversity,
but also by ensuring that children from different social and economic
backgrounds with variations in physical, psychological and intellectual
characteristics are able to learn and achieve success in school. In this
context, disadvantages in education arising from inequalities of gender,
caste, language, culture, religion or disabilities need to be addressed
directly, not only through policies and schemes but also through the
design and selection of learning tasks and pedagogic practices, right
from the period of early childhood (National Curriculum Framework,
2005, P-5).
For the educational upliftment of different weaker sections of the society, there
are certain schemes, plans, programmes, activities, etc. that are in operation in our
country from time to time. For example, Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarships,
National Overseas Scholarship, Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojna, Free
Coaching, etc. are some schemes/programmes launched for the educational
development of schedule caste students. The educational schemes/programmes
that are in operation for schedule tribe students are- Eklavya Model Residential
School, Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarships, Ashram Schools, etc. for catering
the educational interests of other backward classes, the special schemes /
progammes found are- Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarships, National
Fellowship, Free Coaching, Dr. Ambedkar Scheme of Interest Subsidy on
Educational Loan, etc. Pre-Matric and Post- Matric scholarships, Maulana Azad
National Fellowship, Padho Pardesh- Scheme of Interest Subsidy on Educational
Loans for Overseas Studies, Naya Savera- Free Coaching, etc. are some schemes/
programmes operating for providing educational assistance to minority students.
The schemes/programmes of Free Coaching, National Overseas Scholarship,
Pre-Matric and Post Matric Scholarships, National Fellowship, Assistance to
Disabled persons for purchase /fitting of Aids, etc. are provided to the persons
with disability for their better education. The schemes / progammes like Sukanya
Samriddhi Yojna, National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level
(NPEGEL) and Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidhyalaya (KGVB) among many other
schemes /programmes work significantly for the educational development of girls.
Some weaker sections of the society like schedule castes, schedule tribes, other
backward classes, economically weaker sections and people with disability are
provided reservation in education at the national level. Schedule castes, schedule
tribes, backward classes, women and persons with disability are also provided
reservation in education in some states in the country depending upon the policy
of the states.
212
For the active and universal participation of diverse groups in education, whole Issues and Concerns in
Education
hearted and continuous efforts are needed both at the government and general
public levels. Every educational institution must provide adequate space and facility
in its access, enrolment and participation to all categories of students with special
emphasis to the students coming from weaker sections of the society. Only
formulation of policies, programmes and schemes for inclusion of diverse groups
in education is not enough rather such policies, programmes and schemes must
be implemented meaningfully at the grass root level or client level for better
attainment of equity and justice in education.

the Unit.
10. Match the items given in Column-A with items in Column-B
Coloumn –A Coloumn – B
Eklavya Model Residential School Minority students
Maulana Azad National Fellowship Schedule Tribe Students
Braille Schedule Caste Students
Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojna Blind Students
11. Write the name of any two schemes or programmes that are dedicated for
the educational development of girls.
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............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
11.8 LET US SUM UP

This unit explains about the issues and concerns in education with special reference
to issues and concerns in Indian education. In the beginning phases of the unit,
the different components/aspects of the issues like access, enrolment, retention,
quality, equality and equity in education have been explained. In the beginning
phases also, different measures or strategies are suggested which can be adopted
for increasing, access, enrolment, retention, quality, equality and equity in education.
In the last phase of the unit, the needs of the diverse group in educational setting
as well as different ways for addressing the needs of diverse group in educational
setting including some special plans, programs, schemes and activities that are in
operation for addressing the needs of the weaker sections of the society in
educational setting are illustrated. 213
of Education 11.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
MHRD (2004-2005). Selected Educational Statistics, 2004-2005. New Delhi:
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India.
MHRD (2007-2008). Annual Report, 2007-08. New Delhi: Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Govt. of India.
NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework, 2005. New Delhi: National
Council of Educational Research and Training.
Government of India (1964-66). The Education Commission, 1964-66. New
Delhi: Government of India.
NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework, 2005. New Delhi: National
Council of Educational Research and Training.
NUEPA (2014). Education for All-Towards Quality with Equity. New Delhi:
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India.
MHRD (2016). Educational Statistics at a Glance. New Delhi: Ministry of Human
Resources Development.
Government of India (1986). National Policy on Education, 1986. New Delhi:
Government of India.

1. Access in education refers to the provision of facilities and opportunities in
education.
2. The programme Samagra Shiksha subsumes the following three schemes:
a) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,
b) Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, and
c) Teacher Education
3. Poor facility in educational institutions affect access and enrolment in education
because institutions having poor quality of classrooms, teaching-learning
materials, teaching-learning processes, laboratories, teachers, playgrounds,
sanitation, drinking water, etc.
4. Promotion of a student in education refers to a context in which the student
successfully completes a level of study or course of learning within a stipulated
time.
5. (d) Stagnation
6. The nature of institutional climate should be learner friendly, secured and
democratic for enhancing retention in education.
7. The teacher absenteeism and lack of adequate number of qualified and
competent teachers poorly affect the quality of education. Lack of properly
motivated and committed teachers towards their profession also affects the
quality of education very badly.
214 8. Poor parents cannot bear the education fees and costs of study materials for
their children and because of these, their children either leave the educational Issues and Concerns in
Education
institutions or show poor performance in the educational institutions.
9. (d) 21A
10. Coloumn –A Coloumn – B
Eklavya Model Residential School Schedule Tribe Students
Maulana Azad National Fellowship Minority students
Braille Blind Students
Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojna Schedule Caste Students
11. a) National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level
(NPEGEL), and
b) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidhyalaya (KGVB)
215
of Education UNIT 12 INTERFACE BETWEEN
SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 School and Community
12.4 School and Neighbourhood
12.5 Parental Involvement in School
12.5.1 Effectiveness in Parental Involvement in Schooling Process
12.6 Role of Community in School Development and Schooling Process

12.6.1 Community Participation in Schooling Process
12.6.2 Initiatives taken by the States for Community Involvement
12.7 Right to Education Act 2009, in the context of bringing School and
Community Together
12.7.1 Right to Education Act, 2009 and Community
12.7.2 School Management Committee (SMC)
12.7.2.1 Basic Structure of SMC
12.7.2.2 Key Functions of SMC
12.7.3 School Development Plan
12.7.3.1 Construction of School Development Plan
12.8 Let Us Sum Up

12.1 INTRODUCTION
The co-operation and companionship are the basic elements of success. These
are in the core of the heart for moving ahead in life. Anything can happen smoothly
if we do the things with collaboration and co-operation. The matter of school and
community are exactly the same. Interface between school and community as well
as school and neighborhood plays a vital role in developing each other. Community
and neighborhood participation is an important component for making planning,
administering and executing the whole schooling process. Same as community and
neighborhood, school too plays a significant role in enriching, developing and
preserving community heritage, culture and resources by developing capable future
generation as per the needs and demands of community and neighborhood. Parents’
involvement in school help in improving student’s achievement, reduce absenteeism,
dropout rate, build good rapport/trust among school and parents and restore
parent’s confidence in their children’s education through becoming part of school.
Right to Education Act, 2009 envisages very clearly about the immense importance
of a community in a schooling process. Therefore, the Act has shown us a path
towards community involvement in a school organization for overall development
216 Dr. Dori Lal, Dept. of Teacher Training and Non Formal Education, JMI.
process. For this, meaningful participation of all type of stakeholders like Panchayati Interface between School
and Community
Raj institutions, School Management Committees, Mahila mitra, Parent Teacher
Associations etc. are defined in RTE Act, 2009. The Act made several provisions
by defining them and giving certain fixed representation of the stakeholders for
effective management. The community involvement brings a positive social change
in bringing excluded people from weaker section of disadvantaged group from a
community. The active role of community helps in making school developmental
plan, supervising the academic performances and monitoring the budget allocation,
RTE Act tried to bring community and school put at one platform so that the
school can be benefitted by solving locally arisen problems through local
methodologies.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
 explain the relationship of school and community;
 explain the relationship of school and neighborhood;
 identify the importance of parental involvement in school development;
 identify the role of community in school development;
 outline the significance of community in schooling process;
 discuss the RTE Act and its provisions about community participation; and
 analyse critically the community intervention in school.
12.3 SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY

School and community are closely associated with each other. The success of
school and community depends upon the active involvement of both the school
and community and works for each other for their own benefits, developments
and smooth functioning. School community partnerships can be enhanced by
sharing their resources and by involving each other in their development. Community
plays an important role to improve schools, strengthen neighbourhood and it leads
to a noticeable contribution in solving problems of school as well as society
members. Here community members are a group of peoples who are interested
in giving their services voluntarily to the schools for its development. It generally
involves family/parents, local governments, neighborhood, business entity, NGOs,
social workers, educationists, civic societies, and religious groups etc. Building
such type of partnership and collaboration requires long term vision, strategic
plan, creative leadership and new multifaceted roles for experts and professionals
who work in schools and communities for the development.
 The school is a learning organization and it is a miniature form of any society.
Community is a part of society itself. The community is a kind of cultural
environment in which any specific culture inculcates. It is a socially constructed
institution where learning experiences are consciously and intentionally
designed. It is provided with the objective to achieve social aims in general,
over a period of time. It is also called a sub system of our society. It should
coordinate with the immediate environment of the community in which it is
located. 217
Sociological Perspective In all type of community, the role of community affects greatly in monitoring,
of Education
administering and planning in school management. Community participation is of
in mainly two forms i.e. formal and informal.
When the Right to Education (RTE) Act 2009, brought education as fundamental
right for each child, it becomes very important to make it as a right in practical
ground. And it is possible only when all the stakeholders come under one roof
to join their hands for overall development of a child. This is the formal forms of
community involvement in which the mandatory composition of committees is
mentioned in the Act as well as specific duties and rights of the committees. As
per the provisions of RTE Act 2009, every school should have a School
Management Committee (SMC).
The structure of these committees can be various forms like Panchayati Raj
institutions, Vidyalaya management committees, village education committees (VEC),
Parent Teacher association, village committees etc. These committees run in almost
all the sates in one or other forms. But they try to ensure the implementations of
provisions prescribed in the RTE Act, 2009.
Informal way of community participation in the development of child and school
could be done by community members by rendering their volunteer service to
education institutions. These services involve donations, educational and career
fairs by entrepreneurs, campus employment forum, expert lecture, financial help,
contribution to infrastructure development, etc.
12.4 SCHOOL AND NEIGHBOURHOOD

The immediate social environment of the child where he/she lives is called as the
neighbourhood. The relationship between school and neighborhood is an important
element in community building. The importance of this relationship is rooted in the
value that has always been placed on education and the opportunities of self-
improvement that come from an increase in knowledge which stems from education.
Like other civic institutions such as temples, churches, mosques, gurudwaras,
theatres, community centers, etc. now schools have been also become central
points of cities, villages, and towns. Now, schools are become representative of
their community. These days’ schools are adopted by community as its integral
part and situated boldly in the center of community.
Neighborhood, have also been shown to play an important role in children’s
development. According to National Knowledge Commission (2009), ‘ there are
various issues related to access, concepts, creation, application and services
related to knowledge to build excellence in the education system to meet the
challenges of the 21st century’. One of the solutions to this challenge lies in
expanding the concept of common neighborhood schools. This will bring children
from diverse social, economic and ethnic backgrounds together to help and achieve
bigger desired objectives of integration, equity and quality. Neighborhood schools
will require active participation of local community and parents to supervise,
manage and monitor in order to overcome some of these barriers. The
neighborhood promotes quality of life, community feeling, and well-being by
providing facilities. Sharing of community resources or facilities with all the members
of community can play an important role in the up gradation of community or
neighborhood itself.
218
When a school is placed in a neighborhood, it will definitely affect its environment Interface between School
and Community
and social concerns. Neighborhood schools have a direct link with the quality of
the neighborhood as well as on the learners’ development process. Schools in
neighborhood provides comfort, safety and harmony among learners.
Neighborhood is also benefited by the schools by enriching its culture with the
help of interface between school and neighborhood. It is clear from the above
discussion that schools, families, communities and neighborhoods play a fundamental
role in determining how children develop educationally.

the Unit.
1. What do you mean by a community?
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2. Explain the role of neighbourhood in reference to school.
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12.5 PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SCHOOL

If school education is kept at the center of a circle then the most important
component of its circumference must be parents who are directly affected by the
whole schooling process. It is a hard fact that the main stakeholders are the only
parents or care-givers in a school system. Both ‘parent engagement’ and ‘parent
involvement’ in schools are important in development of school and schooling
process of the children.
Parents Engagement
Parents and teachers both share a responsibility or working together to help their
children to learn and to meet educational goals and achievements. It happens
when teachers involve parents in school meetings, events, and parents volunteer
their support at school, but sometimes it’s up to the parents to involve themselves
with their children’s education. In it, teacher holds the role of a partner in providing
academic support to parents in their children learning. In this way, they give their
contribution for their child development as well as in school development. Parents
make a commitment to prioritizing their child’s educational goals and teachers
should listen and provide a space for collaboration with parents.
Parents Involvement
While in parent involvement, parents participate in school events or activities, and
teachers provide learning resources or information about their student’s grades. In 219
Sociological Perspective it, teachers hold the main position and primary responsibility to set educational
of Education
goals. Teacher works as an advisor not as a partner who guides parents through
academic support for their child. Parent involvement in schools is the first step to
parent engagement and, ultimately, parent partnership. When parent and teachers
work mutually to create a blossoming classroom, the effect on their students
become reflective.
Parents and children are the main stakeholders of an education system and it is
they who bear the burden of the defective school system. They need to be given
a chance and support to bring about a change in the education system. The school
authorities should realize that they hold the powerful role to initiate the process
of improving school system and reversing the decline in school system, through
their constructive and collective efforts in this process. Parents as a community
member can contribute in the following manner:
 Contribute in School Management Committee through giving their valuable
suggestion and in implementation of the same.
 Help in preparing an effective School Development and implementation of
the same.
 Play as a role of bridge between the school and community, different level
authorities by representing the school at various platforms.
 Volunteering their services to schools such as spend quality time with children
and teach them variety of skills in schools.
 Volunteer their services as a support teacher when teacher is not available
at school.
The Right to Education Act, 2009 underlined the role of parents in schooling
process by envisaging involvement of community participation in school. The
composition outlined in this Act clearly mentioned the highest percentage (75%)
of parent’s involvement in community participation in school development. Formally
this kind of concepts are capitulated by the RTE Act, 2009 but there is an idea
of parental involvement in schools since the beginning of the notion of schools
in formal or informal way. The involvement of parents in schools can be defined
as the participation by the parents in school events and activities in all form either
in scholastic or co-scholastic. The socio-emotional changes in student’s behavior
occur when the parents involve actively in school’s activities and coordinate with
the teachers. Research studies have been already proven the immense impact of
parents’ involvement in their wards education and many more like:
 Children able to adapt well to school and school environment.
 They attend school more seriously and regularly.
 They consistent in doing their homework and assignment.
 Improvement in achievement level as well as grades.
 Gain better social skills.
 Less chance of drop-out from school.
 Have improved behavior.
220
 Have better understanding and relationship with their parents. Interface between School
and Community
 Have higher self-esteem.
12.5.1 Effectiveness of Parental Involvement in

Schooling Process
Effectiveness can be understood very easily when we come to know the fact that
a teacher can be motivated by parent’s appreciation and respect. When a parent’s
whole life (wards) is at stake how can anyone deny this realm that they should
associate with the schooling process. A parent can affect a school in the following
ways positively:
 The cooperation given by parents is an influencing factor to determine school’s
academic achievement. They can give innovative ideas and suggestions in
making school development plan.
 They supervise the student’s performance time-to-time through parent-teacher
meetings held regularly by schools or anytime whenever it is required.
 Their motivations and encouraging attitude lead to a school teacher or
administrator in a positive direction.
 Their own ward develops a kind of sense of responsibility towards his/her
academic performance as well as school environment.
The ongoing research has shown us that the parents’ involvement gives a kind of
security feelings in their wards and they do well in every area. But some time it
is also found that too much interference by parents harasses students’ academic
and cultural freedom which is too necessary for a child schooling life. It is also
seen sometimes that the care-givers become a learning resource as they can easily
do lots of arrangement like water supply or raising funds for a school program.
They easily may become a type of bridge between the schools and other stake
holders. The parents especially mother’s influence can be helpful in some sensitive
areas like using sanitary napkins for health and hygiene, dealing adolescence
behavior, health & hygiene and gender sensitization among their wards.
The development of a child cannot be done only by teachers or school or parents
only. They have to associate and join their hands together. There is not always
a win-win situation that parents always support and assist schooling process but
even though their critics make a school aware towards tiny things which may be
ignorable by school planners but not by parents as they are more sensitive towards
their wards than schools staffs.

the Unit.
3. How does parents involve in schooling process?
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221
of Education 4. Differentiate between parental involvement and parental engagement.
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12.6 ROLE OF COMMUNITY IN SCHOOL

DEVELOPMENT AND SCHOOLING
PROCESS
Schools, parents, and the community should work together for the school
development and schooling process. This initiative will definitely promote the
health, well-being, and learning of all students. When schools are interested in
involving parents and engage community resources for the betterment of school
then, they are able to respond effectively to the needs of students. ‘Family and
community’ involvements promote partnerships with ‘school and society’. The
result of this partnership is sharing and maximizing resources which help children
in developing healthy behavior and relationship with others.
The role of community in school development can be categorized the following:
 Community as a resource
 Community as a pressure group
 Community as a monitoring body
 Community as an evaluator
 Community as a part of school family not a separate entity from school
 Community as a bridge
The community has a significant importance in a country like India where there
is diverse culture and ethnicity. In such situation without involving the community
either in formal or informal, the school can’t function in a proper and smooth way.
Community has formal and informal power to participate school development
plan and academic achievement for their students. Role of community in the
development of the schools are as follows:
 The contribution of a community can be seen explicitly when school can’t
handle drop-out cases for greater enrollment. In such cases these committees
find out such students from their own locality and convince them to come to
school.
 They can observe the classroom and give feedback along with some positive
objections.
 They treat themselves as a pressure group so that some positive plans can
be applied and some negative practices can be omitted.
 The community does not only raise the funds for some specific activities for
222 schools but also, they monitor the budgets allocated for schools.
 The community connects as a bridge among districts, blocks, villages and Interface between School
and Community
schools for better decisions.
 The community not only involve in monitoring, administering and managing
the schooling process but also, they can be an important asset for improving
quality of education as an assessor, monitor, watchdog and facilitator like
monitoring mid-day meal preparation, school maintenance, providing skill
instruction and local culture information, etc.
 They may collaborate their ideas and efforts with SMC vision and this
‘shared vision’ helps the schools run effectively to a large extent.
The community can become a learning resource for subject enrichment as they
have more practical knowledge in versatile area as one of their cases is described
in the case study given below.
CASE STUDY
Community as a Learning Resource
In a school, a Mathematics teacher wanted to teach the quick calculations
that can be done in shopping. S/he wanted to teach practically. So, she
invited a vegetable seller just outside the school. The seller explained how
he calculates orally and quickly the values like 1kg, 1/2kg, 1.25kg, and even
575 grams. He became teacher of teacher that day and student learned both
enthusiastically and easily.
12.6.1 Community Participation in Schooling Process

The following themes can be categorized from the recommendations given in the
RTE Act, 2009:
 Changes in policies
 Capacity building
 Reforming quality of education
 Linkages and networking
 Accountability and transparency
RTE Act, 2009 brought significant changes in policy like specific provisions of
elected members of local bodies in constituting the various committees. These
committees have to make an annual School Development Plan (SDP) for monitoring
and managing the school functions. This plan mainly focuses on:
 School should be within the reach of the students (1km for primary and 3
km for secondary).
 All children should come to school from 6-14 years in the community.
 The school has enough and appropriate infrastructure consisting of classrooms,
separate toilets for girls, mid-day meal preparation room etc.
 There should be enough teachers to meet the RTE Act, 2009 ratio of
teacher and students as 1:30 and 1:35 at the lower and upper primary
classes respectively.
223
Sociological Perspective  The committees monitor the training given to teachers regularly so that their
of Education
capacity building can be done.
 The committees may raise fund for school functions and also check the
budgets.
 Mainly these committees have to supervise them as a pressure group. They
may act as resourceful entity in linking the bridge between all stakeholders
and school components. Drop-outs cases are very much dealt by these
committees as they could only know about the reason and location of drop-
outs. Mainly they could help the school in providing local solutions to locally
arisen problems.
12.6.2 Initiatives taken by the States for Community

Involvement
Almost every state has accepted the importance of the community involvement
and they have taken initiatives, some examples are given below:
Andhra Pradesh: Bal Mitra Kendra is organised by community to assist girl’s
education.
Gujrat: Sakhi, Sahyogini and Anganwadi bring community come closer to various
school programmes.
Madhya Pradesh: To ensure quality education, village education register is
maintained.

the Unit.
5. How does community participation bring changes in school development?
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6. Give two examples of community involvement for schooling process
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12.7 RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT, 2009 IN

