PHILOSOPHY

 The only solution to philosophical question is

to ask them. The search for answer only
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO begins the moment we ask philosophical
PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON questions.

Thales of Miletus PARTICULAR = Part of the whole.

- Ionia, Greece 16th- 17th century, they practice
Mythodological Belief (practice where UNIVERSAL = totality or the whole.
anything is governed by gods and goddesses)
- Diverted from methodological belief into
more rational way
- “water” is the beginning of everything in this
world
- He started in Western philosophy
- Paved way in the establishment of philosophy,
questioning, logic, rationalize questioning.

Philosophical Reflection
PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS - Needed before you answer the question
- are inquiries that explore deep issues like the - Requires holistic and universal understanding
meaning of life, truth, morality, and the
nature of reality. They prompt us to think Philosophers:
critically about fundamental concepts and
challenge our understanding of the world 1. MARTIN HEIDEGGER
around us. - A German philosopher known for his work in
existential phenomenology and ontology,
- Cannot be taken up in isolation, that is, exploring the nature of being and human
separate from the very experiences from existence.
which the arise. - “Hermeneutics of facticity” = people interpret
things as they encounter them in different
- It asks your perspectives, point of view, ways
thoughts, etc. - Essence is that which makes something what
it is.
- Do not have definite or ready answers. - The particular cannot but run to its roots
which is the universal.
Some of things Human Beings ask are:

• Why am I here?
• Why I was ever born?
• What I am here for?
• Why love when you only get hurt?
• What if there is no after life?
Scientific Questions
- always confined to particular
Characteristics of Philosophical Questions Philosophical Questions
- Isaiah Berlin - leads into the totality of beings and inquiries
into the whole
1. These questions are very broad or general - It eventually becomes a revelation about the
2. No single methodology for answering the question whole of reality
3. These questions seems to have no practical utility
Essence of Human Freedom – problem is not limited
 When we ask Philosophical Questions, we do to a man and freedom, instead, we cannot find to
not simply inquire about specific questions avoid asking about the essence of man, essence of the
that is triggered by certain questions, a world, and essence of God.
philosophical question always has a BIGGER
PROBLEM.
  Every person engaged in philosophical
questions require adequate justification or The goal for the person using the Socratic dialectic
rational basis. method is not necessarily to come to a specific “truth
“,
Purpose is like a thread that is woven through but rather, it is often an attempt to expose
everything that happens. Inevitably, we will have to inconsistencies in the other person’s argument. One
include the aspect from who determines our purpose benefits from this process by getting a clearer picture
to what is our purpose for. Thus, to philosophize is to of
look at life from a holistic perspective. what their opponent thinks, feels, or believes, without
taking anything for granted.
2. Plato
- A significant ancient Greek philosopher, made For Example:
foundational contributions to Western The slogan “It’s more fun in the Philippines” is true.
philosophy through his dialogues and dialectic
forms. Is it truly fun the Philippines?
- Warned as early as 350 B.C.E. that there were How is it fun the Philippines?
things that deceive, confuse, or mislead in this How about those who are living in the squatter’s
world. To know what is real or true requires area?
much intellectual effort and rational ability. What do you mean by fun?

Claim or Proposition
Intellect or Mind (Faculty of Reason) - requires sufficient proof and logical argument
- The best tool we have that enable us to deal to be regarded as true.
with problems. - Must be able to withstand further scrutiny
- God gave us these factors that enable us to and examination.
figure things out on our own. - One has to give good reasons as the basis for
- Our intellect/mind/faculty of reason/rational any claim
basis allows us to pursue our philosophical
questions so we can come nearer to the It is when our views are challenged that we feel
truth. compelled to defend those very views. The rational
way to do it is to give good reasons.
Dialectics
- is an art of refutation that dates back to the We need to welcome questions that probe into the
Ancient Greeks. core of what we claim because it is the best way to
- A technique to resolve philosophical reveal what is not obvious.
questions.
In the process, we learn more about our position or
Dialogues view- what it assumes, what it truly means, and what
- it illustrates how dialectics is an effective it entails.
means of examining and evaluating truth
claims. Error or inconsistencies of a claim are • The dialectics of the ancients later developed in the
demonstrated using rational abilities. modern era into thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.

3. Socrates Thesis + Anti-thesis = Synthesis

- most noteworthy in his use of dialectics.
- His method of question and answer illustrates • The exchange or confrontation between differing
how views need to be defended with positions (thesis and antithesis) culminates to a
consistency and clarity. synthesis that is a resolution of opposing views.

