CHAPTER:3

COMMUNICATION:3-NERVOUS SYSTEM
 INVERTEBRATES SENSORY RECEPTORS
There are about nine types of receptors:
• Baroreceptors • Phonoreceptors
• Chemoreceptors • Proprioceptors
• Georeceptors • Tactile Receptors
• Hygroreceptors • Thermoreceptors
 BARORECEPTORS
• Sense changes in pressure
• Response in ocean-dwelling, copepod
crustaceans, ctenophores, jellyfish medusa,
and squids
• Intertidal crustaceans coordinate migratory
activity
• No specific structure
 CHEMORECPTORS
• Respond to chemicals
• Oldest and universal sense in animal kingdom
• Protozoa has avoidance response to acid,
alkali and salt stimuli
• They are present in depressions or pits in
aquatic invertebrates
 GEORECEPTORS
• Georeceptors (geo, earth+receptor) respond to
the force of gravity. This gives an animal
information about its orientation relative to
“up” and “down.” Most georeceptors are
statocysts (statos: standing , kystis: bladder)
 HYGRORECEPTORS
• Hygroreceptors (hygros, moist) detect the
water content of air. For example, some
insects have hygroreceptors that can detect
small changes in the ambient relative
humidity. This sense enables them to seek
environments with a specific humidity or to
modify their physiology or behavior with
respect to the ambient humidity.
 PHONORECEPTORS

• True phonoreceptors (phone, voice

+ receptor) that respond to sound
have been demonstrated only in
insects, arachnids, and centipedes,
although other invertebrates seem to
respond to sound-induced vibrations
of the substratum. For example,
crickets, grasshoppers, and cicadas
possess phonoreceptors called
tympanic or tympanal organs
INVERTEBRATES PHOTORECEPTORS
• invertebrates, consisting basically of
• Flagellated protozoa possess a mass of light-sensitive cells.
bright red photoreceptor granules called
stigma. • Compund eyes of arthropods like
insects, crustaceans and millipedes
• Earthworm has simple unicellular are composed of units
photoreceptors cells scattered over the
epidermis • called ommatidia. An ommatidium
contains a cluster
• Annelids and Molluscan possess of photoreceptor cells surrounded
ocellus. It is the simple eye of insects and by
some other
• support cells and pigment cells
 PHOTORECETORS

• Photoreceptors are the cells in the retina that

respond
• to light. Their distinguishing feature is the
presence of large amounts of tightly packed
membrane that contains the photopigment
rhodopsin or a related molecule.
 PROPRIOCEPTORS
• proprioceptors sensory receptors in
muscles, joint capsules and • Tactile receptors are basically touch
surrounding receptors.
• tissues, that signal information to • Most tactie receptors involves the
the central nervous system about projection from the body surface.
position
• and movement of body parts, for
example the angle at a joint or the
length of
• a muscle.
 TACTILE RECEPTORS

• Tactile receptors are sensory receptors

which respond to touch. In the glabrous
skin (skine without hairs) of the hand we
have four types of receptors: Meissner,
Merkel, Pacinian, Ruffini.
• The former two are located just under
the skin while the latter two are located
deeper. All four have highly specialized
encapsulated endings as you can see
from the figure. In the hairy skin
Meissner corpuscles are replaced by hair
follicles.
 THERMORECEPTORS

• Thermoreceptors are able to detect heat and

cold and are found
• throughout the skin in order to allow sensory
reception throughout the body
 SENSORY RECEPTORS OF VERTBRATES
• It reflects the adaptation to sensory stimulus both external or
internal
• Physical and chemical characteristics of environment effect the
energy ,molecule that carry sensory information.
 VERTEBRATES RECEPTORS
• There are two systems of vertebrate receptors.

• Lateral line system and electrical sensing.