THE CONTEXT OF BRINGING
SCHOOLAND COMMUNITY TOGETHER
Education brings social change in every society over the times. Keeping this as
an inevitable fact in mind, our policy makers and educators brought reforms in
224 school education by bringing school and community together under the special
laws and provisions as recommended in RTE Act, 2009. When RTE Act, 2009 Interface between School
and Community
came into as a law for envisaging the education as a fundamental right, the specific
provisions through section 21 in which the idea about school and community
collaboration outlined and enforced. This section talks about community’s active
involvement in school and schooling process both in formal and informal way.
RTE Act 2009, brings community and school together through various committees
like parent teacher association, School Management Committees, etc. Almost all
states have formed such committees to bring reforms in academic, planning and
managing the schooling process.
12.7.1 Right to Education Act, 2009 and Community

During the British rule in India, Education had been restricted only to a limited
segment of society and despite the execution of much legislation, advocating
compulsory education for the people no significant progress was achieved as a
result. After independence, Article 45 was enshrined in the constitution of India
that Stated, ‘the state shall endeavour to provide within a period of 10 years from
the commencement of the Constitution, free and compulsory education to all
children until they complete the age of 14 years’. India kept struggling to ensure
universalization of elementary education (UEE) and the first major document that
reflected Government’s will and determination towards achieving the goal of
elementary education came in the form of National Policy on Education (NPE),
1968. Finally, in the 86th Amendment of the Constitution of India paved the way
in achieving the goal of making education as a fundamental right but with a rider
that the manner of enjoying this right would be decided by follow up legislation
consequent to the present one. The ‘Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act- 2009’ came into implementation on 1st April, 2010 as an outcome
of a legislation passed by the Indian Parliament in the month of August 2009, the
follow up legislation as mentioned in the 86th Amendment, 2002. Rules and
guidelines were formulated by the central government to help the states in
implementation of RTE act 2009.
The formation of School Management Committee (SMC) for every school is one
of the important structures made in the RTE Act, 2009 under section 21 and
construction of School Development Plan (SDP) under section 22 with many
important functions assigned to them. The committee includes parents, teachers,
local authority, and representatives’ civil society as community members which
will utilize the wider, local community and bring them together for the holistic
betterment of their local school. The Act envisages the role of community in the
planning, managing and administering the school and schooling process by
establishing various forms of community-based institutions like school management
committees, gram panchayat committees or parent teacher association etc. ‘In
essence, the Act hands over the management of the school to the people with the
highest stake in their success and are thus best to manage them, with the aim to
instil the spirit of ownership. Some of the functions of the SMCs include- preparation
of School Development Plans (SDPs), school monitoring and overseeing the
utilisation of school grants. In addition, they are also the first-point of contact for
any kind of grievances that may emerge at the local level’. The uniqueness of such
a structure is that this makes the states legally bound and provisions apply uniformly
to all Indian states. Here we are going to discuss School management committee
and School development plan where the community plays an important role in
quality education, school development and schooling process.
225
Sociological Perspective 12.7.2 School Management Committee (SMC)
of Education
School Management Committee is an important component in RTE Act-2009 and
has a vital role in actualizing the goals of RTE. It has incredible potential to
renovate the present system of education, including teachers and parents.
Consistency of positive actions by SMC will change the dynamics and solutions
will begin to take shape, first and focal levels and then at the larger systematic
levels.
As per RTE Act 2009, in every school whether it is government, government-
aided and special category schools there will be a SMC. While private schools
are already mandated to have such types of committees on the basis of their trust/
society registrations, they are not covered by Section 21A.
12.7.2.1 Basic Structure of SMC
As per the RTE Act, the nature of SMC should be heterogeneous. The
representation of local authorities, women, guardians, subject specific teachers
and other dignitaries should be the member of the SMC.
As per the RTE Act, the SMC composition is as follows:
 The size of SMC is not clearly specified but it should be of a manageable
size. Rajasthan state defined, the number of members shall have 15 and
accordingly in Maharashtra it is between 12 and 16.
 75% (3/4th) members should be parents or guardian of the children studying
in that school.
 25% (1/4th) members should be from the school itself, may be subject
specific teachers, local authorities and other dignitaries.
 50% of women representation is compulsory.
 Representation of weaker section should be proportionate.
 Gap between two meetings should not be more than 2 months and minimum
six meetings are compulsory in an academic year.
 Minutes of meetings should be recorded properly.
As an example, the SMC composition of the State Delhi is as follows:
Table 12.1 SMC Composition in Delhi
S.N. Member Status in the committee No. of members
1. Parents or Guardians Members/Vice-chairperson Twelve

of students (3/4th or 75%)
2. School Principal Member/Ex-Officio One
Chairperson
1/4th or
3. Elected representative Member One 25%
of the local authority
4. Subject specific Member/Convener One
teachers of the
school
5. Educationist/ Social Member One

worker of locality
226 (Source: SCERT, 2019)
Interface between School
Activity 1 and Community
As discussed above about the structure of SMC in schools observe the
SMC structure in the schools of your State and present.
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12.7.2.2 Key Functions of SMC

Some of the key functions of the School Management Committees recommended
by Right to Education Act, 2009 are as follows:
 The main function of SMC is to prepare School Development Plan (SDP)
as per the RTE Act guidelines/ norms under Section 22.
 Participate and monitor in managing the school and for its development.
 Help in supervising and implementing SDP.
 Supervision and monitoring of financial, academic and other co-curricular
activities in the school.
 Through social audit ensure accountability and transparency in the system.
 Keeping proper accounts of available funds along with allocation, distribution
and utilization with the ‘Gram Sabha’.
 Generate and maintain educational database.
 Supporting and monitoring academic progress of the children.
 Coordinate between schools and society with available community resources
of the society.
12.7.3 School Development Plan

The School Management Committee is responsible to construct or form School
Development Plans. Committee members have major responsibility to monitor the
utilization of government grants and funds along with whole school environment.
The School Development Plan should be prepared at least three months before
the end of the financial year. The main aim of preparing School Development Plan
is to identify and review the strength and weaknesses of the school. It shall include
the following details:
 Estimation of class wise enrolment for each year.
 As per estimated enrolment of students, required number of additional teachers
(subject and grade wise) including part time teachers.
 Estimation of additional infrastructure and equipments.
 Additional financial requirements.
 Required additional support and training for teachers and students. 227
Sociological Perspective  The pan should be signed by chairperson and vice chairperson of the SMC.
of Education
 It should be submitted to the appropriate authority before the end of the
financial year.
12.7.3.1 Construction of School Development Plan
For construction of School Development Plan, the members have the following
responsibility:
 To identify the available resources in the school or community.
 To Align components of school development plan and expressing quantifiable
targets for next 2 years based on consultative process.
 To quantify the classrooms, toilets, school boundary, furniture, first aid, drinking
water, garden, teaching and learning material, school uniform, text books,
library books, aids and appliances for differently-able children, mid-day meal
requirements, etc.
 To get an idea about the training programmes related to students and teachers
for their further development.
 To address the community mobilization for never enrolled children, drop-
outs, learning level of the students, etc.
 To finalize the monitoring and review of the school development plan.
 To prioritize action and the implementation of the development plan.
SMCs in schools are getting integrated with community and promotes community
participation as per RTE, but complete integration remains far fetched as the same
requires not only knowing the provisions but also in conceptualising them. For
efficient implementation of physical parameters of RTE like developing infrastructure,
fund allocation, attendance of teachers and students, Mid-day-meal, etc., the
members are required to be aware with them. However, there is a ready need
of understanding the concept behind such provisions.
Many a time, this has been observed that the members of the SMC are not aware
about their roles and duties to work in the SMC. They need to be oriented
properly before performing their duties. In this regard, the schools and both the
Block Resource Centres and Cluster Resource Centres are having important role
to empower the members to act actively in the SMC.

the Unit.
7. Highlight some provisions of RTE Act on formation of School Management
Committees.
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228 ............................................................................................................
Interface between School
8. Discuss in brief the composition of School Management Committees. and Community
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............................................................................................................
12.8 LET US SUM UP

The recapitulation of the Unit is as follows:
1. Community and neighborhood participation is an important component for
planning, administering and executing the whole schooling process.
2. “School is a miniature form of society”, the famous educationist John Dewey’s
statement clearly indicates school is a learning organization in which we grow
exactly the same way as we do in a society.
3. Community helps in making school developmental plan, supervising the
academic performances and monitoring the budget allocation of the schools.
RTE Act, 2009 tried to bring community and school put at one platform so
that the school can be benefitted by solving locally arisen problems through
local management.
4. The relationship between schools and neighborhoods is an important element
in community building.
5. Parent engagement is the process in which parents and teachers sharing a
responsibility to help their children to learn better, to meet educational goals
and to improve academic achievement.
6. In parent’s engagement, teachers involve parents as a partner in school
meetings or events.
7. In the process of parental involvement, parents participate in school events
or activities.
8. Teachers hold the primary responsibility to set educational goals and as an
advisor not as a partner who guides parents through academic support for
their child.
9. The contribution of a community can be seen explicitly when school can’t
handle drop-out cases for greater enrollment. In such cases, these committees
find out such students from their own locality and convince them to come to
school better than school staff.
10. The community not only involve in monitoring, administering and managing
the schooling process but also to improve quality of education as an assessor,
monitor, watchdog and facilitator like monitoring mid-day-meal preparation,
school maintenance, providing skill instruction and local culture information,
etc.
11. The formation of School Management Committee (SMC) for every school
is one of the important recommendations made in the Right to Education Act,
2009 under section 21A and construction of School Development Plan (SDP)
and many other responsibilities. 229
Sociological Perspective 12. SMC comprising of 75% of parents of students among them 50% should be
of Education
women; Rest of 25% i.e. 1/4th members should be from school teachers,
local authorities’ members and students.

Apple, Michael W. and Beane, James A (2006). ‘Democratic Schools: Lessons
from Chalkface’, Eklavya Publication. pp.243-246.
Ball, S. J. (1987). ‘The Micro – Politics of the School: Towards a theory of
school organization’, Methuen: London & New York.
Govt. of India (2009). The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
(RTE) Act, 2009. MHRD, New Delhi.
Govt. of India (2011). ‘Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Framework For Implementation
based on the RTE Act-2009’, Ministry of Human Resource and Development,
Department of School Education & Literacy.
SCERT (2013). ‘School Management Committee: Training Manual 2013-14’,
published by Department of UEE, New Delhi, SCERT.
SCERT (2019). ‘Handout on Right to Education Act-2019 and Model Rules
Under the Right to Children’, New Delhi.
Websites Referred
https://www.education.nh.gov/instruction/school_health/health_coord_family.htm
referred on 27.07.2019.
http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/
SMC%20Constitution%20Delhi.pdf referred on 27.07.2019.
‘Community Participation, Community Development and Non-formal
Education’. Infed encyclopaedia, Available at: “http://infed.org/mobi/community-
participation-community-development-and-non-formal-education/”.

1. Community is a kind of cultural environment where people live with certain
common ideologies, values and togetherness.
2. Neighbourhood is an important part of school as both the school and
neighbourhood are responsible for each other’s development. Neighbourhood
provides all sorts of supports for the development of the schools.
3. Parents are the important stakeholder of school system. Parents participate
in every development of schools and better parental interaction with school
system creates a conducive environment in the schools and that is directly
helping the education of their child.
4. Parent Engagement: In it parents and teachers both share a responsibility
to help their children to learn and to meet educational goals and achievements.
It happens when teachers involve parents in school meetings, events, and
parents volunteer their support at school. In it, teacher holds the role of a
partner in providing academic support to parents in their children learning.
230
Parents Involvement: While in parental involvement, parents participate Interface between School
and Community
in school events or activities, and teachers provide learning resources or
information about their student’s grades. In it teachers holds the main position
and primary responsibility to set educational goals. Teacher works as an
advisor not as a partner who guides parents through academic support for
their child.
5. Without community, school has no existence. It is therefore, school is called
as a miniature of the society. Community helps in developing schools in terms
of school infrastructure and human resources, finance, academic and other
activities of the schools.
6. Capacity building of the school and providing quality facilities in schools.
7. The formation of School Management Committee (SMC) for every school
is one of the important recommendations made in the Right to Education Act,
2009 under section 21A, and the responsibility of SMC is to develop School
Development Plan and to monitor its implementation.
8. SMC comprising of 75% of parents of students, among them 50% should
be women; Rest of 25%, 1/4th members should be from school teachers,
local authorities’ members and students.
231
of Education
232
BESC-131
Education: Concept,
Indira Gandhi
School of Education
Block
4
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE OF EDUCATION
Unit 13
Understanding Education from Psychological
Perspective 235
Unit 14
Understanding Education from Socio-Psychological
Perspectives 253
Unit 15
Shifting Psychological Theories to Understand
Education 271
Unit 16
Understanding Socio-Psychological Attributes 291
Socio-Psychological
Perspective of Education BLOCK 4 SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE OF
EDUCATION
‘Socio-Psychological Perspective of Education’ is the fourth Block of the
Course, BESC-131 ‘Education: Concept, Nature and Perspectives’. Every
discipline has its contexts and perspectives. The discipline of education has also
specifically addresses the socio-psychological perspective of education with
special reference to understanding education in view of applying psychological
principles and theories in educational discourses and understanding socio-
psychological attributes for framing education as a practice.
The first Unit (Unit-13) of this Block, ‘Understanding Education from
Psychological Perspective’ describes the concept, scope and methods of
educational psychology and explains relationships between education and
psychology. The psychological constructs and theories are being practiced in
education to study the behavior of the children and to practice it in modifying
their behaviour. It is, therefore, said, psychology provides knowledge, and
education practices that knowledge in real and field situations.
The second Unit (Unit-14) of this Block, ‘Understanding Education from
Socio-Psychological Perspectives’, discusses the concepts and ideas of social-
psychology and their contribution towards understanding education. Specifically,
it describes the history and principles of social psychology and their application
in educational practices.
The third Unit (Unit-15) of this Block, ‘Shifting Psychological Theories to
Understand Education’ explains the concept and principles of behaviourism,
cognitivism and social constructivism and their implications for educational
practices. Mostly, when we deal the children in the teaching-learning process,
we engage them by applying the conventional pedagogy as an approach. The
recently used constructivist or social constructivism approach is different from
the earlier practices of behaviourism and cognitivism. This Unit will engage you
in understanding the theoretical, principles of the above three approaches and
its implications for educational practices.
The fourth Unit (Unit-16) of this Block, ‘Understanding Socio-Psychological
Attributes’ elaborates the concepts, theories and measurement of various
attributes of human child such as intelligence, aptitude, creativity, motivation,
attitude, personality, etc. and uses it in their educational practices. We measure
the above attributes by using certain tools and techniques to understand the
children and accordingly to design the teaching-learning process. Further, the
implications of the above attributes for the teaching-learning process have also
been discussed.
234
Understanding Education from
UNIT 13 UNDERSTANDING Psychological Perspective
EDUCATION FROM
PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Educational Psychology: Meaning and Definition
13.3.1 Relationship between Education and Psychology
13.4 Scope of Educational Psychology

13.4.1 Learner
13.4.2 Learning Experience
13.4.3 Learning Process
13.4.4 Learning Situations or Environment
13.4.5 Teacher
13.5 Methods of Educational Psychology

13.5.1 Introspection Method
13.5.2 Observation Method
13.5.3 Experimental Method
13.5.4 Survey Method
13.5.5 The Clinical Method
13.5.6 Case Study Method
13.6 Let Us Sum Up

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, you will study about the concept of education and its relationships
with Psychology. You will also study about the Scope and Methods of Educational
Psychology.
Educational psychology involves two words “Education” and “Psychology”.
Education modifies the human behavior and Psychology studies human behavior.
Educational Psychology applies the knowledge of psychology to explain the
phenomenon of Education. Many a times, we observe that teachers with the same
qualifications show difference in communicating their ideas in the classroom. This
difference may be due to the lack of the knowledge of Educational Psychology
i.e. the knowledge of the learner, their abilities, skills, attitudes and the influence
of learning environment, etc.
Dr. Rajalaxmi Raina, Amity Institute of Behavioural and Allied Science, Amity University, Noida 235
Socio-Psychological
Perspective of Education 13.2 OBJECTIVES
 explain the concept of educational psychology;
 establish the relationship between psychology and education;
 discuss the scope of educational psychology; and
 explicate methods of study in educational psychology.
13.3 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING

AND DEFINITION
Educational Psychology is that field of study where the practical applications of
the knowledge of psychology are put into use in the field of education. In other
words, it deals with the application of the theories of psychology, its principles,
and techniques to understand human behavior in educational situations. Some
Psychologists have defined educational psychology as follows:
According to Skinner, “Educational Psychology is that branch of psychology
which deals with teaching and learning.” (1958, p.1)
According to Peel, “Educational Psychology is the Science of Education.”
(1956, p.8)
According to Crow and Crow, “Educational Psychology describes and explains
the learning experiences of an individual from birth through old age.”
(1973.p.7)
In view of the above definitions, we can deduce that educational psychology deals
broadly with the learner, nature of learning, growth of human personality, differences
among individuals and the study of the person in relation to society or educational
environment. It deals with the principles and techniques needed for understanding
the behaviour of the pupils and bringing desired changes in their behaviour for the
overall development of their personality. Educational Psychology is also called as
the science and technology of education. Thus, Educational Psychology helps the
teacher plan teaching learning experiences and select appropriate methods and
strategies for effective teaching in the classroom.
13.3.1 Relationship between Education and Psychology

Psychology is the science of behavior and is closely related to the teaching
learning process. Behavior of the children can be moulded in the desired direction
with the knowledge of psychology. The knowledge of educational psychology is
necessary to modify the actions of the learners or to shape their conduct and
personality. Thus, there is a rational relationship between education and psychology.
The teacher needs to have the knowledge of the developmental stages of children
and their characteristics. This knowledge helps the teacher manage the class
appropriately and also attain the objectives of teaching. Earlier, teaching-learning
process was teacher centered and now it has become learner-centred. Teaching-
learning activities are planned, designed and implemented with learners in focus.
236
Learner centered education Understanding Education from
Psychological Perspective
Education needs to be learner centered. The needs, interest and the ability of the
learner play an important role in the learning process. Hence, for planning and
organizing any educational task, the knowledge of psychology is needed. This is
the reason why stress is given on the psychological base of education by almost
all educators. Base of education must be centered on psychological principles and
theories advocated by Froebel, Pestalozzi and Montessori. Psychological principles
help in understanding almost all aspects of education.
Application of psychological principles in education
 Principles and theories developed in psychology are applied to different
educational situations. In this way, education and psychology are inter-
related with each other.
 The psychological principles are taken into consideration while preparing the
curriculum. The age, interest, aptitude, abilities of learners, individual
differences, etc. are considered while planning the curriculum.
 The methods of teaching, teaching techniques, as well as the motivational
techniques used by the teachers are based on the theories and principles of
educational psychology.
 Psychology helps in finding solution to different educational problems through
research.
 School time table is prepared keeping in mind the psychological principles.
 Effective school administrations and organization needs knowledge of
psychology.
 Exceptional children are studied with the help of the knowledge of psychology.
 Psychology helps in dealing the problem of discipline in the school.
 Educational psychology provides knowledge about mental health of the
teacher.
 Psychology provides knowledge about evaluation procedure for fostering
better learning in the school.
So, we cannot think of educational practice without the knowledge of psychology.
Role of Educational Psychology
Educational psychology helps the teachers in the following ways:
i. Infancy, childhood and adolescence are different stages of development in
the life of a person. Each stage of development has its own characteristics
and needs. Studying the growth and development is one of the objectives of
educational psychology. Therefore, educational psychology helps teachers to
understand the growth and development of the children.
ii. Knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher in designing teaching-
learning strategies. It also helps the teacher to select the methods, techniques
and maxims of teaching as per the individual needs and differences.
237
Socio-Psychological iii. Educational psychology helps a teacher to understand the personality and
Perspective of Education
other differences among students of a class. Therefore, knowledge of
educational psychology helps the teachers to deal with such students as
understanding personality is also an objective of educational psychology.
iv. Knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher to make his/her
teaching innovating. Teacher can also develop innovative strategies of teaching
which help him/her in effective teaching and communication.
v. Many a times, maladjustment behavior of the children create problem in the
teaching learning process but with the knowledge of educational psychology,
teacher is able to study the mental health of the children and the factors
responsible for their mental health and maladjustment behaviour.
vi. Framing of curriculum at different stages of education follows the psychological
principles. In the present time, we use constructivist pedagogy to develop
our curriculum and to facilitate the students to construct their own knowledge.
Constructivist pedagogy is designed upon psychological principles. Therefore,
educational psychology plays an important role in framing curriculum.
vii. The learning outcomes of the students are measured with the help of the
Psychological tools. Knowledge of educational psychology is also required
for developing different psychological tools. Therefore, the role of educational
psychology is to help the teachers develop different psychological tools,
specifically for use in their classroom teaching as well as for other research
purpose.
viii. Knowledge of the Guidance and Counselling is also an important part of
Educational Psychology. In order to provide guidance and counseling to the
students, knowledge of educational psychology is required. Therefore,
educational psychology plays an important role in providing guidance and
counseling to the students.

