"Client-Centered" Psychotherapy

Author(s): Carl R. Rogers

Source: Scientific American , Vol. 187, No. 5 (November 1952), pp. 66-75
Published by: Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/24944053

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 "CI·lent- C entere d"
Psychotherapy
In which a new approach to the treatment of troubled
and neurotic people has led to an interesting series
of objective studies in the effect of such treatment

by Carl R. Rogers

URING the past dozen years a a way as to overcome those factors; (2)
D
more than 60 such studies of the thera­
growing group of psychothera­ peutic process and its outcomes, and this these powers will become effective if the
pists have been developing a new article will report some of our results. therapist can establish with the client a
approach called client-centered therapy. Client-centered therapy is built on relationship sufficiently warm, accepting
As an integral part of our work, we have two central hypotheses: ( 1) the individ­ and understanding. From these two con­
tried to develop objective ways of meas­ ual has within him the capacity, at least victions it follows that in practice we do
uring the results of psychotherapy and, if latent, to understand the factors in his not try to do something. to the client.
possible, to ascertain some of the "laws" life that cause him unhappiness and We do not diagnose his case, nor evalu­
of human nature. By now we have made pain, and to reorganize himself in such ate his personality; we do not prescribe

CLIENT TALKS TO THERAPIST across a desk, rather ing of equality between the therapist and the client is
than from a couch, in client-centered therapy. A feel- considered the central feature of this form of therapy.

66

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 BEFORE AFTER FINAL
FOLLOWUP
TAKE A GOOD LOOK! THERAPY THERAPY

IDEAL OR
WANTED SELF

VICTOREEN
POCKET SELF

DOSIMETERS
FOR
EVERY
PURPOSE
DIAGNOSTIC
REPRESENTATION

LOOK at the Victoreen dosimeter$

that have served the medical pro­ TIME 5Y2 MONTHS 12 MONTHS
fession for over twenty-five yeo rs.

LOOK at the Victoreen dosimeters Q TEST consisted primarily of having clients sort cards hearing statements
that serve Government and Atomic ahout themselves into piles according to how closely the statements agreed
Energy Industrial Laboratories. with their own opinions. This diagram represents three Q sorts hy a female
LOOK at the Victoreen dosimeters client: one hy the client with respect to her ideal self, a second hy the client
in "Olive Drab" and in "Navy Gray." with respect to her real self and a third hy a diagnostician with respect to
the client. The letter I stands for the ideal-self test; S, for the real-self test;
A dosimeter is an instrument which
D, for the diagnostic test. B stands for hefore therapy; A, after therapy; F,
measures the total accumulated quantity
for final followup a year later. The numher on the line hetween each
(dosage ) of X or gamma radiation. The
reading is in roentgens regardless of pair of circles indicates the correlation hetween the two sorts in per cent.
exposure lime. Pocket dosimeters, some·
times called pocket chambers, are
either direct reading or indirect reading. hegan by establishing categories to clas­ liably categorized and analyzed. We
Direct·reading pocket chambers have a sify the client's statements or attitudes. could thus show that psychotherapy, far
built-in optical system and electrometer, We defined and re-defined these cate­ from being just "talk," had its own dis­
which permits the wearer to periodically
gories until we found that various re­ coverable laws. Also, though we were
observe the dosage which has accumu­
lated since the chamber was last
searchers, working independently, could not then clearly aware of it, the need for.
charged, thus enabling him to retreat classify the amorphous, often incoherent reliable categories was forCing us to use
from a hazardous area when the dosage statements from the interviews with a the "internal frame of reference," the
approaches the average daily toler­ high degree of consistency. The instru­ client's view, as a basis for a scientific ap­
ance. Indirect reading dosimeters re­ ment was then ready for use. proach. We had to stay close to the
quire a Minometer (charger-reader ) to William Snyder conducted one of our client's own perception of his experience,
observe the reading. This reading is first studies and I can still recall the ex­ because we could not agree among our­
usually checked at the end of the work­
citement with which we examined his selves as to categories when we made in­
ing day by a competent technician.
Full Scale
results. Analyzing the several thousand ferences from his statements. Thus we
Model Type Sensitivity Conditions client statements in six recorded cases, embarked on a search for the laws that
362 Indirect 0.2, AI 0' below dgny Toler· he found that an orderly process was prevail in the client's private world of
once Rote
541 Dire,t 0.2 r AI 0' obove daily Tolot- evident in this material. Statements la­ perception, and this has proved a fruit­
once Rate
547 Dired 5. , Emergency
beled as discussion of "problems" de­ ful exploration.
548 Direct �O. r Trained personnel clined steadily from the beginning
-Emergency
534 Dired 5. and to the end of counseling, while state­ A S THE work progressed, client-cen­
SO. Civil defense, etc.
ments of insight rose irregularly, with ft tered therapy developed a theory of
506 Indirect 1QO. Untrained personnel
-Emergency an upward spurt at the end. Discussion personality which is based on the image
507 Indirect 200. r Untrained personnel
-Emergency of plans, decisions and goals remained that a person holds of himself. By this
Write for Bulletin 3012 W close to zero during the first half of "concept of self" we mean the individu­
therapy and increased sharply toward al's perceptions of his own characteristics
the end. and his relations to others, and the values
Such work as Snyder's, though it now he attaches to these perceptions. This
seems crude and inadequate, gave the conscious scheme of the self has a regu­
proof we needed that the unstructured latory and guiding influence on be­
5806 HOUGH AVE. CLEVELAND 3, OHIO material of the interviews could be meas­ havior. Anxiety and maladjustment oc­
ured, that the statements both of the cur when it is threatened by a dim
client and of the counselor could be re- awareness of experiences contradictory