• Lateral line system and mechanorecptors.
 ELECTRICAL SENSING
• It is in the head and body region of fishes, amphibians and
platypus.
• It consist of sensory pores in the epidermis.
• These pores connect to canals leading to electroreceptors called
ampullary organs.
 MECHANORECETION
• A mechanoreceptor is excited by mechanical pressures or
distortion.
• Examples : sharks,cyclostomes,aquatic amphibians.
• These animals contains different kind of hair cell
mechanorecptors called neuromast.
 HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM IN AIR
• Hearing has been very important to vertebrate.
• It is important in search of food and communication.
• Hearing and equilibrium are received by same organ.
 STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EAR
• Ear of human consist of three parts: outer, middle and inner ear.
• The outer ear consist of auricle and external auditory canal.
• The middle ear consist of tympanic membrane.
• The inner ear has three components: the first two are vestibule
and semicircular canal,third part is cochlea.
 EAR OF ANIMALS
• Ear was first evolved in amphibians.
• Salamandar lack tympanic membrane and middle ear.
• The ear of snake lack middle ear cavity.
• Mammals and birds have well developed ears.
 HEARING AND
EQUILIBRIUM IN
WATER
• Receptors for equilibrium,balance and hearing
are inner ear.
• Semicircular canals in bony fishes.
• Some fishes lack outer or middle ear so
vibrations may pass from waterthrough the
bone of skull to inner ear.
 SKIN SENSORS OF HEAT AND COLD
• Thermoreceptors have bare nerve endings.
• They may be present either in epidermis or
dermis.
• There are also cold or warm spots on the skin.
• Cold receptors respond to temperature above
skin temperature.
• Heat receptors respond to temperature below
skin temperature.
 DETECTION OF TEMPERATURE
• Skin of animals can detect temperature.
• Rattle snakes and Pit vipers have heat
sensitive pit organs between eye and nostril.
• These depressions are lined with sensory
epithelium containing receptor cells respond
to
• temperature of snakes differ from
surroundings.
• Snakes also use pit organs to locate warm-
blooded prey.
 SKIN SENSORS OF DAMAGING
STIMULI
• Pain receptors are present throughout the body (except brain
and intestines).
• Pain receptors are called Nocireptors.
• They have bare nerve endings.
• Severe heat, cold, irritating chemicals elicit response from
nocireceptors thatthat braindetects as pain and itching.
 SKIN SENSORS OF MECHANICAL
STIMULI

• Tactile stimulus; Pertaining to touch.

• Tactile receptors act as a link between
organism and there environment .
• Mechanical sensory receptor detect
mechanical sensory stimuli that the brain
interprets.
• For example
• light-touch
• Touch-pressure
• vibration
 TYPES OF TOUCH RECEPTORS

1 Light touch receptors include:

bare nerve endings.
meissners corpuscles or tactile corpuscles.
2 .Pain receptors are distributed throughout the body.
3. Bulb of Krause found in dermis of skin respond to position
changes.
4. Pascinian corpuscles are touch pressure receptor also called
organs of ruffians.
 SONAR

• It is a process by which many animals

can determine distance and depth by a
force of echolocation.
• Animals emit high frequency sounds and
determine how long it takes for the
sound to return after bouncing off the
objects in environment .
• Bats
• Dolphins
• shrews
 SMELL
• Also called as olfaction .
• Smell receptor are present in roof of nasal cavity of vertebrates.
• These cells lie among the supporting epithelial cells .
• Olfactory cells vary in animals .
• For example
• Dog has 40 million olfactory cells per square centimeter .
 SMELL PERCIEVED IN ANIMALS
• fishes;:openings in snout lead to olfactory receptor . • mouth are present along the olfactory
epithelium.
• Spawning depends on olfaction .
• Snake takes out its tongue and strike it
• In amphibians :opening through nostril .
with Jackobson's organ in order to
• Helps in search of food perceive odor.
• Mate recognition • In Birds: External nares open near the
• Noxious chemical detection . beak.
• In Reptiles: Blind ending pouches known as • Olfactory epithelium is poorly developed
Jackobson's organs, that open into • Vulture is exception .
• In mammals :nose for smell.
 TASTE
• Also called as gustation.
• Receptor of taste are chemoreceptor.
• They are present in mouth or throat .
• Surface of mammalian tongue covered with
small protuberances called papillae.
• Bumpy texture of tongue is due to papillae.
• Taste buds are barrel shaped chemoreceptor
cell called gustatory cells.
• Taste buds :present in crevices between the
papillae.
• Taste pore: Extending from each receptor are
gustation hair that open through small
openings called taste pore.
 TASTE SENSATION
• There are 4 Taste sensations. • Reptiles: In pharynx
• Sweet (sugars) • Birds: In pharynx
• Sour (acids) • Fishes: On skin
• Bitter (alkaloids) • For example
• Salty (electrolytes) • Sturgeon :have taste buds in roof , on side walls and in
pharynx.
• Location of taste buds in different animals.
• These help in monitoring the flow of water.
• Mammals :In their mouth
 VISION