the Unit.
1. What is Educational Psychology?
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2. How are Education and Psychology related?
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238 ............................................................................................................
3. How does knowledge of Educational Psychology help a teacher? Psychological Perspective
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13.4 SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The scope of education is very wide. You can understand the scope of Educational
Psychology from the subject matter it deals with. As an area of study in ‘education’,
Educational Psychology deals with the stakeholders of education as well as the
processes of education. The subject matter of Educational Psychology comprises
the following components of educational process:
i. Learner
ii. Learning Experiences
iii. Learning Process
iv. Learning Situation or Environment
v. Teacher
13.4.1 Learner
The whole subject matter of educational psychology revolves around the learner.
It is the learner who needs to be studied well at all the stages of development.
Educational Psychology provides knowledge by which we can understand our
learners. It helps us to understand developmental characteristics of the learners,
their individual differences related to intelligence, their adjustment abilities and
personality. Learners’ ways of thinking, attitudes, intelligence, aptitudes, interests,
creativity, self-concept, etc. are also studied in Educational Psychology. Therefore,
understanding learners and accordingly providing them with necessary learning
facilities come under the scope and purview of educational psychology.
13.4.2 Learning Experiences

Teacher plans various learning experiences for the learners. Educational psychology
helps teacher in selecting the appropriate techniques and methods for transaction
of learning experiences. Teacher plans different learning experiences for their
learners at different stages of their academic growth and development.
13.4.3 Learning Process

Educational psychology helps a teacher in planning and implementing teaching-
learning activities. After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences
are to be transacted, teacher makes use of the laws, principles and theories of
learning in his/her teaching-learning activities. Other processes in learning such as
memorizing and forgetting, intuitive understanding, concept development, problem
solving, thinking and ways of analyzing, transmission of learning, and ways of
facilitating efficient learning, etc. are also considered by teacher while planning and
implementing teaching-learning activities. 239
Socio-Psychological 13.4.4 Learning Situation or Environment
For the smooth operation of the teaching-learning process, the teacher ought to
have the knowledge of conducive conditions for learning like classroom environment
and group size in the class, media and techniques that support learning and
counseling techniques and practices, evaluation techniques, etc. Educational
Psychology helps the teacher to create learning scenarios or environment for
efficient student learning.
13.4.5 The Teacher

The teacher is a significant component of teaching learning process. Educational
Psychology helps the teacher to take part in the teaching-learning process effectively.
It specifies the role of teacher in the teaching learning process. It throws light on
the personality traits, qualities, interests, abilities, attitude and the characteristics
of successful teacher.
Though the entire scope of Educational Psychology is included in the above

mentioned five key-components, it may be further expanded by adding the
following:
 Educational Psychology studies human behaviour in education. It deals with

the modification and improvement of human behavior. Hence, educational
psychology encompasses the whole field of education.
 Educational Psychology aids in studying growth and development of the

children. How a child goes through different stages of growth and development,
and what are the distinctiveness of each stage are integrated in the study of
educational psychology. It provides knowledge about intellectual, moral and
social development of a child.
 Educational Psychology also deals with the heredity and environment. It

discusses the contribution of heredity and environment to the growth of the
individuals and how this knowledge can be made use of to bring out the
optimum progress of the child.
 Education means development of all qualities of a human being. Educational

Psychology deals with the nature and development of the personality of an
individual.
 All human beings vary from each other. The concept of individual difference
in the educational process in understood with the help of Educational
Psychology.
 As discussed earlier, educational psychology assists the teachers to provide

guidance and counseling to the students.
We can conclude by saying that Educational Psychology is slender in scope than

general psychology. While general psychology deals with the behaviour of a
human being in a general context, educational psychology is concerned with the
behaviour of the students in an educational setting.
240
Activity 1 Psychological Perspective
Educational Psychology is a dynamic subject. Discuss.
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the Unit.
4. How does Educational Psychology’ help a teacher?
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5. How is teacher one of the components of subject matter of Educational
Psychology? Explain
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13.5 METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Educational psychology is an applied branch of general psychology. Therefore, it
uses the research findings and principles developed by psychologist to improve
teaching-learning process. The main aim of educational psychology is to develop
necessary skills and competencies in the prospective teacher so as to enable him/
her to understand, control and predict the behaviour of learners in educative
process at different levels. To accomplish this, various methods are employed to
collect data on problems of behavior of the learners. Generally, educational
psychology uses similar methods as that of general psychology, like introspection,
observation, experiment, case study and clinical methods.
Therefore, in the study of behavior of children, adolescents and adults in educational
situations, the following methods are commonly used. 241
Socio-Psychological i. Introspection Method
ii. Observation Method
iii. Experimental Method
iv. Survey Method
v. The Clinical Method
vi. Case Study Method
13.5.1 Introspection Method
Introspection is one of the most popular methods of educational psychology.
Introspection involves observation of self, i.e., to report, evaluate and examine
one’s own mental state. Introspection implies self-observation i.e. to comprehend
one’s own state of mind or to see one-self from within. It can also be defined as
self-observation method. The founder of this method was ‘Wilhelm Wundt’. In
this method individuals perceive, analyze, and report one’s own feelings. This is
a purposeful systematic process.
Merits of Introspection Method
Introspection method has the following merits:
 Introspection is known to be the easiest method amongst all the methods of
Educational Psychology.
 It is an economical method since the subject and the investigator are the
same and there is no need of laboratory. It is a very easy method and
requires no equipment.
 It helps teacher in understanding the mental state, and feelings of a learner.
It gives information about one’s own self which is difficult to understand by
other methods.
 In most researches, introspection method is used. It helps teacher in improving
his/her teaching method and strategy.
Drawbacks of Introspection Method
 It is very difficult to study one’s inner behavior by one self.
 The data of the introspection method may not be reliable and valid since the
investigator may become subjective and biased when s/he looks into his/her
own feelings.
 Every person is not capable of doing introspection for e.g. abnormal individuals
and children cannot do introspection.
 Introspection demands a lot of skill and training that need to be acquainted
by an individual.
 This method lacks objectivity and is subjective in nature.
 This method is not reliable because there are constant changes in the mental
processes of the human mind and thus difficult for one to introspect.
 Introspection cannot be employed on children.
242  Introspection is regarded as an unscientific method.
Hence, we can wrap up with concluding that the introspection method can’t be Understanding Education from
considered as accurate; the limitations can be overcome by proper training, and
only then, it can become valuable. Introspection has no doubt limitations, but in
experimental psychology, introspective report of the subject is very important.
13.5.2 Observation Method
Observation is the oldest and most used method of educational psychology. It is
considered as the most suitable method for the study of human behaviour. By this
method we can get information about the behavior of the individual by observing
his/her activities. The mental state of a person can be understood by observing
the external behaviour of a person.
During observation we come to know about the environment through our sense
organs. The following steps are followed in the observation method:
 Planning and preparation for observation
 Observation of the behavior
 Analysis and Interpretation of the observed facts
 Generalization of the results
Observation may be controlled or uncontrolled. Controlled observation is also
called as Experimental Observation. Observation under controlled condition is
known as controlled observation. Uncontrolled observation is called as
Naturalistic Observation. This observation means observing the behaviors of
others in uncontrolled or natural conditions.
Types of Observation
There are different ways in which observation can be conducted. Some of the
types are as follows:
 Formal Observation
 Informal Observation
 Participant Observation
 Non-Participant Observation
Formal Observation: In this method, observation is carried out in a formal way.
In this type of observation, the subject is informed of the purpose, the place, date,
time of the observation. However, such type of observation cannot provide valid
and reliable conclusions. For example, prior to observation if any school is informed
of the purpose, date and time of inspection, such a formally announced observation
will make the authorities of the school alert and surely fail to achieve its objectives.
So, the real behavior of the participants cannot be studied.
Informal Observation: This type of observation is carried out without informing
the individual of the purpose, place, date and time of the observation. The individual
remains unaware of the fact that his/her behaviour is being observed. The behaviour
of the individual is observed in the natural setting. The individual remains natural
and his/her true behaviour and personality can be studied.
243
Socio-Psychological Participant Observation: In this type of observation, the observer joins with the
individual whom he/she wants to observe as a participant in his/her activity. For
example, the observer may join with the individual in any academic activity and
thus gets the opportunity of observing his/her behaviour. But there is a limitation
to this method as the observer’s presence may obstruct the natural response of
the individual.
Non-Participant Observation: In this type of observation, the observer may

take such a position that the individual who is being observed doesn’t come to
know. The individual is not able to notice the observer. Observation is done
without the subject getting any idea that he/she is being observed. The use of
secret cameras, video and audio recording can serve this purpose. The purpose
of this observation is to study the natural behaviour of the individual without
making him/her aware of the presence of the observer.
Merits of the Observation
 Observation method is more scientific than introspection method. It studies

the behavior of the subject in its natural and original form.
 Observation method is a valid and reliable method for carrying out any study.
 Observation method studies the present behaviour. The investigator does not
have to care about the past history or behaviour of the individual.
 The behaviour can be studied repeatedly till the proper response is obtained.
The behaviour can be observed by a single observer as well as by many.
 The observation method is economical. We don’t need any special laboratory,

time money and labour. Nor do we need a specially trained person to
investigate the behaviour by this method.
 We cannot only study the behaviour of human beings but we can also study
the behaviour of plants, animals, birds, etc. with the help of observation
method. This method has a wide scope and application in educational
research.
 Observation method helps in collecting both qualitative and quantitative data

for the purpose of the research.
 This can be used anytime and anywhere.
Demerits of the Observation
 It is very difficult to get trained observers. In the absence of trained observer,

the observation work is bound to suffer. Thus, skilled observers are needed
so that irrelevant data is not collected.
 Observation is subjective. The results of the observation can be affected by

the subjective factors of the investigator. The interest, values, bias and
244
prejudices of the investigator may distort the results of the observation. Understanding Education from
 Sometimes the subject behaves artificially in some circumstances. This may
also lead to wrong observation.
 If the observer has partial attitude towards the subject, it also affects the
result of the observation. Observer may favour the subject he/she likes and
looks down upon the one he/she dislikes.
 Observation method totally depends on the external behavior of the subject.

It does not speak about the internal mind set of the subject, thus this method
lacks reliability and validity.
 The behavior observed at a particular time and place is not repeated at the
other time and place. Each natural situation just occurs only once, thus it
lacks repeatability.
 It is difficult to observe the personal problems and experiences of the subject.
 Observation method cannot be used to observe the total behaviour of the

individual. It studies only the external behaviour, but the internal behaviour
remains unexplored.
13.5.3 Experimental Method

In the experimental method, importance is laid on the experiments and the observed
outcomes. The phenomenon or the material is put to test in this method. This
technique has been developed in psychology for the scientific study of human
behaviour. This method helps in understanding, controlling and predicting the
behaviour. Experimental method is planned and follows systematic observation
of the phenomenon. Experimental design is used in this method to provide important
guidelines to the researcher to perform research systematically. The experimenter
needs a laboratory or a classroom or any place in the community for conducting
his/her experiment. The behaviour of the controlled group and the experimental
group are compared through this method.
Characteristics of Experimental Method
 It enables us to study behaviour under controlled conditions.
 It is scientific in nature.
 The experimental method can be repeated without any difficulty.
 It follows the process of randomization.
 The results or conclusions arrived at through this method are reliable and
generalizable.
Steps of Experimental Method
Usually the following steps are followed in conducting experiment. 245

Socio-Psychological
Fig. 13.1: Steps followed in Experimental Method
The following are the essential features or requirements underlying the experiment:
Table 13.1: Essential features and requirements of experimental method
Essential Features Requirements of Experiment
Psychological laboratory There should be psychological laboratory fully
equipped with apparatus.
Experimenter There is an investigator
Subject There is a subject or subjects on whom the
experiment is performed.
Stimulus By “stimulus”, we mean any external input in the
environment which prompts the organism to
behave, or to react.
Response Response is reaction to the stimulus. It is also
defined as alteration in behaviour which can be
observed. The observable change in behaviour
is known as response.
Variables When we do an experiment, usually we use the
variables, which may be dependent or
independent variables. We do experiment in a
controlled condition and find out the effect by
246 observing the changes occurred in the variables.
Merits of Experimental Method Understanding Education from
 Experimental method is most reliable, valid, systematic, precise and objective
method of psychology.
 Psychology is considered as a science as experimental method is used to
study psychological behavior of human beings.
 This method has universal application. It can be applied on everyone. Even
animals can be studied with the help of this method.
 Intelligence, personality, attitude, individual differences, mental disorders and
other psychological traits can be studied by this method. This method is
applicable to all the branches of psychology.
 This method is applicable to study special activities like the phenomena of
conditioning, reaction time of the subject, etc.
 Experimental method can be pre-planned.
 The conditions can be controlled and varied by the experimenter systematically.
Experiment can be repeated as many times as required.
 Results of the experiment can be verified.
Demerits of Experimental Method
 Experimental method is very lengthy, time and energy consuming.
 A well-equipped laboratory or apparatus is required in this method; thus it
is very expensive method. It also requires experts to conduct experiment.
 It is not an easy method. Sometimes, it becomes difficult in controlling
variables.
 At times, there is a problem of measuring dependent variable. This also limits
the scope of this method.
 In the laboratory, we control all other variables and arrive at a finding regarding
the relation between a specific stimulus and a specific response. In actual life,
several stimuli act at the same time and several responses appear. Hence
there is a gap between the laboratory experiments and life.
 We cannot study all the phenomena by this method.
 This method has the restriction of time and place.
13.5.4 Survey Method

We use survey method to study and analyze important aspects of a pattern, a
particular behaviour, and present status and quality of an existing group. Many
personality characteristics of a group like interest, aptitude, attitude, habits, can
be studied with the help of survey method. Survey method is used to obtain
desired specific information through an extensive study involving all the members
of the population or its representative sample. There are two instruments of
collecting the information by the researcher in the survey method.
1. Questionnaire
247
2. Interview
Socio-Psychological Questionnaire in survey
Questionnaire is a form containing systematically planned questions. It is given to
the respondents to collect answers to questions asked. The respondents belong
to a given population or a representative sample. There are two types of surveys
which are conducted by using questionnaires. They are Mail Survey
(questionnaires are sent through surface mail or email or online); and Door to
Door Survey (in this mode, the investigator goes to the respondent’s house or
office to fill up the questionnaire).
Interview technique
It is a technique of collecting information from the respondent in face-to-face
manner. There are two forms of interview:
 Structured or Standardized Interview: In this format the interview is
structured and standardized well in advance as per the requirement and
questions are set with probable response options.
 Unstructured or Non-Standardized: In this format, the interviewer is free
to ask any question to the respondents to get the desired information.
Merits of Interview
 Proper rapport can be established which helps in getting the most confidential
information.
 Face to face interaction between interviewer and interviewee.
 We can collect the most confidential information.
 It is a flexible tool.
Demerits of Interview
 The respondent may not reveal real responses.
 It suffers from subjectivity of the investigator.
 It needs a skilled interviewer.
 It is expensive in terms of labour, time and money.
13.5.5 The Clinical Method

This method is designed to deal with the problems of maladjusted individuals. Its
primary role is to collect detailed data on the behavioural problems of disturbed
and deviant individuals. The main objective of this method is to learn about the
individual or a group of individuals to identify and analyze their specific problems
and give suitable suggestions and treatment. The clinical method is used by clinical
psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers and teachers to understand the causes
and sources of people’s fears, anxieties, worries, and obsessions, their personal,
social, educational and vocational maladjustments, etc. This method is used to
diagnose the problem, treat the individual by giving him/her suggestions.
Methods of Diagnosis:
The problem behaviour or the maladjustment of an individual can be diagnosed
248 by using many techniques such as physical examination, case history, clinical
interview and appraisal of abilities and aptitudes. The behaviour of the patient is Understanding Education from
changed by giving him/her treatment, so that, he/she is able to adjust well to the
environment. Thus the diagnosis is conducted by the psychologist to bring the
change in the behaviour.
13.5.6 Case Study Method

The case study method is a comprehensive method in which the investigator
studies the past history related to the problem, the present status and the future
possibilities of dealing with problem of the individual case. The individual who is
confronted with an educational, mental, social, emotional or personal problem is
called a ‘case’. As the doctor or lawyer solves the problem of his/her clients,
similarly in the case study method, the researcher diagnoses the problem of the
patient and provides remedial measures. This method is applied to learn about
special behavioural problems of an individual by psychiatrists, especially psychologist
and trained teachers. The main objective of this method is to diagnose and treat
behavioural problems and provide better guidance and counselling.
The following steps are followed in the case study method:
 Obtaining basic preliminary information about the subject’s name, age, sex,
parent’s age, education, occupation as well as social status.
 Conducting proper physical check-up of the individual in order to ascertain
whether his/her behavioural problem is due to any disease. Only in the
absence of any physical ailment can psychological treatment start.
 Ensuring that the subject is comfortable with the investigator. The investigator
(teacher or psychologist) should be friendly and the language of collecting
data must be simple so that free and frank responses can be obtained.
 Ensuring that the investigator does not tire the subject; instead, regular intervals
of rest should be given.
 Observing the behaviour of the individual in natural setting and working
conditions.
 Taking special care in the post treatment episode so that there is no
reappearance of the trouble.
Merits of Case-study Method
 The overall investigation of the behaviour of the individual is carried out
through this method.
 This method is very much useful for the treatment of problem children,
delinquents, maladjusted, emotionally and socially disturbed individuals.
 This is a comprehensive study of the behaviour. The results of this study are
reliable, objective and valid.
 This method helps in giving proper guidance and counselling to the individual
since the investigator comes very close to the individual during the study.
Demerits of the Cast-study Method
 The case study cannot be entrusted to classroom subject teachers. It needs
technical experts to deal with the subjects. 249
Socio-Psychological  The case study method is very comprehensive and extensive. This method
demands time, labour and money.
 Data collected from various sources for investigation may not be valid, reliable
and objective for the analysis and investigation of the case.
 Sometimes, the information obtained may become highly subjective and that
may not be reliable and valid.
 The likelihood of errors in understanding the troubles as well as treatment is
high; therefore extreme care must be taken to minimize the mistakes.

the Unit.
6. Discuss the merits of experimental method.
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7. Explain the clinical method of educational psychology.
............................................................................................................
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8. What do you mean by case study method?
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13.6 LET US SUM UP

Educational Psychology deals with studying human behavior in educational
situations. It is an application of the knowledge of psychology to the field of
Education. In other words, it deals with the application of the theories of psychology,
its principles, and techniques to study human behavior in educational situations.
There is a logical relationship between education and psychology. The teacher
needs to have the knowledge of the developmental stages of children and their
characteristics. This knowledge helps the teacher to manage the class appropriately
and also achieve the objectives of teaching. In the earlier times, education was
250 teacher centered but in modern times, it is child centered. The learner is the pivot
around which all the elements of teaching learning revolve. The important factors Understanding Education from
of educational process around which the subject matter of educational psychology
revolves are the learners, learning experiences, learning process, learning situation
or environment and teacher. The main aim of educational psychology is to develop
necessary skills and competencies among the prospective teachers to enable him
to understand, control and predict the behaviour of learners in educative process
at different levels. To accomplish this, various methods are employed to collect
data on problems of behavior of the learners. Generally educational psychology
uses similar methods as that of general psychology, like introspection, observation,
experiment, case history and clinical methods.

Alberto, P., & Troutman, A. (2003). Applied behavior analysis for teachers
(6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Prentice-Hall-Merrill.
Bigge, M.L. and Hunt, M.P. (1968). Psychological Foundations of Education,
Harper& Row, New York
Crow and Crow (1973). “Educational Psychology”, Eurasia Publishing House,
New York.
Chauhan, S.S., (1978). “Advanced Educational Psychology” Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd.
Peel, E.A. (1956). The Psychological basis of Education, Oliver & Boyd,
London.
Skinner, M, Daniel (1978). Educational Psychology, Allyn & Bacon, New
York.