Socratic dialectic method The German Philosophers G.W.R Hegel and Karl Marx
- is a form of inquiry and debate between proposed that there is a dialectical pattern even in
individuals with opposing viewpoints based history as reflected in resolutions of contradictions
on asking and answering questions to through time.
stimulate critical thinking and draw out ideas
and underlying presumptions.
Thus, the interplay of opposing views is necessary for
progress. Confrontation of this kind must not be 1. THALES
avoided at all. We need this exchange of ideas so we - Known as the first person in recorded
can grow. history to have started philosophizing.
- Coined the term “arche” which means the
What doesn’t kill you makes you stronger. ultimate substance of reality.
- Believed that water is the arche since it
4. G.W.F Hegel assumes the three states of matter: liquid
- George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (inherent state), solid (freezing), and gas
- born in Stuttgard, Germany (evaporation).
- belongs to the period “German Idealism”, - Presumes that the earth is flat.
which shared Plato’s view that ideas are real
as opposed matter 2. ANAXIMANDER
- Did separate religion and Philosophy
- Believed that the ultimate substance of reality
5. Karl Marx is air because it binds the soul to the body.
- Born on May 5, 1818 in Trier, Germany, Karl - Supported flat earth theory.
- Marx was trained in philosophy but later
turned to economics and politics. 3. PYTHAGORAS
- Marx introduced the concept “historical - Said that everything can be explained
materialism” which embodies his theory that through numbers.
societies rise and fall as a result of class - Proponent of Pythagorean theorem.
struggles.
4. HERACLITUS
Philosophy teaches us to be open as we strive to know - Fire is the arche.
better. - Believed on the concept of change and
motion
Debating amiably (that is confrontation without - Likened the idea of change to river. “You
aggression) with someone allows us to discover many cannot step on the same river twice.”
things.
5. PARMENIDES
- Disagreed with the idea of Heraclitus.
- Believed that change is an illusion, and the
real arche is “being.”
LESSON 2: PHILOSOPHICAL ENTERPRISE
6. EMPEDOCLES
Philosophy (Etymology): Greek - Believed that the ultimate substance of reality
are the four elements: water, earth, fire, and
Philo – love air.
Sophia – wisdom - Has a strong conviction that he is immortal; he
tried to justify this by jumping on a
“the lover of wisdom” volcano (Mt. Etna, Sicily)
7. ANAXAGORAS
Philosophy - Believed that the mind (nous) is infinite and
- is the study of general and fundamental self-ruled.
questions about existence, knowledge, values, - Our imagination is boundless.
reason, mind, and language.
8. DEMOCRITUS
- tries to answer important questions by - Believes that everything is made up of atoms.
coming up with answers about real things and - These atoms are infinite and indestructible.
asking "why?"

CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
1. SOCRATES
Ancient Philosophy - The oratorical philosopher; left no writings.
 - Well-known for his Socratic Method; it is a - Cosmological argument and the teleological
method of questioning that attempts argument.
provoke clarification of ideas and discussion
by asking follow-up questions that are critical 3. AVICENNA
and insightful. - Avicenna, an influential Islamic philosopher,
- Encourages people to acknowledge their own introduced the concept of Tabula rasa.
ignorance and to be skeptic; this will motivate
us to pursue wisdom. MODERN PHILOSOPHY

“An unexamined life is not 1. RATIONALISM

worth living.” - Socrates – - The chief source of knowledge is reason, and
is something supplied by our mind.
2. PLATO
- A literary superstar; he is best known for his 2. EMPIRICSM
writings such as “The Republic” which is - Knowledge is impossible without experience,
composed of philosophies presented in which is only possible because of our senses.
dialogues.
- It was he who wrote the philosophies of
Socrates. WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
- His philosophy is a completion and extension
of HINDUISM
philosophy of Socrates. The term “Hinduism” refers to the religion of the
- His famous philosophy is the Theory of Forms people
which asserts that the reality only exists in of in Indus Valley. It is based on the teachings of the
our mind, and that experiences are just Veda. “Veda” is Sanskrit word which means
illusions. “knowledge.” It is a body of the sacred scriptures in
- Introduced the idea of tripartite soul (rational Hinduism.
spirit, emotional spirit, and appetitive spirit)
Hinduism has four fundamental principles:
1. Dharma – refers to Hindu’s moral obligation based
on Vedas.
2. Samsara – refers to the cycle of life which is
characterized by the existence of reincarnation
(rebirth).
3. Karma – refers to the consequences of action. Good
actions lead to good karma; bad actions lead to bad
karma.
4. Moksha – refers to the state of enlightenment. The
samsara of a person ends in the attainment of
moksha.
3. ARISTOTLE
1. CONFUCIUS
- His philosophy is an opposition of Plato’s
- Also known as Kung Fu Tze (Great Master
philosophical tradition.
Kung), he is the founder of Confucianism
- Unlike Plato, Aristotle believes that the
- Began philosophizing to give a solution to
endowment of senses will lead a person in
social chaos, which he found during the
direct contact with the world (experiences)
warfare of states in the Chinese kingdom.
and provide adequate proof in pursuit of the
- His philosophy is focused on social values and
truth.
relations.
- Created the prohibitive version of the golden
MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY rule GOLDEN RULE Original Version:

1. ST. ANSELM OF CANTERBURY “Do unto others as you would

- Anselm of Canterbury is best known for his want others to do unto you.”
ontological argument for the existence of God.
Confucius’ Version: “Do NOT
2. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS do unto other what you would
 not want others to do unto.” - religion: we have ethical codes such as the ten
commandments
- these codes serve as a guide to what is good
2. LAO TZU or evil
- Also called Laozi or Lao-Tze (meaning the “old 5. AESTHETICS
master”), he is credited for the founding of - Came from the word “aisthetikos” which
Daoism. means “sensitive”
- Central to Daoism is the “Dao” (Daodejing) - It is an analysis toward the nature of aesthetic
which means “the way” or “path”. It is focused judgement, standard of beauty, and
on following the flow of nature. objectivity of these standards.
- Introduced “Wu Wei” which means effortless - It is called the study of aesthetic experience
actions; Lao Tzu believes that we should not and the idea of beauty.
rush into things. Instead, we should be still.
Examples of aesthetical questions:
1.) What is beauty?
2.) Is beauty about physical appearance?
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY 3.) Is goodness related to beauty?

1. EPISTEMOLOGY
- Came from the word episteme which means
“knowledge.”
- Deals with the study of knowledge: origin of
knowledge (empiricism-from experience;
rationalism-from mind prior to experience)
and verification of knowledge.

Examples of epistemological questions:

1. What is the truth?
2. Do we really know what we think we know?
3. Is experience the best teacher?  knowledge: epistemology & metaphysics
 reason: logic
2. METAPHYSICS  value: ethics and aesthetics
- Means “after physics”
- Study of the nature of Reality
- It encompasses everything that exists, as well LESSON 3: PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION
as the nature of existence itself.
- for us to answer philosophical questions, we
Examples of metaphysical questions: need to undergo philosophical reflection
1.) What is the meaning of life?
2.) What is the purpose of life? I. Socratic Legacy
3.) Does God exist? : in order to engage in reflection, we must:

3. LOGIC 1. Know Thyself

- Looks into whether there are rules or - we need to reflect about what we believe or
principles that govern reasoning. claim to know because we are always
- Knowing the rules of logic to create sound responsible for every thought we have.
argument and avoid fallacious reasoning. - our mind is boundless and self-ruled, we are
the ones responsible for understanding
Example of a logical argument: ourselves
1. Socrates is a human. - the moment we reflect, we acknowledge that
2. All humans are mortal. there are things we don't know yet.
3. There, Socrates is mortal. - if we realize that we don't know, we begin to
question. When we ask questions, we begin to
4. ETHICS find answers.
- a branch that studies what is right and what is
wrong; what is morally good and morally evil With these answers, we find meaning.
 - we have no one to blame for our own Example: Pilosopo Tasyo as a Social Critic in Noli Me
decisions in life except us Tangere
- our decisions today have an impact on our - Pilosopo Tasyo like Socrates are people who
journey; thus, we must reflect before making goes around the place expressing views that
decisions since what we believe to be true are deep and difficult to understand or to take
becomes the basis of our actions seriously
- That’s why Pilosopo Tasyo was considered a
2. The Unexamined life is not worth living fool.
- make the human journey meaningful - Because of Socrates and Pilosopo Tasyo’s
- we are born like a clean slate, with nothing wisdom, they proclaim thoughts that are
- our experience and journey make the clean unsettling and radical. While ordinary people
slate full of writings are comfortable accepting the status quo,
- we need to assess ourselves through self- Socrates and Pilosopo Tasyo seek authentic
reflection wisdom.
- a life that is worth living is a life that examines - The Philosopher or “Pilosopo” therefore, the
the way oneself thinks people who observes, thinks, sees clearly, and
- examination of our beliefs and thoughts give speaks the Truth. We need the pilosopo to
us the opportunity to understand ourselves engage others in finding the truth and to live
better by it.
- we are only taught theories and concepts and
it is up to us to apply these concepts into our LESSON 4: FALLACIES
lives
- every person must face the question "who am
I?" If we don’t know ourselves, then we have ARGUMENTS
the tendency to make wrong decisions in life - Are series of statements that provide
explanations to convince the listener or a
3. Virtue is knowledge of good and bad reader that the opinion is truthful.
- it is necessary that we ask philosophical - A set of statements (called premises) that
questions to recognizes what is good or bad work together to support another statement
(branch of ethics) (the conclusion).
- it must provide insights on what is good or
bad
- virtue is knowledge because if you know what
is good obviously lead you to do what is good
- because if we are what and what we say and
do are not in sync with each other, what we
claim to know is therefore doubtful
FALLACY
II. PILOSOPO as SOCIAL CRITIC - Comes from the Latin term “fallere” which
- In the Philippines, the term “pilosopo” has means to deceive.
been understood negatively - Fake arguments (maling pangangatuwiran)
- Instead of looking at a “pilosopo” as a person are group of statements that appear to be
of wisdom, they use the term to describe arguments to support the conclusion.
someone with poor reasoning and sometimes
comic in character Example:
- Example: Why am I here? Pilosopo: Because I - There is no hope in the Philippine government
am not there. because it its tropical country.