• Most of the species have eyes for vision .

• Eyeball consists of
• Lens
• Sclera
• Choroid
• Inner retina consists of photoreceptors.
• Transparent cornea
• Colored iris
• Cornea along with sclera cover the front of eyeball . • Conjunctiva :Mucus membrane that cover
• Iris is endowed with light-screening pigments made • eyeball .
up of circular smooth muscles controlling the amount • Accomodation :Process of focusing light rays
of light entering the pupil. precisely on retina.
• A clear fluid fills the posterior and anterior chambers • Stretching and relaxation of muscles and fibers
between lens and cornea . is coordinated in vertebrates
• Lines is behind iris.
 EYES OF VERTEBRATES
• Fishes:
• Lidless, rounded and close to retina • Reptiles :
• Focusing require moving lens forward and backward . • Upper an lower eyelids ,blood sinus
,nictitating membrane cleans the eye.
• Amphibians: Sight feeders
• Median eye develops from roof of optic
• Binocular vision in anurans which help in depth perception for
tectum or mid brain.
capturing prey.
• For example
• Salamander lack binocular vision .
• Tuatara have median eye with complete lens
• Nictitating membrane clean the eyes .
,nerve and retina.
• Birds:
• Double focusing mechanism helps in instant
capture of prey.
 VERTEBRATES EYES

• Rods and cones are present in vertebrate eyes .

• Rods are sensitive to dim light.
• Cones respond to high intensity of light and
involved in color perception .
• Generator potential triggered by the rhodopsin in
rod cell which absorb light .
• When photoreceptors are not stimulated vitamin A
and ATP convert rhodopsin to light sensitive form.
• Retinal nerves translate relative amount of light
that cones absorb .
• Generator potential that are then transmitted as
nerve impulse to brain where overall sensation of
sight is perceived .
 CHAPTER:4
COMMUNICATION:3-THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
AND CHEMICAL MESSENGER.
 COMMUNICATION
• “Communication is a process in which the sender transmits
signals to one or more receivers to control and coordinate the
actions”.
• In human body two, major organ systems participate in relatively “long
distance” communication: The nervous system and the endocrine
system.
• Together these two systems are primarily responsible for maintaining
homeostasis in the body.
 CHEMICAL MESSENGERS

“Chemical messenger is any compound that serves to transmit a

message”.
A chemical messenger may refer to: Hormone , Long range chemical
messengers. Neurotransmitter, communicates to adjacent cells.
Neuropeptide , a protein sequence which act as a hormone or neurotransmitter.
Pheromones.
LOCAL CHEMICAL
MESSENGERS

 Alter physiological conditions

 Most of these act on adjacent cells
 Do not accumulate in blood
 In vertebrates lumones (in gut, regulate
digestion)

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

 Chemicals, act on adjacent target cells

 Act quickly, recycled
 Actively degraded
 Reach high concentration in synaptic cleft
 Example Acetylcholine

NEUROPEPTIDES

 Also NEUROHORMONES
 Transported by blood to nonadjacent cells
 In mammals, certain nerve cells in
hypothalamus release neuropeptides,
cause pituitary gland to release hormone
oxytocin
 HORMONES

 Secreted by endocrine glands and cells

 Transported by blood to nonadjacent
cells
 Example Oxytocin, FSH, LH etc.