1. Educational Psychology is that field of study where the application of the
knowledge of psychology is used in the field of education. In other words,
it deals with the application of the theories of Psychology, its principles,
psychology, and techniques to study human behavior in education.
2. Psychology is the science of behavior and is closely related to Education.
The behavior of the children can be modified in the desired direction with the
knowledge of psychology. Thus, there is a logical relationship between
education and psychology.
3. Knowledge of educational psychology helps the teachers in guiding the children
related to their development at the infancy, childhood, and adolescence period.
It also helps the teachers to know the problems of the child and to provide
remedial instructions to them. It helps the teachers to design teaching-learning
strategies for classroom teaching at different stages of education. Further, it
helps the teachers to understand the individual differences of the students and
to provide education accordingly. Educational psychology also helps to
develop curriculum and preparation of different tools for the use at the
classroom teaching.
4. Educational psychology helps a teacher to understand learner, learning
experience, learning process, learning situation or environment and also himself/
herself. 251
Socio-Psychological 5. Knowledge of educational psychology is very much important for the teachers
as they deal the students in their everyday activity in schools.
6. Experimental method is a reliable and valid method; it is a systematic and
scientific method; it is verifiable; result of experimental method is objective
and comparatively error free; etc.
7. Clinical method is designed to deal with the problems of maladjusted
individuals. Its primary role is to gather detailed information on the behavioural
problems of disturbed children. The main aim of this method is to understand
the individual case or cases of group to detect and analyze their specific
problems and give suitable suggestions and treatment.
8. Case study method is a comprehensive method in which the investigator
studies the past history related to the problem, the present status and the
future possibilities of dealing with problem of the individual case. The individual
who is confronted with an educational, mental, social, emotional or personal
problem is called a ‘case’. A case study is done systematically and scientifically.
252
Understanding Education
UNIT 14 UNDERSTANDING from Socio-Psychological
Perspectives
EDUCATION FROM
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Concept of Social Psychology
14.3.1 Study of Social Behavior of Human Beings
14.3.2 Study of how People Perceive about Others
14.3.3 Study of Thinking, Feeling and Action of People
14.3.4 Study of Causes of Individual’s Behavior in Social Situations
14.3.5 Defining Social Psychology
14.3.6 Understanding Socio-Psychological Phenomena
14.4 History of Social Psychology

14.5 Principles of Social Psychology
14.6 Relation between Education and Social Psychology
14.7 Chief Proponents of Social Psychological Concept
14.8 Let Us Sum Up
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Children acquire a lot of learning experiences from the close interaction with the
environment where they live, be it their family, peers, club, playmates,
neighbourhood, etc. These learning experiences of the children need to be a part
of our teaching-learning process. Teaching-learning process is primarily a social
activity. Therefore, educational activities cannot be organized by a teacher without
understanding social-psychological context of learners. Social psychology, as a
field, helps to understand the nature of social behavior, inter-personal relationships,
determination of individuals towards others and different situations, etc. It differs
from other social sciences in its focus in regard to individual’s thought and behavior.
The present Unit focuses on understanding education from Socio-psychological
perspectives.
14.2 OBJECTIVES
After learning this Unit, you should be able to:
 define social psychology;
 explain the areas in which social psychology is operates;
253
Dr. Biswajit Behera, School of Education, Central University of Punjab.
Socio-Psychological  understand the principles of social psychology;
 explain the main proponents of social psychology;
 review the history in the area of social psychology; and
 apply the rules of social psychology in the field of education.
14.3 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

In our daily life, we interact with our family members at home, with our neighbours
in the community, with friends and teachers in schools or colleges and with a
number of other people on different occasions. Establishing relationships through
social interactions characterize human beings as social beings. As social beings,
all members of the society are related to each other to bring meaning to their lives.
Making relationship is a vital factor for social well-being. Maslow (1970) listed
‘belongingness’ as the third most important motive after primary need in a hierarchy
of needs. Dalai Lama rightly said that our purpose in this life is to help others.
Thus, how individuals interact and behave with others, why they behave, think,
feel in different social situations are pertinent questions which need to be answered.
Thus, Social Psychology covers the following areas:
14.3.1 Study of Social Behavior of Human Beings

Social psychology attempts to understand the social behavior of individuals.
Behaviors of individuals are determined by both human characteristics like
personality, attitudes, interests, thinking, belief systems, etc. as well as external
factors operating in social environment. Social behavior of an individual is
systematically studied. For example, your behavior may be studied by asking
certain questions like:
 Are you able to share things and objects with others?
 Why do your ideas or thinking conflict with others?
 How do you handle such conflicts?
 Do you contribute ideas and suggestions for other members of your

community?
 Do you accept others’ ideas or suggestions?
 What seems to be your defense mechanisms?

So, social psychology focuses more on individuals- how one thinks about others
and in what way s/he is influenced by them (Fiske, 2004).
14.3.2 Study of how People Perceive about Others

Social psychology is a branch of psychology concerned with social behavior of
human beings; how human beings are influenced by each other and how one’s
belief system affects perception (Markus, 2005). It is an applied science in which
principles, methods and theories of psychology are applied to explain and understand
human behavior. It tries to study influence of other persons which regulate one’s
behavior. So, social psychology studies how people perceive about others; how
they are influenced by each other and how they interact with one another resulting
254
in social relationship. It is more focused on social behavior of an individual. It is Understanding Education
from Socio-Psychological
concerned with individuals’ ‘opinions and their impact’ on one another.
Perspectives
Study of Social Perception
- A member’s attitude towards others (Affection, Love, Trust, Hate, etc.)
- Strength of his/her feelings (deep, casual, indifferent)
- How does he/she get along with others?
- How does he /she wish people would behave towards him/her?
Thus, how people perceive, how they are influenced by others and how they
interact with one another to bring about social relationship are studied by social
psychology, which is illustrated in the Figure 14.1:
Fig. 14.1: Components of Social Psychology
14.3.3 Study of Thinking, Feeling and Action of People

Social psychology studies human thinking, factors of influence and relationship
among us by inquiring into our thought processes. Individual’s thoughts, feelings
and actions are influenced by the real as well as imagined presence of others.
These are manifested in terms of social behavior. These behaviors are studied by
social psychology. The interaction among thinking, feeling and actions of one’s
solid behavior is represented in the Figure 14.2.
255
Fig. 14.2: Components of Social Behavior
Socio-Psychological In order to understand social action and behavior, let’s examine the following
Perspective of Education social actions.
An Illustration on social action:
Examples of social actions are given below. You have to examine these social
actions to find out expected social behaviour.
1. There is a goal which group members understand and agree on.
2. Members sometimes disagree with each other over suggestions, but most
suggestions are relevant to problems.
3. Occasionally, there are expressions of warmth.
4. There is a movement towards some solution to the problem.
Then, you may infer about the social behavior of members that,
 Members are working hard on a problem.
 Expression is constructive rather than destructive.
14.3.4 Study of Causes of Individual’s Behavior in Social

Situations
Social psychology studies the causes of the behavior of the individual in social
situations. The causes of human behavior are inquired into through social psychology
by asking questions such as:
 How can we convince people to change their attitudes or to adopt new ideas
and values?
 How do we come to understand other’s likings or dislikings?
 Why are some people connected with others and why are some isolated
from others?
 How are we influenced by what others do?
 Why do some people exhibit aggression, cruelty and violence towards others?
 Why do some people put their lives at risk in order to help others?
14.3.5 Defining Social Psychology

Social psychology is a branch of study which studies how people influence others
in their thinking, feeling and actions. Social influence is the change of behavior that
one person causes to another, intentionally or unintentionally. It is the way how
people change their attitudes or behaviors towards others. It results from a specific
action. For example, social influence can eliminate superstitions among people.
Social psychology studies the factors influencing good relationships with others.
Why does one become friendly and at other times becomes unfriendly and
aggressive? Why do some people behave in one way and others in another way
in social settings? Answers to such questions constitute the subject matters of
social psychology. Thus, Social Psychologists deal with social behavior.
Psychologists viewed social psychology from different perspectives. Let us study
256 some definitions of social psychology.
Mc Dougall (1908): ‘Social psychology studies inter social stimulation and Understanding Education
response, social attitudes, values and personalities.’ from Socio-Psychological
Perspectives
Allport (1924): ‘Social psychology is the science which studies the behavior of
individual which describes the consciousness of the individuals.’
J.M. Williams: ‘Social psychology is the science of motives of people living in
social relationship.’
Ellwood (1924): ‘Social psychology is the part of sociology and accordingly
defined as the science of the origin, development, structure and functioning of
groups.’
Kurt Lewin (1936): ‘Social psychology is the scientific study of individual behavior
in social situations.’
It is revealed from the afore-mentioned definitions that social psychology studies
the psychological factors involved in the social process. Psycho-social behaviours
of an individual constitute the area of social psychology. Cognitive as well as
affective behaviours of an individual are affected by the social group interaction.
Investigation into the factors that affect social life is one of the major concerns of
social psychology. How social interactions give rise to psychological development
of an individual is an emerging subject matter of social psychology.
14.3.6 Understanding Socio-Psychological Phenomena
An Illustration
Let’s understand the social-psychological phenomena by considering the role of
cooperation and competition towards social success. Social psychologists postulate
how social interaction influences motivation, goal setting and ultimately social
behavior. Social cognitive theorists posit that an individual’s behaviours in certain
ways depend on the salient features of social environment. So, individuals’ self-
monitoring determines their own action. As per Kohler motivation effect,
unfavorable social environment leads to increase in motivation in a competitive
environment. Thus, competition in turn, leads to motivation to improve performance.
Two nearly ubiquitous aspects of social environment are the elements of competition
and cooperation. Cooperation is understood to facilitate stronger benefits and
feelings of success in society because it allows more opportunities for achievement
in group than are available individually (Slavin, 1995). In the preceding discussion
on social success, we can find out that social psychologists focus on understanding
of one or more of the followings: how people think about, feel about and influence
each other.

the Unit.
1. Social behavior is ................................. ?
a) How people act in the society
b) How people sense the society
c) How people feel towards society
d) How people live in the society 257
Socio-Psychological
Perspective of Education 2. Which is more influential towards one’s social behavior?
a) Personal characteristics only
b) Environment only
c) Interaction between Personal characteristics and Environment
d) Either Personal characteristics or Environment
3. Social psychology studies influences of one on others in ................. ?
a) Thinking
b) Feeling
c) Actions
d) All of these
14.4 HISTORY OF SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGY

French sociologist Auguste Comte (1838) was the first proponents to study social
processes in a scientific way. He laid the foundations for social psychology.
During early period of growth of social psychology, experiments were based on
group behavior (Tripleett, 1898). In 1908, English Psychologist, William Mc
Dougall studied instincts in response to social world. This study was grounded
with socio-emotional behaviors like fear, anger, curiosity and tenderness. The
study of social psychology gained momentum at the turn of 20th century. The first
half of the 20th century explored research in social psychology. This expanded to
the study of attitudes with special emphasis on cognitive processes.
The study of social psychology gained momentum during the World War II. This
war influenced a lot towards theory and research in social psychology. Psychologists
became interested to remove the prejudices and blind beliefs against ethnic
minorities and considered the effects of contact. Stanley Milgram (1974), showed
the importance of conformity in social groups and the role of combat on how
people in authority could create obedience. This brought research to develop
‘contact hypothesis’ (Allport, 1954). Gordon Allport focused on intergroup
relationships with an understanding to reduce stereotyping, prejudice and
discriminations. Durkheim (1954) asserted the importance of social rules constituting
desires. So he recognized the social character of self.
In the latter half of the 20th century research on social psychology was diversified.
There were diverse areas of psychology like aggression, pro-social behavior and
interpersonal relationships.
The 21st century explored influence of social situations on human happiness. This
has given rise to emerging area of social neuroscience. It is understood that our
social behavior is influenced by the activities of our brain (Iacoboni, 2009).With
the advancement of cognitive psychology along with computer technology, S.Taylor,
Lee Ross and many others focused on social cognition in order to understand
how our knowledge about our social world develops through experience and
ultimately influence our memory, information processing, attitudes and judgments.
Thus, Social psychology was a major area of psychology in the 20th century.
258 During 1920s Freud and Mc Dougall were influential in the field of social psychology.
But by 1970s, social and personality psychologists paid more attention to this
field. During the 21st century, digital technology and social neuroscience flourished Perspectives
in the social psychological research. Now the major concern is to study the
influences of social situations towards happiness.

the Unit.
4. Which is an emerging area of social psychology?
a) Personality
b) Social neuroscience
c) Attitude
d) Aggression
14.5 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGY

Social psychology is one of the branches of psychology. The following principles
illustrate social psychology as a science.
i) Social Psychology is a Positive Science
Social psychology studies one’s social behavior in a scientific way. It is a science.
It encompasses scientific methods and values like accuracy, objectivity and open
mindedness. It follows objective and systematic methods of investigation. Accurate
and valid information about the social behavior are collected and evaluated. It
studies the ‘what’ and ‘why’ aspects of social behavior of an individual. It never
answers about ‘what should be the behavior’ of an individual. Conclusions about
the social world deduced from the intuition, faith, blind beliefs and unobservable
forces are not the concern of social psychology. So, making assertions based on
those unscientific beliefs do not come under the purview of social psychology.
Therefore, it is positive science.
ii) Social Psychology is the Study of Dynamic Relationship between
Individual and the People around him/her.
Every individual has distinctive but unique characteristics. Individual characteristics
include personality traits, motivations and emotions. These qualities have an
important influence on our social behavior. One’s behavior is influenced by his/her
social situations around him, with whom he/she interacts every day. The individuals
with whom he/she comes in contact across the society include his/her friends,
family, classmates, relatives, religious members, and the people who interact with
him/her through Internet. Accordingly, social psychologists study person’s
characteristics and his/her interactions with different members of the society to
understand the nature of his/her behavior.
iii) Social Psychology is the Study of Social Situations
Human behavior is greatly influenced by social situations. Human behavior is the
product of a person’s characteristics and his/her actions in social situations. Social
situation is regulated by one’s thoughts, feelings and actions through which one 259
Socio-Psychological exhibits his/her behavior. It is a shared construction of social reality that does not
Perspective of Education exist but is constructed in our minds and passed on through different channels of
social communication like gossip, rumors, rituals, school lessons, etc. Individual’s
choices, interests, attitudes and perceptions influence others around him/her. Kurt
Lewin (1936) explained person’s behavior and situation in an important equation:
Behavior f (Person, Social Situation)
Lewin’s equation explains the behavior of a given person at any given time. It
depends on both the characteristics of the person and the influence of the social
situation. Thus, social situation is a stronger determinant of behavior. Social
psychologists also study complex social situations and find practical solutions to
the emerging problems and accordingly improve social and personal functioning.
Let us understand it with one example. In case a child is convinced that his/her
parents like the other siblings in the family, not him/her, which is actually not true,
still the child’s perception about it becomes a fact for him/her. With this
misconception, the child’s behavior and attitudes get influenced. Facts in a child’s
life space can stem from various sources such as the current physiological state,
e.g. hunger or excitement, his social needs such as desire for approval, his past
experiences, present realities and future goals.
iv) Social Psychology Studies Real-World Problems Using a Scientific
Approach
Problem solving in daily life situations is an important human concern. Social
psychologists study thoughts, behaviors of individuals in everyday life situations.
Psychological principles are applied to study everyday life situations in social
psychology. It seeks to answer the critical questions of socially oriented behavior
of an individual through systematic research. The basic methods for studying
social behavior involve observation and experiment to understand social relationships
and the complications of such social relationships. Therefore, Social psychology
is an applied science.
An Illustration:
When a doctor examines the illness of a patient, he/she diagnoses the symptoms
of illness. By observing the pattern of symptoms, the doctor is able to tell the
nature of the illness. Similarly, a social psychologist studies problems in social
relationships exhibited in a group by observing “symptoms” indicative of such
problems. After diagnosing the problems, social psychologist can plan and suggest
remedial measures.
v) Social Psychology helps to understand Interpersonal Interactions.
The scientific study of relationship is the main focus of social psychology. The
dynamics of relationship between two or more individuals manifest in their social
behaviors. How do individuals decide to interact? Is it meant to maintain relationship
between individuals? These are certain valid questions addressed to by social
psychology. Social psychology explains how characteristics of the person interact
with the social situation to determine his/her behavior. Thus, social psychology
studies the person-situation interaction
vi) Social Psychology studies the influences of Interaction between
Personality and Environment on Social Behavior
A pertinent question is asked to answer which factor(s) contributes, to a great
260 extent, towards social action and social behavior of an individual. It is the most
pervasive debate among social psychologists. It is known as the ¨nature versus Understanding Education
nurture ’debate. Personal characteristics like individual’s thoughts and behaviors,
Perspectives
which are transmitted from one generation to another through heredity, genetics
or hormones, are categorized under ‘Nature’. These hereditary characters control
our social behavior. On the other hand, ‘Nurture’ refers to influences on our
thoughts and behaviors coming from our surroundings and environment. Most of
our behaviors are influenced by both nature and nurture. That means not only
nature but also nurture contributes towards social behavior. So, social behavior
is the result of the interaction between both nature and nurture.
vii) Social Psychology is an Empirical Science
Social psychology attempts to answer systematic questions about human behavior
through testing of hypotheses. The data are collected both in the laboratory and
through field study. The approach of experiment focuses on individual and
investigates to explain how and why of thoughts, feelings and behaviors of
individuals. The experimental findings help the experts to know characters of one
individual which are influenced by others. Social psychology uses scientific method
in order to understand the social problems and develop intervention strategies to
provide remedial measures for social well-being. Social psychologists use data
collection tools to collect evidences regarding social problems. For example, data
may be collected through observation of behavior in field or laboratory settings.
Interviews and questionnaires can be administered to collect personal liking and
disliking of individuals. The empirical data collected either through observation or
experiments are analyzed to find the solution of the problems related to social
behaviour.
Fig. 14.3 : Empirical Method of Study
viii) Social Psychology affects our Everyday Lives

Everyday lives constitute ideas and beliefs about what is wrong or right. These
are the guiding principles of our social behavior. Beliefs like respect for individual
being, justice, honesty, responsibility and other values are acceptable behavior in
a society. Shared values and norms are essential in order to lead social life. In this
regard, social psychology supports us to develop new ideas and insights about
how to value one-self in the society, how to influence others, how to change
other’s attitudes, values and personalities. For example, questions like what is the
purpose of human life? How do we build our social life? How do we regulate our
traits to lead happy life? These questions are well answered through rules, methods,
theories and principles of social psychology. Approaches to social thinking, social
influence and social relations have direct contribution towards psychological and
emotional well-being of individuals. Thus, social psychology helps us to lead a
better life.
261
Socio-Psychological
Activity 1
List various socially desirable and undesirable behaviors which affect the
way you behave in your daily life.
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the Unit.
5. Social psychology seeks to understand ________ in social situations.
a) Individual behavior
b) Group behavior
c) Individual thought
d) Both individual behavior and individual thought
6. Which of the approaches to social psychology contributes towards social
behavior?
a) Social perception
b) Social thinking
c) Social action
d) All of these
14.6 RELATION BETWEEN EDUCATION AND

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology is all about how others think, how we think, feel and act about
things. Education is the modification of behavior of an individual. The scope of
education includes factors related to learners, facilitators, learning environment,
learning experiences and learning processes. Education occurs in social settings.
The focus of study is how social behavior of an individual is regulated in educational
settings. Interactions among students in the classroom settings are studied through
social psychology. They play an important role in understanding the context of
social behaviour. Thus, the determinants of the relationship between Education
and Social-Psychology can be explained in the following manner:
i) Understanding the Behavior of the Students
Social psychologists are interested in understanding the underlying factors of social
behavior among students. Students’ actions, feelings, beliefs, memories and
262 judgments are studied in order to understand their behavior.
For example, consider the following events: You have planned to meet one of Understanding Education
yours friend. He/she is too late that you start to suspect that your friend will never
Perspectives
turn. Finally, he/she does appear and says ‘sorry’… that I forget to meet you’.
Then how will you react? You may be annoyed with his/her statement or you may
think some negatives about him. If your friend has often been late and given
excuses earlier, then you may accept his/her explanation.
This is the instance where your memory of friend’s past behavior, his/her personality
and perception may affect in order to show some sort of social behavior. This
situation describes that cognitive processes play an important role in exhibiting
social behavior.
ii) Creating Conducive Environment for Socialization
Socialization is a process of sharing of knowledge, values, beliefs, context-specific
language, experiences and ways of communicating these among members of the
social group. These knowledge and values can be conveyed from one student to
another through conversations, dialogue, through experiments and creating
experiences in learning settings. The teacher creates multiple opportunities for
students to share contextually relevant experiences. School allows a situation for
a free flow of ideas and questions through the process of socialization. Social
psychology studies knowledge and values involved with the process of socialization
and accordingly suggest for educational actions.
iii) Developing Higher Order Thinking Skills
Education helps individuals to develop higher-order thinking skills like reasoning,
creativity, sense-making, articulation of ideas and experiences, etc. It also develops
language skills among individuals. Social psychology explains about ‘How do
these skills relate to one’s personal and other educational experiences. Let’s
understand how social psychology helps in intellectual development of individuals
with an example of intellectual functioning of the members of the institution-
 How does a member use language? (vocabulary, ability to comprehend,
sentence structure, originality, creativity with words and ideas)
 Knowledge towards society (Ability to deduce and generalise, seeing
relationships)
 Capacity to learn
 Curiosity
iv) Social Psychology Seeks to understand the Cause of Social Behavior
in Learning Situations
Social psychology intends to understand the nature and causes of students’behavior,
feelings and thoughts in social situations. Classroom is a miniature form of social
situation. Social psychology investigates into the ways in which students’ thoughts,
feelings and behaviors are influenced by the educational environments. Group
dynamics, conflict resolution, cognitive dissonance, interpersonal relationships,
organizational environments, attitudes and perceptions are all essential components
of group learning which are of interest to social psychologists.
An Illustration on Social Behaviour
Why did you decide a particular institution for study? Why did you like a particular
person? Sometimes we know the answers to such questions. Sometimes we do
not. If anybody ask why we have felt so, we give plausible answers. Again, when 263
Socio-Psychological causes are logical, our self-explanations are often wrong. We may reject factors
Perspective of Education that matter and accept others that do not.
Thus, social psychologists make an attempt to understand how relationships among
these elements impact students’ learning.
v) Social psychology contributes towards Educational Leadership and
Work Motivation
Educational leadership is social in nature. True leadership affects the students,
teachers and other members of an educational institution. It provides members of
the institution satisfaction, motivation, and develops in them positive attitude towards
work. It increases the effectiveness of work culture. Teacher’s performance and
students’ achievement are the result of work motivation. How factors of leadership
and work motivation influence individual and group work behavior can be
understood with the help of social psychology. For example, developing work
culture in the organization is related with social factors as well as personal
dispositions. So, understanding of social behavior of the students and teachers
involves understanding of both the persons and situations.
Fig. 14.4 : Factors affecting work culture
Activity 2
Recall your school experiences. On the basis of these experiences, list out
difficulties faced by you during school situations. These may be in selecting
the subjects, choosing learning mates and interests you wanted to pursue.
Take into account the factors of influence such as views of your parents,
friends and teachers. Explain how your school situations influence your
behavior?
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264
Check Your Progress 14.4 from Socio-Psychological
Perspectives
the Unit.
7. Social psychology studies ............... towards the process of socialization.
a) Individual development
b) Social thought
c) Sharing of values
d) Feelings of others
8. Which factor is important towards people’s well-being?
a) Social perception
b) Social relationship
c) Social thinking
d) Personal relationship
9. Social psychology helps in group learning setting by studying .............. .
a) Interpersonal relationship
b) Individual behavior
c) Organizational environment
d) Both interpersonal relationship and organizational environment
10. Answer the following short questions within 50 words.
a) How are the students interrelated in a group?
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b) How can you study the result of social relationship network?
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c) Classroom is a ‘social-psychological laboratory’. Do you agree to
this statement? Justify.
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265
Socio-Psychological
Perspective of Education d) What are the behavior patterns generated during interaction in the
classroom?
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e) Are these behavior patterns reflect towards social psychology
occurrences? Explain.
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14.7 CHIEF PROPONENTS OF SOCIAL-

