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STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. ___

6

Gender and Religion

MODULE OVERVIEW

Religion has different impacts in societies, it shapes the character of people and it also differentiate the
roles of women and men in the society. In addition, religious teachings and beliefs play an important role in
either promoting or discouraging gender equality. Therefore, key beliefs of each religion have its impacts in
gender related issues which changes from time to time. Each religion has its key beliefs which directly shape
the culture of its believers. Some religious groups suppress women rights and they are not valued greatly in
other religious groups. Therefore, religious beliefs may influence gender relations in the sense that people
which belong to a certain religious behave in accordance with their religion. Moreover, religion affect greatly in
gender relations because many people belongs to a certain religion, which affect gender relations positively or
negatively.
This module seeks to discuss how religion affects gender relations in our society.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. To explain key terms and concepts central to the analysis of gender of religion.
2. Write and speak effectively about the role of religion in creating and maintaining the social
constructions of gender, race, and sexuality.

LEARNING CONTENTS (How Religion Affects Gender Relations in our Society)

What is Gender Relations? What is Religion?

Gender relations refer to how men and women interact and communicate with members of the other
sex and people of a different sexual orientation (Gender Relations Center, 2013). This can be precipitated by
religions which have teachings that guide the socialization between men and women religion. Therefore, other
religions constrain women to access basic necessities because of gender relations, for instance education
and representation in higher post like high post leadership. On the other hand, religion is defined as the state
of being grasped by an ultimate concern, a concern which qualifies all other concerns as preliminary and
which itself contains the answer to the question of the meaning of life (Underwood, 2009). This definition
means religion to believers became an answer to everything; it is also something which must be followed for a
person to have a good living. Moreover, religion has beliefs and norms which need to be taken serious by the
believers. Among all religious groups in the world, Christianity is the one of the largest religious group.
Christianity is one of the largest religions in the world practiced indifferent societies and cultures around the
world (Nair, 2008).

The Historical Gendering of Religion

In Western societies, religion has long been bound up with questions about gender. Is God a man? Why
do most of the world’s great religious traditions have male prophets? What sorts of relationships does God
prescribe, and which ones does God proscribe? Do men and women have equal roles in the various religious
ministries?
Monotheistic religious traditions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – have been especially concerned
with gender issues. Both in theological doctrine and as a social institution, religion has, for many centuries,
played a dominant role in the idea that women and men are fundamentally different, and that such difference
is part of a divine plan. From that difference, these religious traditions hold, women and men are to perform
different tasks, are assigned different roles, and are placed in subordinate and super ordinate positions in a
hierarchy. Most simply said: religious doctrine has been a consistent wellspring of claims of essential and
eternal gender difference, and, institutionally a foundation justifying gender inequality.

Therefore, religion has a great impact in gender relations, attitudes and beliefs. Roder (undated) alludes that,
the impact of religion on gender attitudes is largely argued to be the outcome of religion’s role in legitimating
inequalities within societies, so that religious individuals tend to hold less egalitarian values based on the
belief that these inequalities are justified and based on a ‘natural’ order. This means religion has great

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influence gender inequalities in different societies. Therefore, different religious groups have gender aspect
and there are different beliefs which state the role of men and women. Roder (undated) argues that, in many
religions, men and women are ascribed by ‘natural’ roles that center on the domestic role for women and the
breadwinning role for men. This clearly means that in many religious groups, women are expected to be
dependent on men while men are expected to play dominant role in supplying basic necessities to the
household.

Moreover, especially in African Traditional Religion, men are expected to look for food through hunting.
Powers is conceived not in terms of hierarchy but as areas of specialization and all is interconnected. Men
have their areas of specialization (for example, hunting) and so do women (for example, cosmetics)
(Olademo, 2008). The concept of African gender relations also reflects the multilayered understanding of the
concept of power in Africa. Whereas the male is in control of the visible, physical and formal power, women
control the invisible, non-physical and informal power in the polity. Yet both classifications of power are potent
and relevant to the African social structures and gender relations. Furthermore, the base of power structure in
some African communities is in the custody of women. According to Olademo (2008), in the case of the
Yoruba, where the "lya mi" (group of knowledgeable women) often referred to as witches, constitute the base
of all power structures. This shows African traditional religion believes that women are viewed as
unknowledgeable people who must not show their knowledge. Because of this, they believe that women in
African Traditional religion cannot hold high political post. In addition, they are not expected to be independent
from men. Consequently, African gender construct bestows tremendous power on women. Also, the institution
of motherhood is construed as a position of power in African communities. According to Olademo (2008), the
elements that prevail in childbirth and child upbringing constitute avenues of power for the women in African
communities. This means women are very important in upbringing of a child. Also in African traditional
religion, a mother must be respected in order for one to succeed in life; if you anger the mother, it is believed
that you will face bad luck.