68

© 1952 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

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 Adventurers
in Research
Dr. W. E. Shoupp
SCIENTIST

After graduation from Miami University, Oxford,

Ohio in 1931, he served as graduate assistant and
instructor in physics at the University of Illinois
where he received his degrees of Master of Arts in
1933, and Doctor of Philosophy in 1937. He joined
Westinghouse in 1938 as a Research Fellow. In
1941, he became a research scientist in the Labora·
tory at East Pittsburgh and was made Manager of
the Electronics Department at the Laboratory in
1943. Four years later, he was appointed Director
of Research of the Westinghouse A tomic Power
Division. He is now Director of DeveloJlment of
this Division.

At a meeting of scientists in 1938, several were discussing Incidentally, the Lamp Laboratory of Westi nghouse sup­
the use of nuclear energy as a possible source of large plied pure uranium for the first nuclear reaclor.
amounts of energy. Before the meeting was over, others At the beginning of World War II, when radar was

joined in and the subject really became "hot". Among being considered, Dr. Shoupp and some associates built
those engaging in the discussion was Dr. W. E. Shoupp, from scratch, a radar laboratory where tubes and applica­
then a Research Fellow at the Westinghouse Research ti'On techniques were developed. They made a major con­
Laboratories. tribution to radar, and equally important, radar jamming.
Dr. Shoupp went back to the Laboratory, determined to Dr. Shoupp is continuing his work regarding atomic
find some answers to the subject. Making use of the new energy as Director of Development of the Westinghouse

Westinghouse atom smasher, he and other nuclear scien­ Atomic Power Division. Current research work under his

tists did some pioneering research, culminating in the supervision includes developments in connection with an
discovery that a uranium atom could be split into two atomic energy plant for the first atomic submarine and
equal fragments by the impact of high·speed gamma rays, another plant suitable for the propulsion of large vessels

with commensurate release of large amounts of energy. such as aircraft carriers.

This they called "photo· fission" . A man of engaging personality, Dr. Shoupp has a keen
His work on the subject also included the determina­ sense of humor and the ability· to inspire and develop
tion of the amount of neutron energy required to cause those who work with him. He is particularly proud of the
uranium and thorium to fission. This contributed to the fact that Westinghouse has been able to attract to the
basic understanding of the nuclear fission process and to work of atomic power development, scientists of the highest
the development of the atomic bomb and atomic energy. caliber. Westinghouse Electric Corp., Pittsburgh, Penna.

G-I0247

YOU CAN BE SURE ... IF ITS �stinghouse

69

© 1952 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

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 Take a number -

any atomic number

from 22 to 97...