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPT
Perspectives of social psychology are contended by many psychologists. These
are discussed below:
William James (1890) was an American psychology pioneer. In his publication,
‘The Consciousness of Self’, he introduced the nomenclature of ‘self’’ in
Psychology. His major contributions include the feelings and emotions of the self
and the diverse aspects of self and self-esteem. Social psychology recognizes the
role of self-esteem in influencing emotional behavior of individuals.
Mc Dougall (1908) discussed personality in a social adjustment situation. The
social situation conditions the behavior responses which largely constitute socially
developed personality. He is basically concerned with what went on inside the
individual in a social situation instead of behavior conditioned with environmental
stimuli. Thus, social psychologists are guided by hereditary characters in determining
one’s behavior.
Influential social psychologist Allport (1924) expressed that the presence of others
can facilitate certain behavior. So, he studied social situation which produces
behavior and studied the behavior of the individuals in that situation. Allport is
known as one of the founding father of personality psychology and trait theory in
particular. His significant books include The Nature of Prejudice, Pattern and
Growth in Personality and the Person in Psychology. In a similar way, Pressey
(1940), said about influence of the social situation upon individual behaviour.
J.F. Brown (1937) defined that social psychology is concerned with the conditions
under which an event occurs rather than the description of the characteristics of
classes of objects and behavior. Neil Miller (1941) was the architect of the
frustration-aggression hypothesis that laid the groundwork for subsequent socio-
cognitive and neo-association models of aggression. He emphasized that aggression
is not an inevitable but likely response to frustration. The determination of what
causes social behavioral problem is due to socio-cognitive factor of aggression.
Lewin (1939), a prominent field theorist in social psychology, stated that psychology
must deal group as well as individual behavior processes. His experimental approach
266 to study behavior made social psychology scientific. In the same line, Lippitt
(1939) contended that social atmosphere is one of the outstanding characteristics Understanding Education
of the total psychological field of the individual. He argued that characteristic of
Perspectives
social group and the adjustment of the particular individual contributes towards
one’s total life-space.
Berdie (1940) were concerned primarily with the behavior of individuals in the
process of functional adjustment towards environmental situations. Janus (1940)
suggested culture as the content of social psychology. So, contribution of
environmental factors towards social behavioral pattern cannot be denied.
Durkheim (1954) made social analysis of self in order to recognize the social
character of self. His social analysis of self was inculcation of collective moral
beliefs. It requires new institutions to replace the religious mechanical old schools.
Thus, it contributes to analysis of self.
Albert Bandura (1977) theorized social learning theory which suggested that
people learn from one another through imitating and observing other’s behavior
and attitude. Imitation and observing other’s behavior are also determining factors
of behavior.
House, Landis & Umberson (1988) described some work which examines the
relation between individual psychological attributes and social structure, situations
or environment. Thus, social psychology is useful to generate greater self-awareness
and personal insight.
Bernard Weiner (1986) has worked in the field of psychology. He is most famous
for his research into attribution for success and failure, identifying the main types
of attribution, their underlying dimensions and their effects on motivation and
emotions. He claimed that the attributions are made for experiences of success
and failure. Therefore, we look for explanations of behavior in social situations.
Recently, social psychologists have emphasized evolutionary psychology
perspectives in social behavior (Buss, 2004). They are also investigating the role
of moods in social behaviors (Forgas, Baumeister & Tice, 2009). Thus, role of
moods in social behaviours is covered under the area of social psychology.
In the 21st century, cognitive and motivational factors to describe decision making
processes were also documented. Decision making in everyday life is apparent.
It results from a specific action in social situations. Social psychologists have
concentrated on the importance of cognitive processes and social cognition (Fiske,
2009). They have uncovered the base of social thought and social behavior to
discover what portion of the brain are involved in key aspects of our social life
(Mobbs. et.al., 2009)
Social side of life is important for well-being. In this context, social psychologists
have sought to understand the nature of social relationships-how they start and
change over a period of time, why sometimes deeper and sometimes surfaced
(Slotter, Gardner & Finkel, 2010).
Social psychology research has revealed that groups showing better performance
than individuals depend on a variety of factors like nature of task and sharing
(Minson & Mueller, 2012). Social psychology also studies multi-cultural perspective
in order to understand the role of gender, age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disability,
social class, religious orientation and many other social group dimensions (Barreto
& Ellemers, 2015). 267
Socio-Psychological It is agreed that social psychology does provide powerful means of comprehending
Perspective of Education why people think, feel and act as they do and these ideas in turn lighten how the
society takes the shape in the process of change. Social Psychology in a changing
world has implications for how we interact with other people. So, the key role
of social psychology as a field of psychology is crucial to understand the process
of social change. Social psychological research has given many inputs about
human behavior. This includes understanding of how people make use of digital
technology and social media and how people develop their ability towards
adaptability. Hence, social psychology is an interesting field to provide answers
to questions related to improving peoples’ lives.

the Unit.
11. Who is well known for experimental Social Psychology?
a) Bernard Weiner
b) William James
c) Soffer
d) Tylor
14.8 LET US SUM UP

Social psychology is considered as a science. It attempts to find out the cause of
one’s social behavior. Social psychology addresses the following questions dealing
with social and educational problems:
 Why does an individual keep contact with another?
 How does the negative emotion we experience affect the interpersonal
relationships?
 What is the way in which we perceive objects, people in society?
 How do we remember and apply information in social contexts in order to
make sense of other’s behavior?
Thus, social psychology explains the cause of socially regulated behavior of
individuals. One emerging challenge on the role of social psychology is that it also
studies social issues. Many social issues are considered as social problems as
these obstruct the progress of society. Quality education is a social issue. It is key
to providing a quality life. The work of social psychologists in such areas has
contributed towards understanding and explaining social problems. It is done
through analyzing and identifying social problems in the areas of education, health,
poverty, and crime. Social psychology plays a vital role in the classroom in terms
of cognitive, social and emotional development of the children. It considers the
student-teacher relations and social categorization. There is close link between
well-being and social psychology. Hence, knowledge of social psychology is
essential to improve one’s life in personal relationships, classroom interaction and
268 well-being.
14.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS from Socio-Psychological
Perspectives
Allport, F. (1924). The group fallacy in relation to Social Science. American
Journal of Sociology, 29, pp.688-703.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Barreto, M. & Ellemers, N. (2015). Detecting and experiencing prejudice: New
answers to old questions. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 52,
pp.139-219.
Berdie, R. (1940). The field of Applied Psychology, Journal of Applied
Psychology, 24, pp.553-575.
Brown, J. (1937). The field–theoretical approach in Social Psychology, Social
Forces, 15, pp.482-484.
Branscombe, N. & Baron. R. (2017). Social Psychology, England: Pearson.
Buss, D. (2004). Evolutionary Psychology: The new science of mind, Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
Charles, A. Ellwood (1924). The Relations of Sociology and Social Psychology.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 19(1924): 3-12.
Crisp, R. & Turner, R. (2012). Essential Social Psychology, New Delhi: Sage.
Fiske, S. (2009). Social Cognition. In D.Sander & K.R.Scheercr (Eds.), Oxford
companion to emotion & the affective sciences.pp.371-373, UK: Oxford
university press.
Fiske, T. (2004). Mind the gap: in praise of informal sources of formal theory.
Personality and social psychology Review, 8,132-137
Forgas, J., Baumeister, R. & Tice, D. (2009). The psychology of self-regulation,
Sydney: Psychology press.
House, J., Landis, k. & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health.
Science, 241, pp.540-545.
Iacoboni, M. (2009). Imitation, Empathy and Mirror Neurons. Annual Review
of Psychology, 60, pp.653-670.
Janus, S. (1940). On the data of social psychology. Journal of Social Psychology,
12, pp.387-392.
Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of Topological Psychology, New York: Mc Graw
Hill.
Lewin, K. (1939). Field Theory & Experiment in Social Psychology: Concepts
and Method. American Journal of Sociology, 44, pp.868-896.
Lippitt, R. (1939). Field theory and experiment in Social Psychology autocratic
and democratic group atmospheres. American Journal of Sociology, 45, pp.26-
49.
Markus, H. (2005). On telling less than we can know: The too tacit wisdom of
social psychology. Psychological Inquiry,16, 180-184
269
Socio-Psychological Maslow, A.(1970). Motivation and Personality (2nd edition), New York: Harper
Perspective of Education &Row.
Mc Dougall (1908). An introduction to Social Psychology, London: Methuen.
Minson, J. & Mueller, J. (2012). The cost of collaboration: Why joint of decision
making exacerbates rejection of outside information. Psychological Science, 23,
pp.219-224.
Miller, N. (1941). The frustration-aggression hypothesis. Psychological Review,
48, pp.337-342.
Mobbs, D., Hassabis, D., Seymour, B., Mareeehant, J. Weiskpf, N., et.al. (2009).
Choking on the Money: Reward based performance decrements are associated
with midbrain activity. Psychological Science, 20, pp.955-962.
Myers, D., Sahajpal, P. & Behera, P. (2012). Social Psychology, New Delhi:
Tata Mc Graw Hill Education Private Limited.
Pressey, S. (1940). Fundamentalism, Isolationism & Biological Pedantry vs Socio-
cultural Orientation in Psychology. Journal of General Psychology, 23, pp.393-
399.
Slavin, R. (1995). Research on Cooperative Learning and Achievement: What we
know? What we need to know? Paper presented at the meeting of Centre for
research on the education of students placed at risk, John Hopkins University.
Slotter, E., Gardner, W. & Finkel, E. (2010). Who am I without you? The
influence of romantic breakup on the self-concept personality and social.
Psychology Bulletin, 36, pp.147-160.
Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in peacemaking and competition,
American Journal of Psychology, 9 (4), pp.507-533.
Weiner, B. (1986). An attribution theory of motivation and emotion, New York:
springer.

1. a) How people act in society
2. c) Interaction of Personal characteristics and Environment
3. d) All of these
4. b) Social neuroscience
5. b) Both Individual behavior and individual thought
6. d) All of these
7. c) Sharing of values
8. b) Social relationship
9. d) Both Interpersonal relationship and organizational environment
10. Self-exercise (Qs. No. ‘a’ to ‘e’)
270 11. a) Bernard Weiner
Shifting Psychological
UNIT 15 SHIFTING PSYCHOLOGICAL Theories to Understand
Education
THEORIES TO UNDERSTAND
EDUCATION
Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Objectives
15.3 Behaviourism
15.3.1 Classical Conditioning
15.3.2 Operant Conditioning
15.4 Understanding Self-Concept

15.5 Group and Social Behaviour
15.6 Cognitivism
15.6.1 Gagne’s Hierarchy Theory of Learning
15.6.2 Ausubel’s Theory of Meaningful Learning
15.6.3 Bruner’s Theory of Learning
15.7 Social Cognition

15.8 Social Constructivism
15.9 Let us Sum Up
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is universal and a lifelong process. All organisms and animal learn as
per the pace of their learning. Human beings are bestowed with different qualities
like intelligence, reasoning, thinking, problem solving, etc. They are educated
through formal, non-formal and informal agencies. The process of educating human
beings has been changing due to the influence of different psychological learning
theories. Psychological learning theories explain the process of educating human
beings, factors affecting learning environments and learning outcomes, factors
promoting learning in educational settings, etc. Hence, understanding different
psychological theories is essential for teachers and educators for helping their
learners in different contexts. This unit presents different psychological theories
such as behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism, their principles and implications
for education.
15.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
 explain the concept, theories and educational implications of behaviourism;
Prof. Ramakanta Mohalik, RIE, Bhubaneswar (NCERT).
271
Socio-Psychological  discuss the concept, nature, theories and educational implications of self-
concept;
 describe the concept, theories and educational implications of cognitivism;
 discuss the concept, theories and educational implications of social cognition;
and
 explain the concept, theories and educational implications of social
constructivism.
15.3 BEHAVIOURISM
Learning is a lifelong process. It starts from birth and ends with his/her death.
Since it is the most important component of human development, we must know,
what is learning? How does it occurs? What are the favourable conditions required
for learning? Different schools of psychology have provided answers to such
questions regarding learning. Different theories have been proposed by psychologists
belonging to Behaviouristic School of Psychology. There are two major theories
of learning under Behaviouristic School of Psychology. They are: classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.
15.3.1 Classical Conditioning

Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian physiologist, was the proponent of Classical
conditioning theory of learning. He was awarded Noble Prize for his work on
studying the digestive process of dogs. In his study, he noticed that the dog was
not only salivating at the sight of food but also at the sight of bowl, the experimenter
and sound. Earlier, Pavlov was of the opinion that it was because of the physiological
secretion; but later on he realized that psychological reasons were the causes of
these secretions. We can conclude that he shifted his view on the phenomenon
of dog’s salivation from physiological to psychological process.
Pavlov Experiment
Pavlov used some terms such as Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Unconditioned
Response (UR), Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Conditioned Response (CR) to
explain the phenomenon of salivation in his experiment. Salivation in response to
food placed in the mouth is a natural response, thus it is called unconditioned
response. Food was the unconditioned stimulus as it elicited the saliva which was
unconditioned response. When Pavlov rang the bell continuously followed by
food, it led the dog to salivate. The bell alone acted as the condition stimulus
whereas the saliva was the conditioned response. The model of classical conditioning
is given below.
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (food)…………Unconditioned Response (saliva)
2. Conditioned Stimulus (sound of bell) combined with Unconditioned
Stimulus (food)………….Unconditioned Response (saliva)
3. Conditioned Stimulus (sound of bell)……Conditioned Response (saliva)
Classical conditioning can be defined as a sequential process in which a neutral
stimulus combined with a natural stimulus acquires all the characteristics of natural
stimulus. It is also called as stimulus substitution.
272
Higher order conditioning is another type of conditioning which is presented Shifting Psychological
Theories to Understand
below.
Education
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (food)………..Unconditioned Response (saliva)
2. Conditioned Stimulus + Unconditioned Stimulus (bell+food)….
Conditioned Response (saliva)
3. Conditioned Stimulus1 (Bell) + Conditioned Stimulus 2 (bell+light)…
Conditioned Response (saliva)
4. Conditioned Stimulus2 (light)……………..Conditioned Response (saliva)
Educational implications
Pavlov was a pioneer who contributed significantly to the field of psychology. His
theory of classical conditioning was used as a theoretical framework and a practical
technique for solving a variety of problems. He was of the view that individuals
‘capacity to learn depends on the type of the nervous system and practice of the
activity under reinforcement’. For any learning to occur, drive plays an important
role and it motivates one for action. The following are the areas in which the
theory of classical conditioning can be used in educational situations.
i. Children must be rewarded for their good deeds such as cleanliness, respect
for elders and punctuality, etc.
 Children’s wrong actions or bad habits can be reduced by providing
appropriate conditioning.
 The principles of classical conditioning help children with poor mental
health to overcome their emotional fears through love, affection and
good treatment.
 It can be used to develop positive attitude towards learning, teachers
and break negative attitude.
 The principle of classical conditioning is used by teachers in classroom
teaching for language learning and subjects like Mathematics.
15.3.2 Operant Conditioning

The theory of Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
of Harvard University. He conducted his experiments mainly on rats and pigeons.
He developed his own apparatus to analyse the behavior of rats and pigeons. He
recognized two types of conditioning in his experiment which are mentioned
below:
i) Respondent conditioning; and
ii) Operant conditioning.
In operant conditioning, reinforced stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus and
acquires properties of natural stimulus which is known as respondent conditioning.
When a response occurs spontaneously in the absence of any stimuli, it is known
as operant conditioning. This response of organism is instrumental in receiving the
reward, so it is also called instrumental conditioning. Let us try to understand with
an example of operant conditioning.
273
Socio-Psychological Skinner conducted numerous experiments on rats, pigeons, etc. and evolved the
concept that creatures exhibit two kinds of behavior (i) response and (ii) operant.
Response is connected with stimulus whereas the operant from the behavior is not
associated with any known stimulus. It is an independent from behavior. On his
experiment on rats, he constructed a box fitted with a lever which made a striking
sound as soon as the rat’s foot fell on it. When the rat moved forward after
hearing this sound, it found food lying ready for it in a cup. The food performed
the function of reinforcement which is a natural stimulus, and it encourages the rats
to press the level is the response. Being hungry, the rat was driven and hence it
became active or operant. In this process, Skinner observed that the rat is doing
the response first and then it gets certain stimulus. It is therefore, in operant
conditioning, response comes first then stimulus.
In the process of operant conditioning as defined by Skinner, there are two kinds
of reinforcement, (i) positive and (ii) negative reinforcement. It was evident that
when the subject (let a human child) gets a positive reinforcement (appreciation/
praise) results with an active performance and a negative reinforcement (blame)
results with avoiding in participating activities.
The difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning are as
follows:
 In classical conditioning, stimulus is given first, then the subject elicits the
response.
 In operant conditioning, the subject does the response first, and then the
subject receives stimulus.
 The bond between stimulus and response is weak in classical conditioning in
comparison to operant conditioning.
 Learning occurs both types of conditioning.
 In the education process, both types of conditionings have importance and
applications for the purpose of teaching-learning.
Educational Implications
The theory of operant conditioning has important implications for human learning
and classroom teaching-learning practices.
 If theory of operant conditioning is appropriately used by teachers in
classroom, it will facilitate student learning.
 The operant conditioning can be used for shaping the behaviour of the child
with the help of both positive and negative reinforcements. Positive
reinforcement strengthens the desirable behaviour and negative reinforcement
eliminates the reoccurrence of undesirable behaviour.
 Programmed learning is the greatest contribution of Skinner. It is used to
strengthen student learning. Programmed learning is individualized and
systematic instructional strategy for teaching different school subjects. It helps
students in self learning at their own pace in a joyful way. It reinforces child
to proceed to next level if the responses are correct. It helps a teacher to
cater to the needs of the students individually. Skinner has emphasized the
utility of programmed learning in improving the vocabulary of students and
274
the acquisition of learning. In programmed learning, words are presented to Shifting Psychological
students in a logical order. Theories to Understand
Education
Table 15.1
Comparison between Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
It was developed by Ivan Pavlov. It was developed by B F Skinner.
It is also called Pavolian or type- It is also called Skinnerian or type-2

1learning learning
The experiment was conducted The experiment was conducted on

on dogs. rats and pigeons.
Learner is passive in classical Learner actively participates in

conditioning. order to be rewarded or punished.
The association between stimulus The association between stimulus and

and response is due to law of response is due to law of effect
contiguity (sequential occurrence (response producing satisfying effect
of proximity of stimulus and likely to occur again and responses
response). producing discomforting effect
become less likely to occur).
It is controlled by autonomous It is controlled by central nervous

nervous system. system.
Reinforcement is provided before Reinforcement comes after the

the response is made. response is made.
It is concerned with single stimulus It is concerned with chain of response

response bondage. to get the desired goal.
There is a pairing of There is no pairing of un-conditioned
un-conditioned stimulus and stimulus and conditioned stimulus.
conditioned stimulus.
It has zero strength to begin with It does not have zero strength because
as it is classically conditioned it has to occur at least once before
reflexes. it can be reinforced.

the Unit.
1. What is classical conditioning?
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Socio-Psychological
Perspective of Education 2. Explain the basic difference of classical and operant conditioning.
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15.4 UNDERSTANDING SELF-CONCEPT

The idea of self-concept explains about ‘our beliefs and knowledge about
ourselves’. Self-concept is generally thought of as individual perceptions of our
behaviour, abilities, and unique characteristics. For example, a person’s beliefs
such as ‘he/she is a good friend’ or ‘he/she is a kind person’ are part of an overall
self-concept of that person. Basically, self-concept is influenced by our sense of
identity. Some of the definitions of self-concept are as follows:
Carl Rogers (1951) defined, “self is an organized configuration of self-perceptions
about an actual or idealized self of which the individual is aware”.
Hamacheck (1987) defined, “self-concept is a person’s total view of himself or
herself”.
Burns (1993) defined, “Self-concept is self-esteem, self-worth or self-acceptance
that includes all beliefs and judgements about ourselves. It defines who we are in
our own minds, what we can do in our minds, and what we become in our
minds.”
Piers & Herzberg (2002) defined, “self-concept as a relatively stable set of
attitudes reflecting both description and evaluation of one’s own behaviour and
attributes”.
Nature of Self-Concept
 The self-concept is one’s beliefs about himself/herself.
 It constitutes beliefs that come to mind when you think about yourself.
 Self-concept is constructed from one’s past experiences and is integrated
with your personality traits, abilities, physical features, values, goals, and
social roles.
 Each self-schema (a schema is an organisational pattern or a conceptual
framework) is defined by relatively distinct conceptions and feelings. For
instance, you might have considerable information about your social skills
and feel quite self-assured about them but have limited information and less
confidence about your physical skills.
 Beliefs about one’s own self not only influence current behaviour of a person,
but also his/her future behaviour.
Brief Explanation of the Concept of Self-Concept
The following points can be deduced from the above discussion about self-
concept:
276  Self concept is the overall idea about our own cognitive and affective levels.
Shifting Psychological
 Self-concept is a multi-dimensional construct which includes different views
regarding social, religious, spiritual, physical, and emotional aspects. Education
 It is not innate rather learned or formed with experience.
 Social interaction plays an important role in forming self-concept.
 It is influenced by heredity and environmental factors.
 Self-concept begins to develop in childhood. It develops maximum between
childhood and adolescence, although it continues to be formed throughout
our lives.
 Once self-concept of a person is formed, it is difficult to change, but it may
change in later years.
 It helps children develop socio-personal relationship both inside and outside
the classroom.
 Self-concept helps the children in their career development.
 Self-concept helps children in their academic achievement.
 Self-concept creates self-motivation in children.
 Self-concept fosters self-consciousness in children with the help of good
peer groups.