Religion is mainly associated with gender inequality and men are mainly recognized as compared to women.
Seguino and Lovinsky (2009), are of the view that, religiosity is strongly correlated with gender inequitable
attitudes, controlling for a variety of demographic characteristics. In addition, men are found to hold
significantly more gender inequitable attitudes than women. Takyi and Addai (2002) in same line have
suggested that religious values help to sustain the existing gender relations as they provide the normative
framework for the behavior of their members. This shows religion reinforce traditional gender roles of women
which compromise gender relations in communities. Also, some religious ideologies and norms help to
legitimize traditional gender roles by providing a no secular ethos and worldview about the position of women
in relation to men (Greeley cited in Takyi and Addai2002). As postulated above, religious groups act as base
for daily activities and therefore contribute a lot to gender relations in societies.

Churches play a particularly important role in defining family norms and regulating behaviours around gender
and sexuality (Korp as cited in Roder, undated). Therefore, main religions of the world all contain certain ideas
about the appropriate roles for men and women in society, and traditionally, this has placed women in the
home and men in the ‘outside’ world (Roder undated). Therefore, these ideas directly affect gender relations
in the sense that, men will be expected to play bread winner role while women play domestic work depending
on men. Religions differ to some extent in this regard, but similar normative claims about men’s and women’s
roles are present across all denominations (Roder undated). This holds true even nowadays, where much
change is occurring in societies with increasing female labor market participation and changes in attitudes
accompanying this.

Moreover, there are religions which do not value women. For instance, Muslim suppresses women using
religious beliefs. In the same vein Hajj, and Panizza (2006), postulate that some Muslim countries impose
serious constraints on the ability of women to conduct what is, by western standard, considered a normal life
(in Saudi Arabia, women cannot drive, not allowed to vote) and even the most liberal Middle Eastern countries
often have legislation that explicitly discriminate against women (in Lebanon, for instance, women do not
transmit citizenship to their spouses or children). These affect gender relations because women’s rights are
suppressed, this cause a strained interaction between men women in societies. In this case, religion greatly
affected the gender relations. According to Inglehart and Norris, cited in Roder (undated) nevertheless, data
shows that Muslims and Buddhists seem to have less egalitarian gender role attitudes than Jews, Protestants
and Catholics even when other factors are controlled. In particular, Islam has been criticized for suppressing
women, and gender is probably the area where negative attitudes about Islam are articulated most frequently
in Western societies. Hajj, and Panizza, (2006) postulate that, Islamic leaders tend to emphasize that man
and woman have equal value, but that they have very different roles in society. Although men and women are

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valued equally with men, women may not be given other rights, for example leadership. Moreover, since roles
are divided according to gender, women end up to be dependent on men because of their roles. This is mainly
influenced by key religious beliefs.

Religion greatly affect women education because of their beliefs and norms which end up affecting gender
relations. This is because other religions believe that women must be dependent on men. In the same vein
Heaton and Cornwall cited in Takyi and Addai (2002) echoed the crucial determinant of the relative status of
women is the degree to which the women are kept dependent on men. Among religious groups where women
are supposed to be dependent on their husbands, women are less likely to be encouraged or helped to
pursue their educational goals, particularly in relation to higher education. Traditional conservative religious
groups may also quote the Bible to support their position on the subordinate status of women and their roles
as helpmate and mother (Takyi and Addai 2002). Such ideas may in turn discourage women from pursuing
higher education. Furthermore, conservative religious groups may offer programs that help girls to be better
housekeepers rather than providing the skills necessary for non-domestic and alternative roles in society ibid.
This can affect gender relations in the societies because women will only have taught domestic work in
preparation of marriage whilst men will be given technical skills which in turn bring income. Therefore, this
may lead to unbalanced gender relations because women will have skills of none economic value.