X ray spectrography - with GE's XRD 3S -

.. ..

will give you fast, accurate, direct quantitative analysis

There's no guesswork when you handle quantitative exceed those possible with conventional flat crystals_
analyses with the GE XRD-3S x-ray spectrometer. Take General Electric XRD-3S spectrometers are provo
any sample - you get a direct chart record of com· ing their value in all fields - chemical, petroleum,
position by element in the 22-97 range_ ceramic, mineral, metallurgical. "Metallurgical Ap.
Accuracy is maintained over a wide range of con· plications of X-Ray Fluorescent Analysis" points out
centration - from hundreths-of-a-percent to 100%. how Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation applies this
It's fast - only one to five minutes per element - method. For a copy and descriptive literature, write
and non-destructive_ X-Ray Department, General Electric Company,
Basis for this outstanding performance is GE's patent. Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. Request Pub. IT·It.
ed curved focusing mica
crystal. Because it permits You can put your confidence in -

. ELECTRIC
a high degree of resolution
coupled with very high in­
tensities, accuracy and speed GENERAL

71
© 1952 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

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us a detailed picture of the self as per­
ceived by the client. His second task is to
re-sort the cards to represent the person
he would like to be, his ideal self. The
client does these two jobs of sorting be­
fore and after therapy and again a year how
later. Each time he evaluates himself, he
is given a Thematic Apperception Test­ fast
a projective personality test composed of
ambiguous pictures and designed to re­ eIS
veal the unconscious and conscious ele­
ments in his personality. These TAT re­ eI t" e
sponses, the stories he makes up to fit
the pictures, are then turned over to a
psychologist who knows nothing of the
client or of the order in which the tests
were given. The psychologist is asked to
sort the Q cards into nine piles to repre­
sent his diagnosis of the client from each
TAT test. We thus obtain a detailed and The speed of any relay, including the Sigma
objective picture of the personality to Series 41 Sensitive Relay pictured above,
correlate with the client's self-picture. varies widely depending on circuit conditions.
One of the first cases to which we
applied this method was a woman in her
late thirties, with many conflicts within
Here are two test circuits. In each case, th! some relay is used, the coil current is the
herself and poor relationships with her same and the oscillogram shows the op j"ating time.

husband and daughter. The results of

the technique in her case are plotted in
the diagram on page 68. Her ideal, the
kind of person she wanted to be, was
much the same before and after therapy.
Before therapy there was no relation­
ship between her picture of herself and
that of the psychologist, and the psy­
chologist's estimate of her was very dif­
ferent from her ideal. After therapy both
the client's and the psychologist's esti­
mate changed radically. A year after
therapy her picture of herself and the
diagnostician's picture of her were sub­
stantially the same, and there was also
substantial agreement between his pic­
ture and her ideal.
In short, we may say that the client
came to be substantially the person she
wanted to be, both in her own estimate
and that of the psychologist who read IN THIS CASE- • HERE HOWEVER-
her TAT test. Here for the first time we The oscillogram shows a gradual rise of coil cur� Although the final relay current is identical, as is
rent, based on Ihe signal derived across the 500 •
have comparable measures of the person ohm resistor. The first downward step is caused
the relay, it is obvious thai the electrical time constant
is much shorter, the current rises fasler, and the
as he seems to himself, as he wants to when the relay contact in closing grounds the load
and removes some of the input voltage from the
• contacts close sooner. Another "wrinkle" has been
introduced in the diode shown across the coit. It is
be and as he is diagnosed by a psycholo­ 'scope. Reverse curvature in the trace is due to bock
• polarized so as not to pass battery current; but
emf induced in the relay winding by the armature
gist. This detailed information contains motion. The next and much larger downward step
upon interruption of the circuit, il provides a low
impedance path for dissipation of the stored
some surprises: for example, one would is the result of opening coil circuit by the interrupter.
The small dot at its lower end indicates the delay in
• energy in the relay, which in the other case was
dissipoted in on arc at the interrupter contacts at
not expect that the diagnostic picture breaking the load cricuit, after which the trace • high voltage without significant current flow. In this
moves upward from reappearance of voltage
would change more radically than the across open contacts. The whole cycle shows a sub·
case, the current flow is appreciable and holds the
relay on for a considerable length of time.
perception of self. stantial operating delay, and a period of contact •