Note:a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Match your answers with solutions given at the end of unit.
3. What is self-concept?
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4. Describe the nature of self-concept.
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15.5 GROUP AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Social behaviour involves active interaction between or among the individuals with
stimuli coming from the social environment. The consequences of such interaction
are changes in perceptual response, motor response and affective responses. 277
Socio-Psychological However, altruistic behaviour is an important component of social behaviour,
which means selfless concerns for well-being of others and helping others with no
intention of getting anything out of it. Hence, when you are in a group, you learn
how to behave collectively with others. We change and modify our behaviour as
per the need of the group.
Group is formed when two or more individuals work together to achieve common
goals and objectives. Member of the group interact among themselves and become
interdependent. The group of students studying in a particular class is the best
example of a social group. Classroom is an appropriate place for developing
group behavior. Apart from this, children also develop group behavior outside the
classroom like in playground, club activities, during field visits and social festivals,
etc. Studying group dynamics is one of the important aspects of social behavior
of group.
Educational implications of group and social behavior are as follows:
 Group and social behaviour will help students develop good citizenship.
 They improve cooperation, collaboration within the social group, and make
a chain for all types of social welfare of a society.
 Decent social behaviour of a child helps him/her to become more rationale
for the society.
 It helps for unity and integration for the society among the people and nation
too.
 Good social behaviour provides social recognition and friendly social living.
15.6 COGNITIVISM
In the section on behaviourism, we have discussed that human being learns when
he/she observes certain objects or events happening outside of him/her. In this
case, psychologists focus their studies on observable behavior. In contrast with
behaviourism, cognitivism is the study of psychology which concentrates on our
mental processes such as how we perceive, think, learn, solve problem, etc.
Robert Gagne (1916-2002) an American psychologist developed the theory of
learning in terms of the degree of complexity of the mental processes involved.
According to him, learning is something which takes place inside of an individual’s
brain which cannot be seen directly. It is concluded from observable behaviour
or from change in one’s ability to perform certain actions. Thus the major reason
behind learning is the development of capacity to change the performance and
alter qualities like attitude, interest or values which we call a change of behavior
due to acquisition of new learning.
His theory deals with external and internal conditions of learning. The internal
condition refers to previous learning capabilities of the learner i.e. what learner
knows prior to instruction? The external condition refers to stimulus that is presented
externally to learners. He suggested four phase of learning which are as follows:
i. Receiving the stimulus situation
ii. Stage of acquisition
iii. Storage
278 iv. Retrieval
Gagne was of the view that learning cannot be explained with the help of learning Shifting Psychological
theories only. He used the principle of classical conditioning and operant Theories to Understand
Education
conditioning for simple type of learning; but they are not enough for explaining
concept learning and problem solving.
15.6.1 Gagne’s Hierarchy Theory of Learning
Gagne was of the view that learning conditions are prerequisite to understand the
concept of learning. He considers that there is a numerous range of learning
conditions and behaviours. The act of teaching is continuous from memory to
reflexive level. He considers teaching as arrangement of conditions for learning at
each stage of learning. He identified eight different types of conditions in which
human learning takes place. The arrangement of these learning is from simple to
complex. The signal learning is simple and problem solving is complex one. His
theory of learning is also known as Hierarchy Theory of Learning. He identified
following eight types of learning as presented in Figure 15.1.
Problem
Solving
Learning
Rate Learning
Concept Learning
Multiple Discrimination
Verbal Association
Chain Learning
S-R Learning
Singal Learning
Fig. 15.1 : Hierarchy Theory of Learning
(Note: Problem solving, rule learning, concept learning and multiple

discrimination learning are concerned with more of cognitive aspects; and
verbal association, chain learning, S-R learning and signal learning are
concerned with more of behavioural aspects.)
Educational Implication
Gagne’s theory of learning comprises eight levels of learning where the learner
masters the lower level before mastering the next higher level. The lowest four
levels focus on behavioural aspects, whereas highest four levels on cognitive
aspects. It starts with signal learning and ends with problem solving. Likes and
dislikes of the children are acquired through signal learning. Gagne advocated that
learner should learn from simple thing to complex things so that he/she can easily
279
learn the things in a systematic way.
Socio-Psychological Chain learning occurs when learners are able to connect previously learned stimulus.
Perspective of Education Concept learning plays an important role in forming a systematic structure for
deep learning. Rule learning is important in school subjects like Mathematics,
Science and Geography. Problem solving is the last level where learners develop
their ability to invent procedures to solve problems. Hence, it is the responsibility
of the teacher to organize learning experiences in a proper way and to formulate
suitable strategies to cater to the needs of the students.
15.6.2 Ausubel’s Theory of Meaningful Learning

David P. Ausubel (1918-2008) was the pioneer of meaningful learning theory. He
was an American psychologist. Verbal learning is the main concern of his theory.
He explains how the learner incorporates new information into their cognitive
structure (the structure of knowledge in mind). For him the existing cognitive
structure is the main factor influencing learning and retention of a new material. He
was interested with questions like how a child acquires knowledge. Either he
receives knowledge that is presented to him/her or gets knowledge independently
by him/her through discovery. Ausubel advocated four types of learning such as:
1. Reception learning
2. Discovery learning
3. Rote learning
4. Meaningful learning
Reception Learning: When child merely receives knowledge that is presented
to him via classroom teaching, textbooks, reference materials, various aids, etc.
is known as perception learning. For example, when a teacher teaches his/her
learners about the concept of environment, learners receive the concept of
environment as explained by teacher, is known as reception learning. Here child
only receives knowledge as it is presented to him.
Discovery Learning: When child gets information about the new information
independently by himself/herself, it is called discovery learning. It is basically
inquiry based learning in which learner himself/herself finds the solution to the
problem on the basis of his/her past and present knowledge. For example, learner
him/herself learners new information through experimentation in the laboratory or
discovers new ideas through project work.
Rote Learning: Memorization of information based on repetition without
understanding is known as rote learning. Children in primary classes learn
multiplication tables by rote without knowing the principles of multiplication.
Meaningful Learning: Meaningful learning is active, constructive and long lasting.
Meaningful learning takes place when new information is incorporated in the
existing information in the cognitive structure. For example, a learner knows about
the concept of ‘animal’, which is in his/her existing cognitive structure. Now, his/
her teacher shows him/her the picture of a kangaroo, a new animal which he/she
has not seen earlier. This new information gets incorporated into the existing
information and becomes meaningful. According to Ausubel, both reception and
discovery learning can be rote learning, if the new information to be learnt is not
meaningfully incorporated into the existing cognitive structure.
280
Educational Implications Shifting Psychological
Ausubel gives importance to the meaningful learning instead of rote learning. Education
School must adopt methods through which learners develop ability to learn
meaningfully. Teachers should help students to understand the concepts instead of
retaining or memorizing them. Teaching-learning process need to stress on meaningful
learning. Students should be encouraged to develop their own concepts on the
basis of their past learning relating with present experiences. The teaching materials
presented by teachers to learners need to be properly structured, systematic and
meaningful. This is called as Ausubel’s ‘advance organizer’. It is used as a tool
by teachers through which learners integrate new information with their existing
knowledge in the cognitive structure and are able to form meaningful learning..
Ausubel advocated didactic and expository teaching method which facilitates
learner’s rapid learning and retention. He laid emphasis on active nature of reception
learning. Teacher must help learners in understanding, completing missing word
and rewording sentences by giving additional examples.
15.6.3 Bruner’s Theory of Learning

Jerome Bruner (1915) was an American psychologist, who advocated the theory
of instruction. He was of the opinion that knowledge is represented and organized
through different modes of thinking and reproduction. His view on the cognitive
development is based on the premise that the knowledge of individual is based
on the manmade models of reality. He lays stress on language for cognitive
development. Bruner developed three stages of cognitive development which is
listed below:
Enactive stage (0-1 years): It is the representation of knowledge through actions.
There is a direct manipulation of objects by infants without any internal representation
of the objects. Thinking is based on physical action. Infants learn by doing rather
than internal representation of the learning object.
Iconic stage (1-6 years): In this stage child represents external objects visually
in the form of mental image or icon. Information is stored as visual images like
pictures in the mind. Visual images like diagrams and pictures need to be presented
while providing learners verbal information.
Symbolic stage (7 years onwards): This is the stage where information is stored
in the form of a code or symbol, such as language. Knowledge is stored primarily
as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems, such as music.
According to Bruner, learning takes place by the active processing of information
which is constructed and organized by the learner in a unique way. Individuals do
not get readymade knowledge about the world, rather they select the environment,
process and organize the information which they take from the environment and
store it in their own way for future use.
Bruner gives stress on readiness of learner in the learning process. Teacher must
take into account the experiences and contexts of child which motivate him/her
to learn. Teaching learning process should take into account nature of the learner
and predispositions in him/her. The role of structure in learning and how it may
be made centre of teaching need to be focused by the teacher. Educational goals
281
must be clear and related to the life of learner as they help develop intrinsic
Socio-Psychological motivation which activates the process of exploration. The learner must be aware
of goals of life because they desire to learn.
He has given importance to child in learning process and he was also of the
opinion that knowledge must be related to the previous experience of the child.
It must be designed in such a way that it is effective for development of the
learner. Selection of subject matter must be appropriate for children at different
levels of development and there are three ways of representation of subject
matter i.e. through actions, images and symbols.
Teaching learning materials (curriculum, textbooks) should be systematically
arranged for effective teaching and must be prepared following the principles of
simple to complex, easy to difficult, known to unknown and concrete to abstract.
Bruner developed spiral curriculum (repetition of topics of a subject at curriculum
in different stages of school education with increasing order of difficulty). Bruner
believed that any child of any age could be taught any subject at any stage of
development.
The sequence of teaching and learning is a combination of actually performing it
(through doing it), through sensing it and through a symbolic means such as
language leading to effective learning. The progress starts with doing; then moves
to picture and finally to useing symbolic representation.

the Unit.
5. What are the four types of learning as per Gagne?
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6. What is ‘discovery learning’ in Ausubel’s Theory of Meaningful Learning?
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7. How should be the teaching learning materials and curriculum as per Bruner’s
Theory of Learning?
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15.7 SOCIAL COGNITION

Social cognition is the sub-topic of social psychology that gives importance on
282 how people process, store information about different people and social situation
as well as apply these information to new social situations. Social Psychology Shifting Psychological
mainly deals with cognitive than general psychology. Social psychology deals with Theories to Understand
Education
internal mental state such as beliefs and desires. Social information helps people
to make different judgments and decision. It is the sum total of the processes that
allow human-being to live in the society, to develop the ability to create effective
relationships with others and is able to interact with them. Social cognition helps
us to understand the social psychological phenomena by finding out the cognitive
processes that remain behind them. Thus, what we think about others plays an
important role in what we feel and how we interact with others around us. We
have discussed in details about social psychology and its role in education in Unit-
14 of this course.
The four core processes of social cognition are:
 Select (Social Information)
 Interpret (Social Information)
 Remember (Social Information)
 Use (Social Information)
Theories of Social Cognition
The core concept of social cognitive theory is focused on the concept that individual
learn by observing others. Bandura explained it through schematization of triadic
reciprocal causation.
 Personal: If the individual has high efficacy or belief in his/her abilities that
he/she will perform the behaviour correctly then he/she will be able to do the
things in a proper way and vice-versa.
 Behavioural: If the individual performs any task which receives positive
feedback it motivates him/her to perform correctly.
 Environmental: Environment plays an important role in acquiring any
behaviour or it shows the ability of person to perform it successfully with the
help of proper condition, support and material.
 Human Agency: Human agency theory says that human is pervasive in
nature. No one can suggest or tell him/her to do anything. He/she can decide
about his/her own actions. People set their own goals, plan for them, apply
strategies to implement the plan and reflect on their action.

the Unit.
8. What are the core processes of social cognition?
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Socio-Psychological
Perspective of Education 9. Explain human agency as mentioned in theories of social cognition.
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15.8 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism is not a new concept. It has its roots in philosophy and has been
applied to sociology, anthropology, cognitive psychology and education. Glasersfeld
(1992) explained that constructivism is a theory of knowing that recognizes the
real world as a source of knowledge. It implies that reality is dependent upon the
mind for its existence, hence knowledge is constructed by the mind rather than
being a facsimile of reality. John Dewey proposed that education should work
with student’s current understanding, taking into account their prior ideas and
interest. Bruner (1986) defined “construction learning theory is an active process
in which learners construct new ideas based upon their current or past knowledge”.
Constructivism is a relatively new paradigm which takes into account the subjective,
contextual and pluralistic nature of knowledge. It maintains that individual create
or construct their own knowledge through the introduction of what they already
know and experience. Knowledge is acquired through involvement with content
instead of imitation or repetition. Learners actively receive knowledge, connect it
to previously, assimilated knowledge and make it theirs by constructing their own
interpretation. Learning occurs by an active construction of meaning, rather than
by passive recipient (Piaget, 1977).
According to Piaget (1973), Constructivism is a system of explanations of how
learners, as individuals adapt and refine knowledge. In this view learners actively
restructure knowledge in highly individualized ways, basing fluid intellectual
configurations on existing knowledge and formal instructional experiences.
According to Vygotsky (1978), the social view of constructivism defines that
knowledge is co-constructed through social and cultural context. The teacher’s
role is to be a collaborator in constructing reality by engaging in open-ended
inquiry that elicits and addresses student misconceptions.
Principles of Constructivism
The principles of constructivism are as follows:
 The teacher is supposed to engage students with real world problems which
they can explore with their interest and motivate themselves to deepen their
understanding about the problem.
 Students need to learn cause and effect relationship in a phenomenon through
inquiry based exploration. For example, students should explore why rainbow
has different colours.
 Students have their own views about any phenomenon, ideas or events. So
they should be given opportunities to share and exchange views from their
284 perspective.
 Teacher is supposed to know the cognitive abilities of the students and Shifting Psychological
design the lesson accordingly to meet their cognitive abilities.
Education
 Assessment of students learning should not be based on criteria such as right
or wrong, rather on focusing on what inputs still need to be provided for their
success. The role of assessment is, therefore, to enhance student learning.
Theories of Social Constructivism
John Dewey, propounded constructivism as a philosophical approach. Bruner
(1990) and Piaget (1972) are the chief contributors of the cognitive constructivists,
while Vygotsky (1978) is the main proponent of the social constructivism. According
to Dewey, education has its roots in real experiences. He said, “If you have
doubts about how learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder,
consider alternative possibilities and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence.”
It emphasizes that both experiences and inquiry are the base of constructing and
acquiring knowledge. Every experience contributes to construction of one’s
knowledge and further that can be experimented, verified and authenticated by
using the process of inquiry.
Piaget argues that learners produce their own knowledge on the basis of their
experiences. Individuals construct their knowledge on the basis of two cognitive
processes i.e. accommodation and assimilation, which emphasise creating a new
structure of the existing knowledge and accommodate new information/knowledge
into it. He also said that learning is a dynamic process in which learners construct
their knowledge on the basis of their own theories of the world and adapt themselves
to the reality.
Vygotsky Theory of Constructivism
Lev Vygotsky (1978) believed that culture is the principal determinant of cognitive
progress. Vygotsky was of the opinion that in constructivism, knowledge leads to
further cognitive development and it is not possible to explain this on the basis of
single idea. The societal arrangement of intelligence emphasizes that the growth of
the individual is not possible without his/her interaction with societal and cultural
settings.
Vygotsky (1978) also said that for intellectual development, social and practical
activities are required. Cognitive development is the product of dynamic relation
between the individual and the society. There is a mutual relation between individual
and society and it has its impact on both individual and society. Social interaction
influences cognitive development by creating cognitive structures and thinking
process. Let us try to understand the principles of constructivism as per vygotsky.
Four Principles of Vygotsky
1. Children construct their own knowledge: It is rightly said that knowledge
is not transferred passively, but it is personally constructed by the individual.
It means that for transfer of knowledge, some medium is necessary on the
basis of which knowledge can be received but every individual has his/her
own way of perceiving the things and as per his/her perception or
understanding, he/she constructs his/her knowledge.
2. Acquisition of knowledge cannot take place without social context: It
is correct to say that knowledge cannot be acquired without social context
as human being is a social being and he/she lives in society by following 285
Socio-Psychological certain rules, norms of the society and learn or expand his/her knowledge by
interacting with the social surroundings.
3. Learning is mediated: Mediated learning takes place when there is an
interaction between a learner and a person who is more knowledgeable and
helps the learners to modify stimuli and change his/her own cognitive structure.
The person can be parent, adult, grandparents, peers and is called by Vygotsky
as More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). (Mediation is also defined as a use
of certain tools within socially organized activity).
4. Language plays a central role in cognitive development: Language is
the means of communication and socialization. With the passage of time it
becomes the tool for cognitive development or thinking.
Zone of Proximal Development

The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) is
understood as the zone of the
closest, most
? immediate psychological
development of the children that
includes a wide range of their
emotional, cognitive, and
willingness of psychological
processes.
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Zone
of_proximal_development)
Fig. 15.2: Zone of Proximal Development
 It provides scope for reciprocal teaching in which students play the roles of
teacher and when they face difficulties, teacher helps them as a facilitator.
 Teachers and students collaborate among themselves in learning and practise
four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. Teacher’s
role in the teaching-learning process is reduced over time.
 Scaffolding provided by teachers or peers helps learner to structure or arrange
the learning task so he/she works on it successfully.
 It provides learners scope to participate in creative activities and self
organisation of ideas.
 It helps teaching shift from teacher centred to learner centred.
 It provides scope for new knowledge to be acquired and present knowledge
to be expanded by learner.
 It provides scope for where contradictions need to be investigated, clarified
and discussed.
286
 It helps to discover individual intellectual capacity. Shifting Psychological
 In this approach, teacher monitors and flexibly guides the students to the Education
correct answer while encouraging critical thinking.
 It provides scope for situated learning where learner should be taught in a
relevant or authentic Context (Maddux, Johnson, Wills 1997).
 It encourages team work and collaboration.