Other religion encourages women education through their socialization. Also, women education is considered
to be important. Takyi and Addai (2002) alludes that, women from the Christian groups were more likely to
have more education. The relatively high educational attainment among Protestants, Catholics and other
Christian (Western religions) women compared to Muslim women, those with no religion, and among
traditional women may be attributable to two main factors. More over in poor households, it was found that,
the difference between gender gaps is both economically and statistically significant. In addition, it was found
that Christian girls are 11.7 percentage points more likely to attend college than Christian boys, while Muslim
girls are only 0.2 percentage points more likely to attend college than Muslim boys [Hajj, M. and Panizza,
2006]. This clearly shows that, the women attainment of education differs depending with the type of religion
and its key teachings and beliefs. In this essence, women education is promoted in Christianity as compared
to Muslim religion.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Reflection Essay

Question:
If the Bible teaches gender equality, why has gender inequality always been the
norm?

LEARNING CONTENTS (Gender and Religious Belief)

Women are significantly more likely to attend church than men and are also much more likely to self-
report as being religious. Women are significantly more likely to attend church than men and are also much
more likely to self-report as being religious. For example, Church census records show that in 2005
congregations were divided 57% women and 43% men (and this gender division had remained quite
consistent for some years). A 1990 opinion poll for that 84% of women believed in God compared with 64% of
men.

There are a number of reasons for this. A traditional view is that women’s expressive role (nurturing
and caring) is a good match with religious faith. Raising children in their religion and taking them to church
was seen as part of that role. Also women’s proximity to childbirth, childrearing, caring for the sick and caring
for the elderly all, it is suggested, gives them reason to pray and seek spiritual support and guidance.
Furthermore, women traditionally having been marginalized in domestic roles gave them more time to devote
to religion whereas men had little time away from work and therefore were more likely to spend it on leisure
pursuits.

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However, there are other possible explanations for this pattern. First, women live longer than men. Older
people are significantly more religious than young adults, and there are simply older women. Second, men
and women are socialized differently and women are socialized to be more compliant and passive. Religion –
particularly traditional, established religions – expects compliance, conformity and passivity from its
congregation. Men are socialized to be more dominant and therefore, while they take leadership positions in
churches (indeed in many churches and religions they are the only ones permitted to take leadership
positions) they are less happy to simply accept what they are told from the pulpit.
Some feminists, such as Simone De Beauvoir, argue that women are sold a false ideology by religious
teachings which encourages them to believe that they will get their reward in heaven and should therefore be
committed and devoted to their faith.

Women are also more likely than men to get involved in religious sects. Glock and Stark (1965) put this down
to women experiencing more deprivation – material, spiritual and relative – than men, because of patriarchy.
As such, this is a similar explanation for why working-class and minority-ethnic groups are more likely to join
sects as well. In more recent times, sociologists like Linda Woodhead have noted that women are more likely
to get involved in cults and New Age movements than men are. Men have drifted away from the main
established religions at a faster rate than women, but they tend not to have replaced this with alternative
spiritual beliefs, whereas women are attracted to what Woodhead and Heelas call the holistic milieu.
(A holistic milieu was a term designated by Heelas (2000) to describe the environment of a new age
movement. The new age movement grows because individuals are encouraged within this environment to
focus on their spirituality.) This is particularly so for middle-class women. It might be that women who have
lost faith in traditional religions turn to such belief systems for the same reasons women have traditionally
been more religious. It might be that some New Age beliefs are consciously and deliberately female-
orientated, or it might be that women do not see such practices as religious at all, but instead in terms of
therapy, weight-loss and exercise and are more attracted to such activities than men are.

Miller and Hoffman suggest that attitudes to risk between genders is a key factor. Their research suggests
that men are more willing to take risks than women and higher levels of religiosity are evident among the risk
averse (both men and women). They argue this is because lack of religion is risky: it risks not going to
heaven. However, convinced atheists may not really consider that to be a risk at all.

Woodhead (2005) has suggested that churches have become feminized. She argues
that secularization has had a bigger impact on men than women. This is echoed by Bruce, who suggests
that as religion becomes more a private matter than a public one, it appeals more to women, particularly
women who perform a domestic role and look after children.