PHEROMONES

 Released to the exterior of one animal

that affect behavior of other animal of
same species
 HORMONES AND THEIR FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

“A hormone (Gr. hormaein, to set in motion or to spur on) is a

specialized chemical messenger produced by Endocrine gland
or tissue”.
 Study of endocrine glands and their hormones is known as ENDOCRINOLOGY.
 Hormones circulate through body fluids, affect metabolic activity of target cell.
 A target cell has receptors to which chemical messengers either selectively bind or
on which they have an effect.
 Only rarely does a hormone operate independently.
 More typically one hormone influences, depends on, and balances on other hormones
in a controlled feedback network.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF
HORMONES

 Most hormones are proteins ,derivatives

of amino acids
 Few, fatty acid derivatives, fore example
most invertebrate neurosecretory cells
produce Neuropeptides
 Vertebrate pancreas secretes proteins
 Ovaries, testes, cortex of adrenal gland
secretes steroids.
 Hormones are effective in extremely small amounts.
Hormones help to control biochemical reactions in three ways
 Increase rate at which other substances enter or leave cell.
 Can stimulate a target cell to synthesize enzymes, proteins, or other substances.
 Can prompt a target cell to activate or suppress cellular enzymes.
FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM
OF HORMONE SECRETION

Suppose the rate of metabolic rate of dog

decreases
Hypothalamus responds
to this slow rate by releasing more
Thyrotrophin releasing hormone TRH which
causes pituitary gland to release more
Thyrotrophin or Thyroid stimulating hormone
TSH. This hormone cause Thyroid to secrete
Thyroxin which increases metabolic rate and
vice versa.
FIXED-MEMBRANE RECEPTOR MECHANISM

 With fixed MRM an endocrine cell secretes a water soluble hormone that circulates through
blood.
 At the cells of target organs, hormone act as “first or extracellular messenger”, binding to a
specific receptor site for that hormone on plasma membrane.
 The hormone receptor complex activates the enzyme ADENYLASE CYCLASE in the
membrane, the activated enzyme converts the ATP into a nucleotide known as CYCLIC
AMP, which becomes “the second or intracellular messenger”, cyclic APM diffuses
through the cytoplasm and activates an enzyme known as PROTEIN KINASE, which causes
the cell to respond, after inducing the target cell the enzyme PHOSPHODIESTRASE
inactivates cyclic AMP,
 In the mean time the membrane receptors loses the first messenger and becomes available
for new reaction
 Some Hormones of Invertebrates
• Almost all invertebrate taxa produce hormones
• Hormones may be synthesized by endocrine cells as in
Cnidarians,Nematodes and Annelids
• By endocrine glands as in Molluscs, Arthropods and Echinoderms.
• Invertebrates hormones are often neuropeptides or steroids.
 Various Endocrinal system in the vertebrates:
Axis:
When no. of glands are regulated under a sequential signal is called an axis.
Hypothalamus pituitary Target organ axis:
 Similar in all vertebrates.
 Most primitive in Agnatha.
 To advanced in jawed fishes.
 Clearly defined in Amphibians & Reptiles.
Target Organs:
 Thyroid glands.
 Adrenal glands.
 Gonadal glands.
 Thyroid Axis
Pituitary secretes
thyrotrophic that
stimulates thyroid gland to
secrete thyroid hormone,
thyroxin & tridothyronine
Function:
Control & regulate growth
& development.
Adrenal Axis:
 Axis is not common in
mammals & non-mammals.
 In non-mammal adrenal cortex
& medulla have different
names
 Interregnal cells chromaffin
cells respectively.
 In fishes they are embedded in
kidneys.
 In amphibians they spread
diffusely on the surface.
Gonadal Axis:
Gonads secrete steroid
hormones
 Androgen.
 Estrogen.
 Progesterone.
 By gonadotropin
secreted by pituitary.
Function:
 Ovulation & sperm
release.
 Other Vertebrate Glands:
Pancreas
Secretion
 Insulin
 Glucagon
 Somatostatin
Parathyroid glands:
Calcium regulating hormone
Secretion:
 Calcitonin hormone
Other hormones:
 Gastrointestinal hormone
 Cholecystokinin
 Pineal complex melatonin
 Prostaglandins & Liver
 Endocrine system of birds
Include ovary, testes, adrenal, pituitary, thyroid, pancreas,
thymus, ultimobranchial and bursa of fabricuis
Have same functions as in mammals
Pituitary gland secrete prolactin that stimulates the production
of pigeon’s milk in pigeons
It develops brood patch
 Pituitary gland in mammals (Hypophysis)