Note:a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the end
of the Unit.
10. Explain the concept of constructivism as per Vygotsky.
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11. Discuss the role of teacher in constructivist approach to teaching-learning
process.
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15.9 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we have discussed about different types of theories of learning i.e.
behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. With the help of these theories,
teacher can develop self concept and different social and group behavior among
the children. Different theories on cognition by Gagne, Ausubel and Bruner have
been discussed. We have discussed how learning is acquired by interacting with
environment and gradually fits to the frame of knowledge structure of individual.
In other words we can say that learning is integrating new information in learners
existing knowledge meaningfully, systematically or in a spiral form. Constructivism
as the name itself reveals, refers to constructing or building knowledge of the
students. The role of teacher is to support and provide all necessary facilities to
the students. Students have requisite prior experience for construction of their
own learning. The Unit ends with discussing educational implications of social
constructivism theory of Vygotsky.
15.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

READINGS
Ausubel, D.P (1966). Meaningful reception learning and the acquisition of concepts.
New York, academic Press. 287
Socio-Psychological Bailey, J. (2003). Self-image, self-concept, and self-identity revisited. J Natl Med
Assoc. 200;95(5):383-86.
Baron R.A., & Misra G. (2018). Psychology, Pearson, 5th edition, ISBN: 978-
93-325-5854-0.
Baumeister, R. F. (ed.) (1999). The self in social psychology. Philadelphia, PA:
Psychology Press (Taylor & Francis).
Bracken B.A. (1996). Handbook of Self-Concept: Developmental, Social, and
Clinical Considerations. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1996.
Bruner, J. (1966). Towards theory of instruction, Mass; Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education, Mass; Harvard University Press.
Cherry, K. (2018). What is self-concept and how does it form? Very Well Mind.
Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-concept-2795865
Crisp R.J. and Turner R.N. (2010). Essential Social Psychology. London: Sage
Publications.
Gagne, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction, New
York, CBS College Publication
Gecas, V. (1982). The self-concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 8, 1-33.
doi:10.1146/annurev.so.08.080182.000245.
Hillgard, E. R. and Bower, G. H. (1975). Theories of learning, Prentice Hall of
India.
Laura, E. B. (2005). Child development, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi
McLeod, S. A. (2008). Self concept. Retrieved from ht tps://
www.simplypsychology. org/self-concept.html
Pavlov, I.P. (1927). Conditional reflexes, Newy York. Oxford University press.
Plotnik, Rod., & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2014). Introduction to Psychology, 10th
edition, Wadsworth Publication, USA, ISBN: 978-1-133-94349-5.
Rogers CA. (1959). Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships
as Developed in the Client-centered Framework. In: S Koch, ed. Psychology: A
Study of a Science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the Person and the Social
Context. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organism, Appleton Century, New York
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behaviour. New York, Macmillan
Weiten, W. (2017). Psychology: Themes and Variations. 10th edition. Library of
Congress, Cengage Learning, USA, Printed in Canada.
Weiten, W. (2017). Psychology: Themes and Variations. 10th edition. Library of
Congress, Cengage Learning, USA, Printed in Canada.
Web Link References
Burns R.B. (1993). Retrieved from http://eprints.walisongo.ac.id/6907/4/
288 CHAPTER%20III.pdf on 07.03.2020.
Schmitt, D.R. Social Behaviour, pp 471-505, https://link.springer.com/chapter/ Shifting Psychological
10.1007/978-1-4899-1947-2_15
Education
Rummel, R.J., Understanding Conflict and War: Vol.2 https://www.hawaii.edu/
powerkills/TCH.CHAP9.HTM
Deeksha, S. Social Behaviour: Meaning, Bases and kinds, http://
www.psychologydiscussion.net/social-psychology-2/social-behaviour/social-
behaviour-meaning-bases-and-kinds/1310
http://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1018&context=
edl retrieved on 15.12.2019
http://www.ijoart.org/docs/A-STUDY-OF-SELF-CONCEPT-AND-INTEREST-
IN-TEACHING-OF-PRE-SERVICE-TEACHERS-OF-SECONDARY-
LEVEL.pdf retrieved on 16.12.2019
http://www.opentextbooks.org.hk/ditatopic/15988 Retrieved on 14.12.2019
https://www.thoughtco.com/self-concept-psychology-4176368 retrieved on
16.12.2019
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-concept- retrieved on 15.12.2019
http://eprints.walisongo.ac.id/6907/4/CHAPTER%20III.pdf retrieved on
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone of_proximal_development retrieved on
31.05.2020

1. Classical conditioning of learning is a bond between stimulus and response.
If we provide certain stimulus to the learners, the learners will exhibit the
response. This is being used in the teaching-learning process to teach the
young children.
2. Both classical and operant conditionings establish a bond between stimulus
and response. In classical conditioning, stimulus is provided first, followed by
response, whereas in operant conditioning, the subject exhibits the response
first, then stimulus is given. Both types of conditioning are used for teaching
the children. For details, follow the section 15.3.2, Table No. 15.1.
3. Self-concept is generally our individual perceptions, abilities, and unique
characteristics. Self-concept determines our strengths and weaknesses and
also prepares ourselves for new assignments.
4. The following explains the nature of self-concept:
- Self-concept is one’s beliefs about own personality.
- It constitutes beliefs that come to mind when you think about yourself.
- Self-concept is constructed from past experience, and is integrated with
289
Socio-Psychological your personality traits, abilities, physical features, values, goals, and social
Perspective of Education roles.
- Beliefs about the self-influence not only current behavior of a person but
also with his/her future behaviour.
5. Receiving the stimulus situation, stage of acquisition, storage and retrieval.
6. When child gets other information about the subjects independently by himself/
herself, it is called inquiry based learning in which the learner himself find the
solution to problem on the basis of his/her past and present knowledge.
7. The teaching learning materials (curriculum, textbooks) should be systematically
arranged for effective teaching and they need to be designed following the
principles of simple to complex, easy to difficult, known to unknown and
concrete to abstract. Bruner developed spiral curriculum. Bruner believes
that any child of any age can be taught any subject at any stage of development.
8. The core processes of social cognition are ‘select (Social Information), interpret
(Social information), remember (Social Information), and use (Social
Information).
9. Human agency theory says that human is pervasive in nature, no one can
suggest or tell him/her to anything. He/she can influence his/her own actions.
People set their own goal, plan, apply strategies and reflect.
10. The concept of constructivism implies that individual has the capacity to
create or construct his/her own knowledge through the introduction of what
he/she already knows and believes. Mostly, it is based upon the prior
experience of the individual that he/she has already acquired.
11. In constructivist approach to learning, the role of teacher is to provide all
supports to the students and facilitate them in their learning.
290
Understanding Socio-
UNIT 16 UNDERSTANDING SOCIO- Psychological Attributes
PSYCHOLOGICAL
ATTRIBUTES
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives
16.3 Socio-Psychological Attributes
16.4 Intelligence
16.4.1 Alfred Binet on Intelligence
16.4.2 Howard Gardener on Multiple Intelligence
16.4.3 Educational Implications of Intelligence
16.5 Aptitude
16.5.1 Meaning and Concept of Aptitude
16.5.2 Correlates of Aptitude with other Psychological Attributes
16.5.3 Educational Implications of Aptitude
16.6 Creativity
16.6.1 Theories of Creativity
16.6.2 Phases of Creativity
16.6.3 Educational Implications of Creativity
16.7 Motivation
16.7.1 Motivation as Need
16.7.2 Motivation as Self-Efficacy
16.7.3 Educational Implications of Motivation
16.8 Attitude
16.8.1 Characteristics of Attitude
16.8.2 Beliefs, Values and Attitudes
16.8.3 Factors of Attitude Formation
16.8.4 Educational Implications of Attitude
16.9 Personality
16.9.1 Meaning and Concept of Personality
16.9.2 Types of Personality
16.9.3 Measurement of Personality
16.9.4 Educational Implications of Personality
16.10 Let Us Sum Up

Dr. Sweta Gupta, Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi. 291
Socio-Psychological
Perspective of Education 16.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning is not simply a matter of absorbing what is made available as inputs,
like a sponge soaking up water. The learner is a key factor in determining what
is learned, how it is learned and how fast and accurately. There are various
principles or laws which explain the processes of learning. Here we shall just
note that various characteristics of the learner will influence what and how he
or she learns in a given learning situation or when faced with a set of inputs
(IGNOU, 2010). The learning characteristics of the learners are varied in nature.
Some are acquired and some are inherited. But, at the same time, it is quite
difficult to say that which learners’ characteristics/attributes are purely inherited
or acquired. For example, when we talk about the attributes of a person like
intelligence and aptitude, it is more inherited and less acquired whereas in case
of attitude and motivation it is more acquired as we can change our motivation,
personality and attitude as per the need of the situations. We, therefore, cannot
consider all the learners’ characteristics in one context rather in different contexts.
In view of the above, the present Unit specifically focuses on a few of the
learners’ characteristics and attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, creativity,
motivation, attitude and personality. The unit explains the concept, measurement
and educational implications of these socio-psychological attributes.
16.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this Unit, you should be able to:
 explain the concept of socio-psychological attributes of the children.
 define the concept of intelligence and its theories;
 explain the concept of aptitude and its implications for learning;
 describe creativity and its various phases;
 analyse the contribution of various schools of psychology in understanding
creativity;
 explain the contribution of motivation in development of child;
 explain the concept of attitude as an attribute;
 elucidate the factors contributing to attitude formation of the children; and
 describe the type and theories of personality.
16.3 SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICALATTRIBUTES
Dealing with the socio-psychological attributes of the children is one of the
important aspects for the teachers. Many a times, attitudes and abilities of children
are influenced by their mental states and psychological constructs such as
intelligence, aptitude, etc. To understand behaviour of the individuals, we have
to observe and measure different socio-psychological attributes of the person
and accordingly define behaviour. Mostly, the socio-psychological attributes are
the constructs of Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor domains of a person.
For example, the socio-psychological attributes i.e. intelligence and aptitude
belong to the cognitive domain of a person, whereas attitude, self-concept, etc.
pertain to the affective domain of the individual. These attributes are the learners’
292 factors which determine learners’ engagement and achievement in academic and
non-academic areas. The attributes as mentioned in Figure 16.1 are further Understanding Socio-
discussed with their explanations, measurement and educational implications. Psychological Attributes
Fig. 16.1: Elements of Socio-Psychological Attributes
16.4 INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence, in general, is understood as the ability to think abstractly, solve
problems and capacity to learn etc. Various intellectual abilities are expressed
by children in different ways. One individual may be good at calculations but
might not be able to paint a picture well or some other may enter a room full
of strangers and may find it easy to understand the relationships among them
while others may not. Someone may be good at sports, others at learning from
lectures and so on. From such observations Charles Spearman in 1904,
concluded that individuals differ in intellectual activities. On a mental test he
found that those who did well in one sub-test were successful at other sub-
tests as well. Then, through statistical analysis, he concluded that there was one
common underlying factor which remains the same for all sub-tests. He called
it the ‘g’ factor or general intelligence. This was the central factor that influences
all cognitive abilities in an individual. It varies from individual to individual i.e.
it is inter-individual factor. Whereas the other factors that varies from one sub-
test to another was called specific factor (s-factor). For example, in case of
intelligence, specific factors (s-factors) are memory, attention, concentration, etc.
16.4.1 Alfred Binet on Intelligence
French psychologist, Alfred Binet, the contemporary of Spearman, carried out
scientific study of intelligence on the request of French Government. He
developed the first intelligence test, in 1904, with the objective to identify children
who needed special educational assistance. His test assessed a broad range
of abilities as attention, memory, problem solving, etc. but produced a single 293
Socio-Psychological score called Intelligent Quotient (I.Q.) based on dividing a child’s mental
Perspective of Education age by his or her chronological age and multiplying the product by 100. For
example a child of 10 year old with mental age of 12 would have an
12
I.Q. of 120 =
10
{ × 100 }
M.A.
I.Q. = × 100
C.A.
M.A.  Mental Age
C.A.  Chronological Age
16.4.2 Howard Gardener on Multiple Intelligence

Another popular idea of intelligence came from Howard Gardener’s work ‘The
Frames of Mind’ in 1883 in which he posited the idea of ‘multiple intelligences’.
He described the following eight types of abilities:
Table 16.1
Eight type of abilities in Multiple Intelligence
Intelligence Example Components
Logical/ Scientist/ Sensitivity to numbers, patterns,
Mathematical Mathematician reasoning and critical thinking.
Linguistic Poet, Author, Ability of understanding both written
Journalist and verbal words as well as
memorising words.
Musical Vocal, Singer, Sensitivity to sound, rhythm, pitch,
Lyrist etc. They are able to sing, play music
and compose music.
Spatial Navigator, sculptor, Ability to visualize objects from
architect, drivers, different angles, space and notice
astronauts, etc. fine details.
Bodily Athlete, dancers, Ability to control one’s body movements.
Kinesthetic etc. Interpersonal, Politician, leaders,
salesperson, etc.
Ability to Deep understanding Ability to understand one’s own
respond. of self. emotions, strength & weakness,
Intrapersonal introspection and self-reflective
capacity.
Naturalistic Hunters, farmers, Ability to recognize flora and fauna.
botanist
Later in 1999, Gardener added Existential Intelligence. He defined it as the
ability to use one’s own intuitive thought and metacognition (awareness of one’s
own thought processes) to ask deep questions about human existence as ‘Who
are we?’ What are the purposes of our life? etc. However Gardener’s theories
have also been criticized as being descriptive lacking empirical evidence. Further,
abilities like music and dances are better to be kept in the category of ‘Talents’.
Intelligence must be kept for general kinds of abilities.
16.4.3 Educational Implications of Intelligence
The journey of the concept of intelligence from being understood as mental
294 abilities to multiple abilities and changing views on intelligence from being fixed
to malleable is of crucial importance for educational practices. Its realization Understanding Socio-
in every individual as inherent potential is for the sake of his/her happy intellectual Psychological Attributes
quest. The nation’s progress lies in stirring up the dormant potential of each
individual which in turn could be used purposefully in solving contemporary world
issues, knowledge generation and saving humanity. Edgar Faure, former prime
minister of France, commented on the UNESCO Report on ‘Learning to Be,
‘the human brain has a very large unused potential.’ The job of education is
to materialize these unlimited possibilities of the human brain through teaching
and learning.
School curriculum should be framed in such a way that the students get enough
space in the curriculum to exercise their mental abilities and accordingly practice
them. Teachers should engage themselves in identifying the areas of intelligence
of the students and accordingly provide them with further opportunities to work
on in the areas of their intelligence. For example, if a learner has mathematical
intelligence, he/she should be given challenging mathematical tasks. Similarly, if
a learner has kinaesthetic intelligence, he/she should be encouraged to participate
in sports activities.

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the ones that are given at the
end of the Unit.
1. What is intelligence?
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2. Describe Gardener’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence.
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3. Discuss the role of education in relation to intelligence.
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16.5 APTITUDE
You must have observed that a student having a particular level of intelligence
does not necessarily show the same level of performance in all subject areas.
You might have observed that a person does well in Mathematics but fails in
Languages and it may be vice versa. Many a times, you might have observed
that a person does exemplarily well in sports but is not able to do well in
academic achievement. Many a times, you must have come in contact with many
persons who do well in mechanical work, art and crafts, physical activities, music
and drama, etc. but they are not equally bright in other fields. It is because
of one’s aptitude or specific abilities to do a task well in that field. 295
Socio-Psychological 16.5.1 Meaning and Concept of Aptitude
Aptitude is defined as follows:
In the Dictionary of Education, C.V. Good defined aptitude as a ‘pronounced
innate capacity for or abilities in a given line of endeavour, such as a particular
art, school subject or vocation’ (Source: Shodhganga, 2020).
In the Dictionary of Psychology, H.C. Warren defined aptitude as ‘a condition
or set of characteristics regarded as symptomatic of an individual’s ability to
acquire with training some knowledge, skill or set of responses such as ability
to speak language, or produce music etc.’ (Source: Shodhganga, 2020).
Hahn and MacLean (1955) defined ‘aptitudes are correctly referred to as latent
potentialities, undeveloped capacities to acquire abilities and skills and to
demonstrate achievements.’
From the above definitions, an aptitude is thus best understood as a stable ability
of an individual that is readily available as a resource, which can be applied
to specific tasks requiring this ability, thereby enhancing his/her potential for
learning. Different works require different skills and their corresponding aptitudes.
Recognising this, psychologists have developed many tests for assessing specific
aptitudes so as to predict how an individual may perform on a specific skill.
(IGNOU, 2007).
16.5 Correlates of Aptitude with other Psychological
Attributes
It has been discussed in the earlier sections that intelligence alone is not enough
for achievement in a specific field. It also depends upon the interest, attitude
and aptitude of the person in that field. A person having aptitude in a particular
field is expected to do well in that field if he/she gets opportunity to acquire
skills and competencies in that field. Although, one may not have both intelligence
and aptitude in the same field but there is evidence that there is positive
correlation between intelligence and aptitude scores of the individuals and similarly
there exists a positive correlation between achievement and aptitude scores of
the students. Aptitude and attitude are also somehow correlated with each other
as the individual having aptitude in a particular field naturally develops a
favourable attitude to work in that field. Many a times, it has been considered
that Aptitude is an inborn quality of an individual, but it is not true. Bingham
considers the view as mistaken. According to Bingham (1942), aptitude is a
person’s potentiality and quite certainly is the product of interaction between
conditions both innate and environmental.
16.5.3 Educational Implications of Aptitude
The factors which contribute to aptitude of a person are his/her heredity and
the environment he/she is surrounded by. It is, therefore, the role of teacher
and the parents to identify the qualities and specific aptitude of a person in
an area and accordingly provide scope to exhibit those qualities. The aim of
education is to nourish the children in the school system in such a way that
they get ample scope to do the work and develop skills in areas of their aptitude.
The specific aims of education for nurturing aptitude of a child are as follows:
 Teacher should observe the strong points of the students and accordingly
provide them scope to grow in those areas.
 Not necessarily all children will be forced to do all the scholastic activities,
children having aptitude in other areas of knowledge should be given
296 opportunity to pursue and grow in those areas.
 In the family, both the parents should observe the behaviour pattern of Understanding Socio-
their children and accordingly they should be given opportunities to pursue Psychological Attributes
studies in their areas of aptitude.
 A varieties of activities need to be conducted in the school so that all
students can participate in those activities as per their aptitudes.
 There should not be any comparison between scholastic and co-scholastic
abilities of the students. Abilities in any areas of school’s activities should
be considered as equally important.

end of the Unit.
4. Define aptitude.
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5. How is aptitude correlated with other attributes?
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16.6 CREATIVITY
Novelty, as an essential characteristic of creativity, implies largely rearrangement
of existing knowledge. For example, a child rediscovers that the sum of the
squares of the other two sides is equal to the sum of the square of the third
side. It is considered as a creative act, although the implication of this discovery
for a body of knowledge is negligible, since this law is already a part of
geometrical knowledge. But, it has certain meaning as this has been conceptualised
and presented by the child in an innovative manner.
Creativity can be understood in four categories. Creativity from individual
point of view is a person who creates. It is also explained by way of mental
process including attributes of motivation, perception, learning, thinking and
communicating. Environmental and cultural influences are other ways of
looking at creativity and finally it is understood in terms of product, such as
theories, inventions, paintings, carvings, and poems. Whatever it may be, most
of the definitions accept an essential element of creativity i.e. novelty.
Thus any sort of novelty, invention, scientific thinking, aesthetic creation or any
act that involves rearranging of previously experienced element into new
configuration is an act of creativity. In this reference, Louis Fliegler says ‘creativity
is within the realm of each individual depending upon the area of expression
and capability of the individual.’ The potential for expression among people are
unequal by nature. We must give all children equal chance of expression, but
we must not expect each child to be equally creative.
297
Socio-Psychological 16.6.1 Theories of Creativity
There is no theory of creativity that can be accepted universally. But various
Schools of Psychology have contributed to the general understanding of this
concept. An explanation of creative thinking is construction of gestalts or patterns.
A problematic situation is grasped as a whole by establishing the links among
all elements of the problem. As soon as the links are made in conscious, the
solution is arrived at restoring harmony from stress. Here the child has to think
in one consistent line. But this School does not explain how a child has to
ask original questions. The Psychoanalytic School of thought explains creativity
as the product of conflict between the ‘id’ and ‘ego’ in unconscious mind before
one must keep expressing himself /herself for his/her emotional well-being. More
interestingly, the material on which an individual solves his/her unconscious conflict
is unfulfilled wishes of childhood, be it writing, painting or dancing.
The suppression of these potentially creative impulses of unconscious mind can
cause neurosis. The more recent thinkers like E.G. Scheschtel sought creativity
to be like hunger – drive within creative person who thinks creatively in order
to return to the state of equilibrium. While Carl Roger conceives creativity as
curative forces to enhance self of a person and to actualize his/her potentialities.
Abraham Maslow supporting this view designates creativity as an expression
of sound and integrated personality by way of self- actualization.
16.6.2 Phases of Creativity

There is consensus among theorists to certain extent that creativity takes place
in five phases. Each phase of creativity is linked with other phases. The lowest
phase of creativity starts from insight and it reaches the highest phase of creativity
i.e. verification (see Figure 16.2).
Figure 16.2: Phases of Creativity

Phases of Creativity
First Insight: First of all, an idea must be generated in one’s mind that something
is to be done. Long before John Milton wrote ‘Paradise Lost’, he had an idea
298 to write an epic poem.
Preparation: For generating the idea, the creator gets into intensive reading, Understanding Socio-
discussion, questioning, collection and exploration. A painter may sit for days Psychological Attributes
on the hillside observing different shades of lights filling them up in his memories
and emotions before he/she expresses them on canvas.
Incubation: Immersion in the subject matter is essential condition for creative
thinking. When the mind has done working consciously, giving all sorts of
frustration, the creator gives up thinking. It is the time when the ideas go
underground, making unexpected connections before their emergence. Inspiration
may come in six months, six hours, or six minutes.
Illumination: Then all of a sudden, illumination occurs in a spark of thought
that likes the varied ideas. It was after long years of tireless work, one day
in 1685, Newton saw an apple falling in his garden which he turned into ‘law
of gravitation.’
Verification: It is the difficult phase of refining, altering, correcting and
communicating the idea that came in a spark. Newton spent many years in
verifying his theories.
16.6.3 Educational Implications of Creativity
In order that a child optimises the use of his/her potentials, education must
help him/her to learn to think creatively in a range of situations. Educationists
have begun to realize that creativity is as natural to an average student as to
a genius. Hence, a few things can be done in classroom to ignite creativity
among students.
Teacher must encourage students’ original idea.
To stimulate curiosity, teacher needs to create disequilibrium in students mind
by asking, what would happen if……? How would this influence…..? What
would happen if we could read others’ thoughts? For this teacher needs to
develop an inquiring mind in students.
Self-direction is essential for creation, hence teacher must be trained to pull
his/her knowledge in taking up independent project of his/her own. Teacher must
evaluate it himself/herself.
Child must be taught to be aware of crucial gaps in knowledge. This can be
done by helping them to see the thing with new sense, instead of taking it for
granted.
Self- absorption is essential for novelty, origin, and fluency. Novelty can be
achieved with hard work or perseverance.
end of the Unit.
6. What is creativity?
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Socio-Psychological
Perspective of Education 7. Discuss the phases of creativity.
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16.7 MOTIVATION
Motivation is a very common term that we use in our day to day practices.
We motivate our children, teachers, employees, to work for achieving our
target. It has a great force for people to do the work in time and with
accuracy. This is highly popular in the process of teaching-learning. Maslow
defined motivation in terms of need, ‘a physiological or sociological
deficiency that a person feels compulsion to satisfy’. A satisfied need no
longer motivates behaviour. Cherry (2010), viewed motivation as ‘the
process that initiates, guides and maintains goal oriented behaviour.’
Brenner (2006) defined it as ‘the level of effort an individual is willing
to expand toward the achievement of a certain goal’. Guay (2010) described
it as ‘reason underlying behaviour’.
16.7.1 Motivation as Need
There are many theories of motivation, but one of the most well-known theories
of motivation is that of Abraham Maslow, who published a book in 1962 titled
‘Towards a Psychology of Being’. Maslow identified five levels of hierarchical
needs that we attempt to accomplish throughout the life. In progressive series,
our next need is revealed when the previous one is realized. These needs are:
Fig. 16.3: Maslow’s theory of Self-actualisation
Maslow’s theory of motivation explains human need in the hierarchical order.