FALLACY – an error in reasoning that

occurs when invalid arguments or COMMON TYPES OF FALLACIES
irrelevant points are introduced without
any evidence to support them. 1. Argumentun Ad Hominen
(Attacking the Person)
- A “pilosopo” should be seen as a person who
is critical in examining any information - Attacking the person presenting the argument
especially a fallacy instead of the argument itself.
 - This fallacy occurs when an argument is (Appeal to tradition)
dismissed or refuted by attacking the person
making the argument rather than addressing - The idea is acceptable because it has
the argument itself. been true for a long time
- This fallacy argues that something is true or
Example: valid simply because it has been done that
way for a long time.
Professor Doogie had argued for more emphasis on
music in our F2F classes to facilitate creativity. But Example: People have believed in God for
Doogie is a selfish bigheaded fool, I absolutely refuse thousands of years, so it seems obvious
to listen to him. to me that God exists
Pattern: 1. X is a bad person
2.Therefore, X’s argument must be bad. 6. Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam
(Appeal to ignorance)
2. Argumentum Ad Miserecordiam
(Appeal to Emotion) - Claiming that something is true because
no one has proven it false or vice versa.
- Using emotions such as pity or - This fallacy argues that something must be
sympathy and relies on emotional true because it hasn't been proven false, or
reactions rather than logical reasoning vice versa.
to persuade the audience.
- This fallacy attempts to persuade by appealing Example: You cannot prove that God does not
to emotions such as pity, fear, or sympathy, exist; therefore, God exists
rather than using logical reasoning.
7. Argumentum ad Viricordiam
Example: Please let me in. I was just late because I (Appeal to authority)
have to attend to my son who is sick.
3. Argumentum Ad Baculum - Claiming that something is true based
(Appeal to Force) on the position of an assumed authority
- This fallacy uses the opinion of an authority
- Using the threat of force or an figure as evidence, even if the authority is not
undesirable event to advance an an expert on the topic.
argument
- This fallacy uses the threat of force or Example: An actress said that eating peanuts
coercion to persuade someone to accept an causes acne. Therefore, peanuts cause acne.
argument.
8. Straw man Fallacy
Example: If this peace agreement will not be
signed by the government, then we will - Occurs when someone takes another
have no recourse but go to war. person’s argument, distorts or
exaggerates it in some kind of extreme
4. Argumentum Ad Populum way, and attack it as if that is really the
(Appeal to popular) claim the first person is making.
- This fallacy misrepresents an opponent's
- The idea presented is acceptable argument to make it easier to attack.
because a lot of people accept it.
- This fallacy assumes that something is true or Example:
valid because many people believe it or Person 1: I like English subject more than
because it is popular. Math;
Person 2: Well you must hate our Math
Example: Every boy your age already has a instructor
girlfriend, you should go find one!
9. Petitio Principii
Pattern: (Begging the Question)
1) Most people believe or do X.
2) Therefore, you should believe or do X - An argument where the conclusion is
assumed in one of the premises instead
5. Argumentum Ad Traditionem of supporting it
 - This fallacy assumes the truth of the very extreme outcomes
thing that is being argued. - This fallacy argues that one event will
inevitably lead to a chain of other events,
ultimately resulting in a negative outcome.
Example:
All politicians are corrupt because they are in Example: If we allow our 16-year-old to have a
politics; Vaccines are dangerous because they boyfriend, then what’s next? A baby?
contain chemicals
15. Two wrongs make a right
10. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc
(Cause and Effect Fallacy) - When an arguer attempts to justify a
wrongful act by claiming that some other act
- Falsely assumes that one event causes is just as bad or worse
Another - This fallacy justifies an action by claiming that
- Assuming a cause and effect someone else has done something wrong.
relationship between unrelated events.
- This fallacy assumes that because one event -
happened after another, the first event caused Example: I don’t feel guilty about cheating on
the second event. online quiz. Half the class cheats on
online quiz.
Example: Ever since you bought that sweater,
everything has been going wrong in your life. You
should get rid of it. - An individual cannot live their life just
agreeing with everybody
11. Hasty Generalization - A critical mind aided by Philosophy help
us from our own personal point of view
- Drawing a general conclusion from a that can guide us in making decisions or
sample that is biased or too small actions
- This fallacy draws a conclusion based on - Each pov is unique but must be based
insufficient evidence or a small sample size. on sound and reasonable ideas
- We can come up with truthful and
Example: I saw a student cheated during acceptable ideas through philosophy
exam, thus all students cheat during
exam
LESSON 5: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
12. Fallacy of Composition
- Assumming that what is true of a part is
true for the whole METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
- This fallacy assumes that what is true of the
parts must also be true of the whole. Opinion
- perspective, neither true or false
Example: Because all the components of - expression of one's feelings based on facts,
this car is light and easy to carry, then emotions, beliefs, or views
the car itself must also be light and easy - not based on evidence, no concrete evidence
to carry - subjective