OUR
closure much shorter than that in which voltage is Not only is the relay now much foster, but the
applied to the coil. contacts are now closed for a time approximately
• equal to that during which the coil is energized.
12 years of research have led us
•
to the following conclusions about Thus it is evidently difficult to state operating time of a relay unless circuit conditions are
prescribed - and this is no academic qualification. (Those wishing to duplicate the
client-centered therapy: An effective re­ above displays will recognize that the two resistors shown as 1.0 megohm should be
lationship is one in which the therapist varied to give a desirable relative magnitude to the two signals, and may in fact toke
the form of a potentiometer.)
participates in the client's communica­
tion, meeting him with understanding

SIGMA
and acceptance. The process is orderly;
many of its elements can be specified.
During therapy the attitudes toward the
self change from predominantly negative
to predominantly positive. Self-esteem
improves; the personality becomes better SIGMA INSTRUMENTS, INC.
integrated and more comfortable; the 40 PEARL ST., SO. BRAINTREE, BOSTON 85, MASS.

basic personality structure becomes

more unified, less nemotic, more accept­
ing of emotionality, more tolerant of

73

© 1952 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

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 stress, more objective in dealing with
reality. The person adjusts better to
training situations and on the job; he
exhibits less tension.
There is objective research evidence
for all of these statements, but a number
of the studies' need to be repeated with
larger groups and better methodology.
Like all statements based on scientific
investigation, ours are open to stronger
proof or later disproof.
We must, however, admit a major dis­
appointment. Profitable as our research
has been, it has not contributed impor­
tantly to our practice of psychotherapy.
We had realized that knowledge of re­
search could not, of itself, make thera­
pists; but we had hoped that it would
influence the way in which we carry on
therapy. So far it has not worked out that
way. Our research has often confirmed,
but almost never initiated, elements of
our practice. The major contribution of

Penndro makes diagnosis easier the research has been to increase our
knowledge of the dynamics of person­
ality and of the extent to which pcr­
"Virginia" PENNDRo-adjusted zinc hydrosulphite-figures sonality and behavior may be altered.
importantly in the Kligman Method of visualizing micro­ Put in simplest terms, we have been
scopic fungi. It is now easy to identify the fungi in a solution testing a general view that confidence
in the human organism is justified. We
dyed red with acid fuchsin.
have hypothesized that, if a person is
A solution of ZnS204 bleaches the background color so
given a psychological climate sufficient­
that the fungi are clearly seen as a dark red mass. PENNDRO is
ly warm and sympathetic to his private
packaged in individual capsules designed to impart proper world, his previously latent perceptive­
strength when added to 100 milliliters of distilled water. ness, creativeness and capacity for deal­
This important diagnostic advance in medical science has ing with reality will be released. Our
been reported in the Journal of the American Medical Asso­ studies to date indicate in a limited way
ciation. It is typical of the way in which over 40 industries that this hypothesis is valid. There is
are indebted to "Virginia" even a hint that the most striking char­
products for noteworthy acteristic of personality may be, not its
progress. stability, but its capacity for change.
A moment's thought will suggest some
Perhaps the properties of
of the broad implications of such a po­
our major industrial chem­
sition. If the individual can meet life's
icals-S02, ZnS?04' ZnSOh
problems constructively when a suitable
Na2S204-can play a prom­ psychological atmosphere is provided,
inent par t in improving can the same capacity be expected of thc
your products or processes. group? If confidence in the individual
Our Research Department is justified in therapy, is it justified in
will go all out to help you education? In industry? In government?
develop profitable applica­ What does it mean in situations of lead­
tions, such as bleaching, ership? What are its implications for our
reducing or neutralizing philosophy of the nature of man? For
our reliance upon the democratic proc­
agents, antichlor, preserva­
ess? Psychotherapy opens a window
tive or pH control. Send
into the deepest chambers of the human
us your problems today on
personality. That is wby many and var­
you r business letterhead. ied groups are watching the theory, re­
VIRGINIA SMELTING COMPANY search and practice growing out of our
Dept. SA, West Norfolk, Virginia basic hypothesis. And that is why we
are soberly aware of our responsibility to
test and retest each aspect of our think­
ing; to perfect increasingly rigorous
methods; to make each study available
for proof or disproof by workers in
our own and other fields. It is a challeng­
ing pathway of scientific exploration.

Carl R, Rogers is profes­

sor of psychology at the
University of Chicago.

74

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