In the hierarchy, the needs start from the psychological need, i.e. food, clothing,
300 shelter, etc. and they go towards the highest order, i.e. need for self-actualisation.
It is always very difficult to reach the self-actualisation stage as it requires Understanding Socio-
introspection, meditation, and self-realisation. This stage is a realisation and feeling Psychological Attributes
aspect of human being as the earlier needs which are very much essential for
the human beings have already been achieved and at this stage human beings
want to actualise themselves.
In order to meet these needs, teachers and educators must take care of nurturing
certain values, such as:
 Love and care is the core for accomplishing these needs. Hence children
must learn to value them. Teacher and parents must counsel the children
understand these needs from different perspectives and learn to love and
care to accomplish more needs.
 Freedom to explore will bring knowledge. Creativity will be essential to
discover novelty, originality and fluency in work.
 Development of ability to understand the purpose of life and working
towards it can actually lead to self-actualization. It is also searching for
inner truth to become balanced and independent.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been criticized on the ground that fulfilment
of human needs is not always hierarchical in nature. Sometimes, lower needs
of an individual are not fulfilled, but he/she strives for fulfilment of higher needs.
For example, without fulfilling safety needs, one tries to fulfil his/her belonging
needs. Despite the criticism, the relevancy of this hierarchy has been used to
motivate individuals for years.
16.7.2 Motivation as Self-efficacy
Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy explains children’s beliefs about their capability
to carry a specific task. The self-efficacy is a blend of self-concept (What do
I think of myself?) and self- esteem (How good do I feel about myself?). These
are important sources of students’ confidence that helps them in choosing the
level of difficulty and complexity of a task. An optimum level of self- efficacy
is slightly above the true capacity. (Bandura, 1997).
A high level of self-efficacy describes the person’s persistence at task, improves
his/her ability to cope with stressful situation and provides him/her motivation
at failures. In life situation, self-efficacy contributes to meeting the demands raised
by society, at different ages, such as career, marriages, rearing children,
profession and defining vision and mission of life.
Educational environment in schools and colleges can contribute to self-efficacy
in the following ways:
1. Helping students to master the tasks.
2. Encouraging students to watch other’s mastering tasks.
3. Motivating learners to take up challenging tasks.
4. Breaking emotional resistance of learners in carrying out the tasks.
16.7.3 Educational Implications of Motivation
We now know that motivation is an important construct and lack of it among
students could hinder their learning process. Five factors need to be kept in
mind by the teachers while motivating students. These are students, teacher,
content, method/process and environment. Students must have access to learning 301
Socio-Psychological resources, abilities to benefit from the instructional process and interests in various
Perspective of Education instructional activities. Teacher must be trained, focused on educational process,
dedicated and responsive to students need. The method must be innovative,
interesting and applicable to students’ life. Environment must be accessible, safe
and cater to the individual needs.
Further, student learning is enhanced if two factors i.e. intrinsic and extrinsic
learning are taken into account. Students, who are intrinsically motivated, will
value learning and mastery of contents than external rewards or reinforcements.
To enhance it students should be motivated to make effort. Extrinsically motivated
students will rely on rewards and results like test scores. The most effective
extrinsic motivation is probability of finding a job. School environment can
promote the blend of these two motivations to develop competency and
competitiveness among students.

end of the Unit.
8. What is motivation?
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9. Describe Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation.
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16.8 ATTITUDE
Attitude is an acquired pre-disposition to respond to objects, events, things
ranging from favourable to unfavourable. It is explained in cognitive, affective
and behavioural terms. Attitude of a person towards an object or an event or
a thing may vary from time to time and may be expressed in positive or negative
terms. Attitude can also be measured and qualified with the help of attitude
scale.
16.8.1 Characteristics of Attitude
Attitudes are developed by individuals over a period of time. It is not present
in individual at the time of birth. e.g. respect for members in family is learnt
by observing behaviours of other members in the family.
Attitude is not in vacuum but towards an object, person, event and thing.
e.g. Liking or disliking a person develops over a period of time.
Attitude of a person ranges from positive to negative, remains relatively
permanent and gradually changes, e.g. I like learning through online mode.
It has motivational properties. e.g. I love engaging myself in challenging
302 academic tasks.
16.8.2 Beliefs, Values and Attitudes Understanding Socio-
Psychological Attributes
An attitude is closely related to one’s beliefs and values. Beliefs are mostly
personal in nature and develop through our personal experiences. One’s spiritual,
religious, political, intellectual and social beliefs are mostly based upon his/her
personal understanding and experiences. Beliefs are abstract and subjective in
nature as they depend upon one’s personal judgement and dispositions, such
as one’s judgement on certain political events in the country.
Values are beliefs that motivate or guide our attitudes and actions in our life.
Values are developed or formed from one’s belief. Beliefs are included in one’s
values. Values are also abstract and subjective in nature. Values cannot be
measured objectively, scientifically and quantitatively. The common values that
we develop are honesty, freedom, equality, beauty, harmony, happiness,
truthfulness, etc. These values can be observed from the behaviours of a person
but difficult to measure objectively as we cannot measure honesty, happiness,
truthfulness, etc. in quantified terms.
One’s attitude is also formed based on his/her beliefs and values. It includes
both the beliefs and values. One’s attitude may be his/her perception and outlooks
towards different situations, ideas, objects, and persons. Formation of attitude
is based upon cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of one’s understanding.
It can be measured and quantified by using an attitude scale of values. For
example, one’s attitude towards school system, towards teachers, towards
different subjects, towards assessment practices in the schools, towards society,
towards games and sports, towards peer and group learning, etc. can be
measured and quantified by using an attitude scale. One’s attitude may go in
both the directions such as positive or negative, favourable or unfavourable,
desirable or undesirable, etc. Figure 16.4, shows the relationships among beliefs,
values and attitudes.
Fig. 16.4: Relationship among Beliefs, Values and Attitudes
16.8.3 Factors of Attitude Formation

Things that satisfy our need act as supports towards achieving our goal and
form our favourable attitude but things that act as obstacles in achieving our
goal form our negative attitudes towards them. For example, we support the
political party that works more for our well–being. 303
Socio-Psychological i) Social Learning influences our attitude in three ways:
 Classical Conditioning: Our attitude is conditioned by external
stimuli. For example, if we frequently examine failure in getting a prize
through lottery, we develop an attitude that we cannot win a lottery
which is based upon one’s luck.
 Instrumental Conditioning: We develop certain attitudes in process
of learning from the members of society behaviour. For example,
certain attitudes are rewarded by our parents whereas non-conformity
to religious practices, marriage and family discipline is not rewarded
by them.
 Observational Learning: Children tend to grow watching parents
and others in family and society. They confirm to their actions without
questioning their wisdom. For example, life requires patience, growth
is our own responsibility, social identity is important for living in society.
ii) Cultural Factor: Individuals learn through different cultural practices.
People of the same culture exhibit similar attitudes whereas people of
different cultures exhibit differences in their attitude. Individuals brought up
in Asian culture identify themselves with their family while in Western
societies they perceive their growth as their individual responsibility.
iii) Personality Factor: Attitudes which are in accordance with our personality
are acquired easily. People with high intelligence and literacy level are critical,
reserve, sceptical, and having good sense of humour.
16.8.4 Educational Implications of Attitude
Development of attitude is crucial factor in an individual’s development, as right
kind of attitude is important to live a happy and satisfied life. Hence, openness,
readiness to learn, exploration, courage to accept criticism to improve oneself,
and tolerance are desirable in one’s attitude. Further, children’s attitudes are
formed through conditioning, observation, affiliation and socialization. Therefore
teachers, parents and community must take care children’s attitude. A sound
personality is formed when childhood premises are built on the foundation of
positive attitude. One must learn from his error and obstacles in life. Good
attitudes are desirable and their formation is ones’ obligation, and responsibility
for a growing knowledge society.

end of the Unit.
10. What is attitude?
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11. Explain the aims of education for forming attitude among the students.
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304
16.9 PERSONALITY Psychological Attributes
As like above discussed attributes in the earlier sections, personality of a person

is also one of the attributes that determine person’s dealing with individuals,
groups and situations. The term personality is a very complex phenomenon to
define and understand. In a very simple language, we understand personality
is the totality of everything about an individual that includes his/her social,
emotional, mental, ethical, and spiritual aspects. But that is not the holistic meaning
of personality. Let us try to understand the meaning and concept of personality.
16.9.1 Meaning and Concept of Personality

The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’, which means
the mask worn by the then Roman Actors who were acting on the stage. The
term personality, thus, means outward appearance of an individual. Some of
the renowned psychologists define personality as follows:
‘An individual’s personality is his unique pattern of traits’. (J.P. Guilford)
‘Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a
given situation’. (R.B. Cattell)
‘Character is not really a cumulation of separate habits and ideas. Character
is embedded in the total structure of personality’. (L.J. Cronbach)
‘Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of person’s
character, temperament, intellect and physique, which determine his unique
adjustment to environment’. (Eysenck)
From the analysis of the above definitions, we can understand the concept of
personality by identifying the following features:
 Personality of each individual is different and unique.
 Personality is the product of both hereditary and environmental factors.
 Personality helps the individual to adjust to his/her own environment.
 School based experiences and activities influence personality of the person.
 Personality provides a complete view of individual’s behaviour cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domain.
 By using a suitable technique, personality can be assessed and described.
16.9.2 Types of Personality

Many psychologists have classified personality of individuals in different ways
on the basis of their physical characteristics, socio-emotional behaviours, inter-
personal communication skills, etc. Let us understand various types of personality.
Spranger’s Six Types of Personality : Spranger classified personality into
six different types on the basis of behaviour and attitude. They are:
 Aesthetic – Who loves beauty and describes the beauty of nature.
 Economic – Who is very economical and inclined to hoard money and
wealth.
305
Socio-Psychological  Political – Who pays attempt to political dealings and holds political
Perspective of Education positions.
 Religious – Who is engaged in various religious activities and pays attention
to religious matters.
 Social – Who shows interest in various social activities and involves
themselves in community works.
 Theoretical – Who loves to acquire knowledge and follows the rules and
principles.
Allport’s Trait Theory of Personality: According to Allport, ‘personality is
a dynamic organism within the individual of those psychological systems that
determine the unique adjustment to his adjustment’. He stresses on understanding
various traits of the individuals for development of their personality. The traits
are as follows:
 Cardinal Traits – Cardinal trait is a very dominant trait. Cardinal traits
play a dominant role in shaping personality and behaviours of an individual.
The individual is known for such behaviour. For example, a cheerful person
is always known for his/her cheerful behaviour.
 Central Traits – Central traits ordinarily describe a person’s overall
character. They are like qualities such as honesty, kindness, submission,
etc. When we discuss about a person, we came to understand about that
person because of his/her central traits.
 Secondary Traits – Secondary traits are normally not visible and they
appear relatively in a few situations. They are not considered as an integral
part of one’s personality like cardinal and central traits. For example, you
are very hard in decision making but sometimes you may be very easy
going person. All these depend upon specific situations.
Freud’s Psycho-analytic Theory: Freud’s Psycho-analytic theory of personality
is built around the state of mind that determines our thinking and problem solving
behaviour. Freud described that personality of an individual is built on a three-
tier system i.e. ‘Id’, ‘Ego’, and ‘Super Ego’. An individual’s personality is shaped
by his/her Id, Ego and Super Ego states of mind and behaviour. Let us understand
these concepts:
 Id – Id is the unconscious state of mind. Its activity is immoral in nature.
It is also called as a dark side of behaviour of a person. Id is one of
the blind instincts of mind which wants immediate satisfaction. It never
distinguishes between good and evil. The Id instinct of a person is highly
dominated by getting pleasure in life.
 Ego – Every person in the world has Ego. Ego operates on the principle
of reality and it is sometime based upon logic and one’s principles of life.
Presence of the instinct Ego directs the person towards fulfilling one’s
desires. Many a times, there exist conflicts between Id and Ego. Ego also
operates with the energy derived from the Id but it is a part of conscious.
The actions of Ego are guided by the Principle of Reality.
 Super Ego - Super ego is always moral in nature. It distinguishes between
right and wrong, good and bad. Super ego is very much social in nature.
306
Super ego of a person always directs him/her towards demonstration of Understanding Socio-
ethical and moral behaviours. It also keeps a balance between the Id and Psychological Attributes
Ego instincts of mind.
Jung’s and Eysneck’s Classifications of Personality: Jung and Eysneck have
classified personality in view of keeping the nature of human being and their
qualities of sociability. Carl Jung opined that there are two types of personalities,
i.e. Introvert and Extrovert, whereas Hans Eysenck introduced the concept of
Ambivert personality. Let us understand the concept of these three types of
personality and their characteristics in Table No. 16.2.
Table No. 16.2
Introvert, Extrovert and Ambivert Personality Characteristics
Personality Pattern Characteristics
Introverts  Like to live within, love solitude and keep away
from social and other types of gathering.
 Not friendly in nature, but they enjoy a small group
of close friends of their nature.
 They are very self-conscious in nature.
 They are a little shy in nature and hesitate to
express themselves in front of the public.
 They love reading and writing literature of their
interests.
 They are not very much social in nature.
Extroverts  They love to make friends and live in groups.

 They are very much talkative and popular among
their friends and relatives.
 They love to live in outward world and never
hesitate to express their feelings and opinions on
matters related to their personal and social issues.
 They love music and public gatherings.
 They like leadership quality and they are very
forward in nature to interfere in others’ activities
and also help them.
Ambiverts  They have mixed type of personality like, they

show introvert personality and extrovert personality
as per the requirements and demands of the
situations.
 In the world, many people are really ambiverts in
nature.
 The number of purely introvert and extrovert
persons is very less.
 People usually change themselves according to the
need of the society. 307
Socio-Psychological 16.9.3 Measurement of Personality
A variety of techniques are used to measure personality of the person. Both
projective and non-projective methods are used for personality assessment.
Under projective techniques of measurement of personality, the specific techniques
such as Rorschach’s Inkblot Test (RIT), Thematic Apperception Test (TAT),
Work Association Technique, Sentence Completion Technique, Behavioural and
Cognitive Assessment, bodily assessment and personal facts are considered for
measurement of personality. On the other hand, non-projective techniques such
as interview, observation, rating scale, personality inventory, self-reporting
techniques, etc., are also used to measure personality of a person.
16.9.4 Educational Implications of Personality

The following are some of the activities that the school management and the
teachers should undertake for the development of personality of students in
schools.
 Teacher should create an atmosphere inside the class so that students
develop inter-personal communication skills and understand each other.
 All students should be given opportunities to participate in various activities
in the school according to their abilities and interests.
 Personality development programmes should be integrated in the curriculum
and teaching-learning process for wholesome development of personality
of students.
 Peer and group activities should be organised in schools.
 Leadership quality among students should be developed by assigning
projects and other field related activities to them and every student should
be given opportunities to take up leadership role in their group.
 A democratic environment should be created for proper personality
development of students.

end of the Unit.
12. Define personality?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
13. Differentiate between introvert and extrovert patterns of personality?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
308
16.10 LET US SUM UP Psychological Attributes
To sum up, the learners’ factors are highly flexible and changing one. It is
personal, but it is only marginally related to stable qualities like intelligence,
aptitude and personality types. These qualities appear to be strongly influenced
by heredity, and so are considered to be relatively unchanging. On the other
side, learners’ characteristics such as attitude, abilities, motivation, etc. are ever
changing and are determined by the specific learning and life situations of the
learners. Therefore, these qualities are learned and acquired. In this unit, we
have broadly discussed about the theoretical constructs of the learners attributes
and how do they work in the educational context.

Aggarwal J.C. (2011). Psychology of Learning and Development. Shipra
Publication, New Delhi.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York:
Freeman.
Baron, R.A., Branscombe, N & Byrne, D. (2009).Social Psychology (12th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
Comb, A.W. (1979). Myths in Education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences.
New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1993b). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New
York: Basic Books.
IGNOU (2010). Who are the Learners of Language? Unit-2, Block-1, ES-
344: Teaching of English (B.Ed.). New Delhi: IGNOU.
Kneller, G.F. (1965). The Art and Science of Creativity. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Maslow, A. (1962). Towards a Psychology of Being. New York: VanNostrand.
Sausa, D. (2009). How Gifted Brains Learn? London: Corwin.
Winch, C. & Gingell, C. (2009).Key concepts in the Philosophy of Education:
Routledge.
Website Referred
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/60442/8/08_chapter%203.pdf
retrieved on 22.01.2020

1. Intelligence is defined as the ability to think critically and abstractly, solve
problems, adjust in diverse situations and capacity to learn, etc.
2. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence describes eight type of intelligences
such as logical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily kinaesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal and naturalistic intelligences.
309
Socio-Psychological 3. School curriculum should provide the students to exercise their mental
Perspective of Education abilities and teacher should provide opportunities to the students to work
on the areas of their intelligence.
4. Aptitude is the innate and potential capacity of a person in any field.
5. Aptitude is positively correlated with intelligence and achievement.
6. Creativity is defined as a unique ability of the students to create something
new and innovative.
7. Creativity undergoes with the phases such as insight, preparation, incubation,
illumination and verification.
8. Motivation is a psychological force that directs and guides a person towards
achieving his/her goal.
9. Maslow’s theory of self-actualisation proceeds from the lowest individual
needs (psychological needs) to the highest needs (self-actualisation). In this
theory, a forward need is associated with the fulfilment of the preceding
need.
10. Attitude is a person’s disposition towards a situation, object, ideas, etc.
Attitude is mostly acquired in nature and it may be based on cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains.
11. There is the need to establish a positive environment in the school and
constructive dealing between the students and teachers for developing
positive attitude among the students. Family culture and environment are
also equally responsible for developing a sense of positive attitude among
the students.
12. Personality is a behavioural pattern of a person which includes both
hereditary and environmental factor that constitute personality of the person.
13. Introvert persons are self-aware, calm, love of reading and writing, and
they like to live within whereas extrovert persons are talkative, optimistic,
friendly, and very social in nature.
310

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BESC-131

BLOCK 2 PREPARATION TEAM

BLOCK 4 PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 14 : Dr. Biswajit Behera, School of Education, Central University of Punjab.

Unit 15 : Prof. Ramakanta Mohalik, RIE, Bhubaneswar (NCERT).

Unit 16 : Dr. Sweta Gupta, Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi.

Language Editing : Prof. Pramod Kumar, SOH, IGNOU.

Block 2 Philosophical Perspective of Education 87

Block 3 Sociological Perspective of Education 167

Block 4 Socio-Psychological Perspective of Education 233

1 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF

1.4 Goals and Aims of Education

1.5 Cultivating Values through Education

1.6 Education as Differentiated from Schooling, Learning, Instruction,

1.7 Let Us Sum Up

1.8 References and Suggested Readings

1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

Dr. Niradhar Dey, Assistant Professor, School of Education, IGNOU. 9

1.3 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

1.3.1 Etymological Derivation of Education

1.3.2 Definitions of Education and its Analysis

1.3.3 Narrow and Broader Meaning of Education

1.3.4 Nature of Education

1.4 GOALS AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

1.4.1 Individual Aim of Education

1.4.3 Democratic Aim of Education

Check Your Progress 1.2

1.5 CULTIVATING VALUES THROUGH

1.6 EDUCATION AS DIFFERENTIATED FROM

1.7 LET US SUM UP

1.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.5 Scope of Education from the Viewpoint of Mode of Providing Education

2.6 Let Us Sum Up

2.3 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE

2.3.1 Informal Education

2.3.2 Formal Education

2.3.3 Non-formal Education

2.4 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE VIEW

2.4.1 Liberal Education

1 Agriculture Poultry Farming

2 Engineering and Technology Mechanical Services

4 Home Science Food Preservation

5 Science and Humanities Library and Information Science

(Source: MES-012, MAEDU, IGNOU, 2007)

2.5 SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE

2.5.1 Face-to-Face Education

2.5.2 Open and Distance Education

2.5.4 Comparison among the Face-to-Face, Distance and

Lecture by the Self-learning print E-contents in terms of

Check Your Progress 2.3

2.6 LET US SUM UP

2.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Teacher and students Teacher and students Teacher and students

Teacher decides the Self-pacing of learning Self-pacing by the

3.5 School as an Agency of Education

3.6 Community as an Agency of Education

3.7 State as an Agency of Education

3.8 Media as an Agency of Education