13. Fallacy of Division Fact

- Assuming that what is true to whole, is - statement that can be checked and backed up
true for the part. by concrete evidences
- This fallacy assumes that what is true of the - based on research or statistics
whole must also be true of the parts. - objective information
- -pieces of a puzzle to build a bigger picture
Example: The boys in my neighborhood like to
play volleyball. So, my new neighbor Truth
Jacob will surely like to play volleyball - something that has actual and proven
existence scientifically and spiritually
14. Slippery Slope regardless of one's opinion and beliefs
- Assuming a very small action will lead to
 - undisputed, objective, universal, constant, - formally introduced by Francis Bacon who was
exact, and factual the Father of the English Essay
- combination of subjectivity (it varies for each - derived from Latin word Scientia (to produce
one of us) and objectivity (it is based on knowledge)
science/reality) - determining truth or knowledge through
- the completed puzzle, a broader experimentation, inductuve and deductive
understanding of reality shaped by beliefs and reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing
experiences - process of experimentation used to explore
observation and answer questions
Those who love wisdom seek truth and explore - observe first, then ask questions
life's purpose through philosophizing - make observation--> ask questions and gather
information--> form a hypothesis and make
predictions--> test the hypothesis and
predictions--> analyze the data and draw
Philosophizing conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis and
- is a DISCOURSE on reality which involves modify
inquiring, conversing, and asking questions
- process of determining the truth or drawing a 4. Historical Method
conclusion from a statement by asking - from the Greek word “iotopia” which means
questions about reality to investigate or to find out
- evidence based approach drawn from past
METHODS: events
- introduced by Thucydides
1. Socratic Method - process of gathering evidencea and examining
them and formulating ideas about the past to
- asking and answering series of questions to come up with present truths
stimulate critical thinking and draw out - reviewing the past is the primary method for
underlying ideas and presumptions looking at a solution for a problem at present
- founded by Socrates, also known as the - history is a mirror of the present
method of Elenchus: to inquire or examine - we need to analyze the past to effectively find
- ask-->find/select-->use examples---> reject-- solutions for our problems today
>ask again - experience is the best teacher, learn from past
experiences
2. Dialectic Method - does not accept logic as primary source of
- exchange of opposing or contradicting truth, instead it relies on factual method or
viewpoints evidence
- formally introduced by G.W.F. Hegel in the - talk-->review-->examine-->develop/formulate
19th Century
- came from the Greek word “Dialektike” which
means the art of conversation Philosophical Inquiry
- method of argument or expositions that
systematically weighs contradictory facts or - involves critical thinking, questioning,
ideas with a view to the resolution of their assumptions, and examining different
real or apparent contradictions perspectives
- the combination or thesis and antithesis to - process that encourages reflection, analysis,
gain synthesis and open-mindedness in exploring complex
- the contradicting forces serve as the idea
determining factor of their continued
interaction
- clarification of controversial notions and
arguments; mostly used in debates
- Ask-->Clarify-->Disagree->Justify-> Choose

3. Scientific Method
- evidence based approach or emperical
method