Evaluating the view that women are more religious than men
 Of course, as with all patterns and trends relating to religiosity, the data that these conclusions are
based on can be questioned. Women would appear to attend church more than men, but that does
not necessarily mean that they are more likely to believe in their chosen faith. Women may attend
church for other reasons (form and keep friendships, support with their families, etc.) and men who do
not attend church may still have a religious faith.
 Similarly, there might be other reasons why women are more likely to respond to surveys that they
have a religious belief and affiliation than men. Perhaps, because of the historic association between
faith and women, they see it is as socially desirable and therefore answer surveys accordingly. Young
men, in particular, may have the opposite response and worry that religious faith is not socially
desirable or might be seen as “uncool”.
 Some sects are very male-dominated and can have quite extreme and conservative views about the
role of women in society. As such, one might expect fewer women to be attracted to such sects. An
example of this would be New Christian Right churches in the USA which often have uncompromising
positions on the role of women and also on issues such as abortion.

SUMMARY

The relationship between religion and gender equality is a complex one. Religion plays a vital role in
shaping cultural, social, economic, and political norms in many parts of the world. Similarly, gender roles and
the status of women and men in society are deeply tied to the manner in which religious texts have been
interpreted for centuries by those in positions of authority—positions held predominantly by men. Yet, in sharp

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contrast to their marked absence at the highest levels of decision-making in religious communities, women
play a pivotal role in religious life. Within the family and the community, they implement and embody religious
teachings and traditions, and pass these on to future generations.

Since religion have many people; it must also promote gender equality in all activities. Moreover, they must
encourage women education and participation. Women’s ideas must also be included. This can be done
through advocacy to church leaders in order for them to promote women participation in church and in other
activities. More so, women must be given skills which in turn give them income.

The absence of women in positions of religious authority:

Despite the widespread engagement of women in their religious communities, religious leaders and those
authorized to interpret religious doctrine are predominantly men. As such, the processes of the production of
religious knowledge largely exclude women. Because of lack of will, capacity, and/or confidence, male leaders
have not fully acknowledged or confronted gender inequality and its many implications within their faith
communities.

REFERENCES

Gender Relations Center(2013)

Gender Relations. LaFortune, Notre Dame, University of Notre Dame. Online: grc@nd.edu

[Accessed on 11/02/2013]Underwood, R.M. (2009)

Defining Religion Online:http://www.homesaustin.com/Documents/DefiningReligion.pdf [Accessed on
11/02/2013]Röder, A. Gender role attitudes of migrants

The impact of religion and origin country context , Trinity College Dublin, Online: http://cream.conference-
services.net/resources/952/2371/pdf/MECSC2011_0210_paper.pdf 11/02/2013

Seguino, S. and Lovinsky, L. (2009) The Impact of Religiosity on Gender Attitudes and Outcome.
Burlington, VT 05401 USA Department of Economics University of
Vermont.Online http://www.uvm.edu/~sseguino/pdf/Religiosity.pdf [Accessed on 11/02/2013]

Takyi B. K. and Addai I. (2002) Religious Affiliation, Marital Processes and Women's Educational
Attainment in a Developing Society Online: Downloaded from http://socrel.oxfordjournals.org/ [February
12, 2013]

Hajj, M. and Panizza, U. (2006) Religion and education gender gap: Are Muslims different?
Department of Public Policy and Public Choice POLIS.
Online:http://polis.unipmn.it/pubbl/RePEc/uca/ucapdv/panizza70.pdf [Accessed on 11/02/2013]

Brankovic, A. Fortuna, H. Macri, L. Salbi, Z. Wynkoop, A. Xaver, J (2003) The Impact of Religion on Women
in the Development Process Online:
http://www.womenforwomen.org/news-women-for-women/assets/files/critical-half/CHJournalv1.pdf
[Accessed on 11/02/2013]

Olademo, O. (2008) Theology of African Traditional Religion. Victoria Island. Lagos. National Open
University of Nigeria Online:http://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/NOUN_OCL/pdf/cth%20692.pdf [Accessed on
11/02/2013]

https://www.tutor2u.net/sociology/reference/sociology-gender-and-religious-belief

https://www.partner-religion
development.org/fileadmin/Dateien/Resources/Knowledge_Center/Religion_and_Gender_Equality_UNWOMEN.p
df

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