Located below the hypothalamus

Two lobes
Anterior Lobe (adenohypophysis)
Posterior Lobe(neurohypophysis)
 Oxytocin

Role in mammalian reproduction

Effect on smooth muscles
Stimulates contraction of uterus
Promote ejection of milk from mammary glands
 Adenohypophysis

Secrete two tropic hormones somatotropin and prolactin

four other hormones ;
 Thyrotropin
 adrenocorticotropic
 luteinizing hormone
follicle stimulating hormone
 Functions

 Somatotropin: induce cell division and causes growth of whole body

 Prolactin: enhance mammary gland development
 Thyrotropin: stimulate thyroid gland synthesis
 Adrenocorticotropic :controls stress and insulin production
 Leutinizing hormone : secrete estrogen and progrsteron
 Follicle stimulating hormone: cause maturation of eggs
 Thyroid hormones
Two types of thyroid hormones:
1. Thyroxine
2. Triiodothyronine
• Both of them influence overall growth, development and
metabolic rates.
Calcitonin
• Helps control extracellular levels of calcium ions.
 Parathyroid Gland

• Secrets parathyroid hormone (Parathormone),

which elevates levels of blood calcium
• Raises blood levels of calcium by
promoting kidney retention of
calcium, encouraging its
absorption across the walls of
the digestive tract, and
affecting bone deposition.
 Adrenal Gland
 In mammals, two adrenal glands rest on
top of the kidneys. Each gland
consists of two separate glandular
tissue. Inner portion is medulla and
outer is cortex.
 Function:
• One of the important functions of
the adrenal gland is coordinating the
whole organism’s response to stress.
 The Pancreas
A composite gland consisting of
exocrine which consists of Acini
That secrete digestive enzymes
into ducts and endocrine portions
known as the
Islets of Langerhans consists
of masses of endocrine cells
embedded within the exocrine
pancreas.
 Islets of Langerhans
• Secretes insulin and glucagon.
• Insulin removes glucose from the blood.
• Glucagon returns glucose to the blood.
• Alpha cells produces glucagon.
• Beta cells insulin.
 Gonads
The Gonad is the organ that makes gametes.
In males, gonad is known as testes
which secrete androgen and testosterone.
In female, gonad is known as ovaries
which secrete estrogen and progesterone.
The product gametes are haploid germ
cells.
For example, spermatozoan and egg
cells are
gametes.
 Male Gonadal Function

Testosterone

Necessary for growth In humans, stimulates

Acts with LH and FSH and maintenance of the growth of facial
to stimulate the male sex organs and pubic hair and
spermatogenesis enlargement of larynx
And sexual behavior which deepens voice
 Female Gonadal Function

Estrogen: Progesterone

• Helps to regulate the • Regulate the menstrual cycle

menstrual cycle and estrus and estrous cycle
cycles. • Development of the
• Development of the mammary glands
mammary glands and other • Aid in placenta formation
female sexual characteristics. during pregnancy.
 Thymus Gland

 Anatomy
Upper mediastinum
Large in infants (70g)
Atrophied in adults (3g)
2 lobed organ
 Hormones – Thymosin
 Target – T lymphocytes
 Hormone Functions
Promote production and maturation Thymus Gland
of T lymphocytes